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    A Private Commentary on the Bible: 2 Peter
    A Private Commentary on the Bible: 2 Peter
    A Private Commentary on the Bible: 2 Peter
    Ebook337 pages5 hours

    A Private Commentary on the Bible: 2 Peter

    By James D. Quiggle

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    How does the Church deal with apostasy and heresy? Pastor Peter tells believers how to identify false teachers by their immoral character and wrong beliefs, and what to do to remain steadfast in the faith. Peter also makes important statements about the inspiration of Scripture, the return of Jesus Christ, and the inevitability of God’s judgments. However, the heart of the epistle is Peter’s many exhortations, principles, and precepts to guide the Christian to holy and righteous living.

    The Private Commentary series is written for teachers, pastors, and college students. Each book in the series explains the Scripture and includes insightful comments and biblical background from other commentators.

    James D. Quiggle has written twelve books including a biography of Adam and Eve, and works on tithing and eschatology. His latest is God’s Choices, a biblical discussion of the doctrines of foreordination, election, ad predestination. All books are available in eBook and in print.

    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherJames D. Quiggle
    Release dateJun 21, 2012
    ISBN9781476216706
    A Private Commentary on the Bible: 2 Peter
    Author

    James D. Quiggle

    James D. Quiggle was born in 1952 at Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri. He grew up in Kansas and the Texas Panhandle. In the early 1970s he joined the United States Air Force. At his first permanent assignment in Indian Springs, Nevada in a small Baptist church, the pastor introduced him to Jesus and soon after he was saved. Over the next ten years those he met in churches from the East Coast to the West Coast, mature Christian men, poured themselves into mentoring him. In the 1970s he was gifted with the Scofield Bible Course from Moody Bible Institute. As he completed his studies his spiritual gift of teaching became even more apparent. He earned a bachelor’s degree from Bethany Bible College during the 1980s while still in the Air Force. Between 2006–2008, after his career in the Air Force and with his children grown up, he decided to continue his education. He enrolled in Bethany Divinity College and Seminary and earned a Master of Arts in Religion and a Master of Theological Studies.As an extension of his spiritual gift of teaching, he was prompted by the Holy Spirit to begin writing books. James Quiggle is now a Christian author with over fifty commentaries on Bible books and doctrines. He is an editor for the Evangelical Dispensational Quarterly Journal published by Scofield Biblical Institute and Theological Seminary.He continues to write and has a vibrant teaching ministry through social media.

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      A Private Commentary on the Bible - James D. Quiggle

      A Private Commentary

      on the Bible

      2 PETER

      James D. Quiggle

      Copyright Page

      Copyright James D. Quiggle 2012

      Published at Smashwords

      This ebook is licensed for your personal enjoyment only. This ebook may not be re-sold or given away to other people. If you would like to share this book with another person, please purchase an additional copy for each recipient. If you are reading this book and did not purchase it, or it was not purchased for your use only, then please return to Smashwords.com and purchase your own copy. Thank you for respecting the hard work of this author.

      A Private Commentary on the Bible: 2 Peter

      Copyright© 2012 by James D. Quiggle.

      Published by James D. Quiggle, 2012.

      Translation of 2 Peter by James D. Quiggle.

      Print (Createspace): ISBN-13: 978-1478106517

      eBook (Smashwords) ISBN 9781476216706

      Scripture quotations in the exposition may be from:

      Young’s Literal Translation (YLT), 1862, Public Domain.

      American Standard Version (ASV), 1901, Public Domain.

      New American Standard Bible (NASB) © The Lockman Foundation, 1960, 1962, 1968, 1971, 1972, 1973, 1975, 1977, All rights reserved. Used by Permission.

      The New Testament, a translation by William Barclay, The Estate of William Barclay, 1968, 1999.

      The Holy Bible: New International Version (NIV), Copyright 1973, 1978, 1984 by International Bible Society. Used by permission of Zondervan Publishing House. All rights reserved.

      New King James Version (NKJV) ®. Copyright © 1982 by Thomas Nelson Inc. Used by permission. All rights reserved.

