Introduction to Digital Electronics, Module 4: Boolean Algebra 1

Module 4 - Boolean Algebra & Karnaugh Map

Simplification
INTRODUCTION:
Boolean algebra is formal a way to express digital logic equations, and to
represent a logical design in an alpha-numeric way. The present Boolean
algebra format, and many of the logic manipulation rules and techniques
were formalized around 1850 by George Boole, an Irish mathematician. It
was used as a systematic approach to solving problems in logic and
reasoning. With the advent of modern electronics, and digital systems in
particular, Boolean algebra found a natural home. In addition to being used
as a tool for deductive reasoning, it is now an almost indispensable tool for
designing digital logic circuits and machines.

CONCEPT 4.1: The line as a NOT or INVERT indicator

A line over the top of a single digital variable or group of variables
ORed together, ANDed together, or in any combination of AND and
OR operations, changes the result of the term or expression from a
"1" to a "0" or from a "0" to a "1".

A line covering a single letter, term, or group of terms means that the
logical result of the letter or expression under the line is inverted, or in the
opposite binary state. The expression A+B reads A or B. If either A or B is
at a "1" state, then their combined result, or in this case their ORed result, is
a "1".

If a line is drawn over the top of the expression A+B, the line inverts the
result, changing it from a "1" to a "0". In the process of using Boolean
algebra and DeMorgan's Theorem, more than one line often appears over
terms. If there are an even number of lines over a term, the lines cancel. If
there are an odd number of lines over a term, they can be reduced to a
single line.

CONCEPT 4.2: The Commutative Law

An AND or an OR expression can be taken in any order without
changing the result of the expression.

A + B = B + A, AB=BA
Imagine a basic AND gate or an OR gate. Either input can be used to bring
in the data without affecting the results.
Introduction to Digital Electronics, Module 4: Boolean Algebra 2

CONCEPT 4.2: The Associative Law

The terms or variables of a logic expression can be presented and
acted upon in any order without changing the meaning of the
expression.

A+ (B + C) = (A + B) + C, A(BC) = (AB)C

CONCEPT 4.3: The Distributive Law

Variables can be factored out of Boolean algebra terms and

expressions in much the same way as in classical algebra.

A(B + C) = AB + AC

CONCEPT 4.4: Basic Boolean Algebra Rules

There are 12 basic rules of Boolean algebra. They are logical

in nature and follow the rules of gates covered in previous
modules.
Introduction to Digital Electronics, Module 4: Boolean Algebra 3

CONCEPT 4.5: The NOT expression

The word “NOT” written on the left side of a variable or of an

expression is the same thing as a line drawn over the top of the
variable or the expression. The NOT indicator means that the
variable or expression below the line is inverted. Everywhere
the expression yields a "1", it is changed to a "0", and
everywhere the expression yields a "0", it is changed to a "1".

CONCEPT 4.6: Product of Sums (POS)

Product of sums terms refer to Boolean algebra expressions

that have ORed terms ANDed together. An example of a POS
expression is given below:

_ _ _ _
(A + B + C )(A + B + C)(A + B + C) = Y

CONCEPT 4.7: Sum of Product (SOP)

Boolean algebra expressions are written in either Product of
Sums (POS) form or Sum of Products (SOP) form. Sum of
Product refers to Boolean algebra expressions that have AND
terms Ored together. An example of SOP is:
__ _ _ _ _
ABC+ABC+ABC=Y

CONCEPT 4.8: DeMorgan’s Theorem

DeMorgan’s Theorem states that equivalent forms of NAND and
NOR expressions exist just like the equivalents for NAND and
for NOR gates.
Using DeMorgan's Theorem, an OR gate with the inputs inverted is the
same as an AND gate with the output inverted (both forms are called a
NAND gate.) Using the DeMorgan's Theorem for the NOR equivalent
gates, an AND gate with the inputs inverted is the same as an OR gate
with the output inverted (both forms are called a NOR gate.) The OR
and AND versions of NAND and NOR gates can be substituted for one
another.
_ _ __ _ _ _____
A+B=AB and AB=A+B
Introduction to Digital Electronics, Module 4: Boolean Algebra 4

To convert between the AND form of a NAND gate and the OR form of
a NAND gate, break the line above the NAND expression, and change
the sign between the variables. Use the same process to convert
between the AND and OR forms of the NOR gate. This process is
useful to convert Boolean algebra equations from POS to SOP form.

CONCEPT 4.9: Boolean Algebra Simplification

By applying Boolean algebra rules with DeMorgan’s Theorem,
we can cancel out redundant terms and variables from an SOP
or POS expression. This is called Boolean algebra
simplification.
Introduction to Digital Electronics, Module 4: Boolean Algebra 5

To accomplish Boolean algebra simplification, group and manipulate

expressions, and reduce the number of redundant terms much like you
would do with a classic algebra manipulation of a numeric expression.
ANDed terms can be treated like multiplied terms, and OR expressions
can be treated like addition + signs in arithmetic expressions.
Terms can be factored out of expressions, and parenthesis can be
added and removed to and from grouped terms as needed. The
similarity ends when the results are interpreted. AND is not
multiplication, and OR is not addition in digital logic expressions.

CONCEPT 4.10: Karnaugh Maps (K Maps)

A Karnaugh Map is a method of mapping truth tables onto a
matrix that identifies places where two or more different
combinations of the input variables yield the same result. In
addition to identifying redundant terms, the K map also cancels
them, leaving only the minimized Boolean algebra expressions
that will yield the same truth table outputs as the unreduced
terms.
The best way to understand K maps is to go through an actual
simplification process using a K map. We will start with a three
variable truth table. Three variables have 2 to the 3rd, or 8 possible
combinations of 1’s and 0’s. This means that the K map must have 8
cells, one for every possible combination of input variables.
The input variables can be mapped in any order on the K map, but it
must follow the same organization as the truth table being mapped.
We will assign the letters R, S, & T to the input variables of our truth
table, and X to the output.
Introduction to Digital Electronics, Module 4: Boolean Algebra 6

The Karnaugh map is laid out so that from cell to cell and from edge to
edge, there is only a one bit change in the variables at any given
time. This accounts for the column to column and row to row order of
00 01 11 10. The column variables are assigned across the top of
the map, and the row variables are assigned to the left side of the
map. Each cell contains the result of the variables for the binary
combination given by the intersecting row and column. If the column
variables are R S and the row variables are T U for a 16 cell or four
variable map, the combination 0 1 1 0 is the same as (notR S T notU)
or cell 6. If the truth table shows a 1 for the output at the position
0 1 1 0, then the Karnaugh map will contain a 1 in that particular
cell.
As an example, let’s simplify the 3 bit K map above. Notice the four
three variable expressions reduce down to three two variable
expressions. This is a substantial savings in circuitry, and the equation
will do exactly the same thing as the original unsimplified expression
from the truth table.
Introduction to Digital Electronics, Module 4: Boolean Algebra 7

The same method applies to larger K maps of 4, 5, and 6 variables.

Four variable K maps have sixteen cells, since 2 to the 4th is 16. Five
variable K maps are mapped as two, sixteen cell maps side by side. It
is like mapping one map above the other, with the same numbered
cells being redundant. Six variable K maps result in four, sixteen cell
maps together in a square pattern. Top to bottom and side by side,
redundancies are cancelled in the same numbered cells. More than
four variable K maps are rarely used because they are more difficult to
follow without getting lost.