      Holman Christian Standard Bible (HCSB), Copyright 1999, 2000, 2002, 2003, by Holman Bible Publishers. Scripture quotations marked HCSB are been taken from the Holman Christian Standard Bible®, Copyright © 1999, 2000, 2002, 2003 by Holman Bible Publishers. Used by permission. Holman Christian Standard Bible7, Holman CSB®, and HCSB© are federally registered trademarks of Holman Bible Publishers.

      Parts of the present work appeared in a slightly different version in A Private Commentary on the Bible: Jude. James D. Quiggle, Author, Publisher, 2012.

      Parts of the present work appeared in a slightly different version in Adam and Eve, A Biography and Theology, James D. Quiggle, Author, Publisher, 2011.

      Dedication

      Tim Patton

      Associate Pastor

      South Reno Baptist Church

      "Thank You for your

      support and encouragement"

      Contents

      Publisher’s Note

      Preface

      Introduction

      2 Peter One

      2 Peter Two

      2 Peter Three

      Appendix One

      Sources

      Endnotes

      Publisher’s Note

      In the Private Commentary series Greek words are transliterated and defined according to The Complete Word Study Dictionary New Testament (herein abbreviated WSDNT), unless otherwise noted. Hebrew words are transliterated and defined according to the Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament (herein abbreviated TWOT), unless otherwise noted.

      When the literal word order of a Greek text is given it is based on The Interlinear Literal Translation of the Greek New Testament, by George Ricker Berry (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1977), unless otherwise noted.

      When a literal word order of a Hebrew text is given it is based on the interlinear Bible at www.biblos.com, unless otherwise noted.

      To find the complete citation information please refer to the Sources section.

      eBook Versions

      Certain Hebrew and Greek words cannot be accurately transliterated in the eBook versions of this work. The software used to convert documents to eBook format does not support the diacritical marks macron and hacek, nor the circumflex for certain letters. I have replaced both hacek and circumflex with a tilde (~) to give the reader some idea of how the words are spelled. No such substitute is available for the macron (which looks like the English long vowel symbol). The WSDNT also uses a macron with an acute accent. This has been replaced with the acute accent. Please consult WSDNT or TWOT for correct spelling.

      When text is converted to eBook format, footnotes are converted to endnotes. In some eBook formats using superscript characters in the text to identify a footnote (or endnote) will cause an extra line to be inserted into the text. I feel these changes disrupt the flow of the text for the reader. For these reasons the majority of explanatory footnotes as found in the print version have been incorporated into the body of the text in the eBook version.

      The same issue also affects footnoted (or endnote) sources. In the eBook versions I have placed references to sources into the body of the text using brackets. The references are shortened to the author’s name and page number cited, e.g., [Ames, 83]. When a source has two or more authors only the first is cited. Authors with the same last name are distinguished by the first initial, e.g., Brown, C.; Brown, J. Where a sentence begins with the author’s name followed by a quote I have shortened the reference to the page number where the quote will be found, and placed the bracketed number immediately following the author’s name. For example, Ames [83] wrote, God is everywhere because. Where an author has more than one work a short version of the title is also given, e.g., [Bush, Genesis, 25]; [Bush, Exodus, 37].

      In the eBook version references to lexicons and dictionaries are shortened to an abbreviation and index name or number (not a page number). For example, for Greek words the footnote reference in the print version would be, Zodhiates, WSDNT, s. v. "2307, thélema.", but the eBook in-text reference is shortened to [WSDNT, 2307]. For Old Testament words the footnote reference in the print version would be Harris et al., TWOT, s. v. "1124. laqah.", but the eBook reference is [TWOT, 1124].

      To find the complete citation information please refer to the Sources section.

      Preface

      The Private Commentary on the Old and New Testaments is my interpretation of the Bible, neither more nor less. I am responsible for the use made of all quoted and cited material.

      The scope of the Private Commentary series is to bring the reader to a practical understanding of the scriptures. I explain and discuss each verse, idea, theme, and biblical truth as discovered in turn during the course of the exposition. My target audience is the Bible college/seminary student, Bible study/small group leader, Sunday School teacher, and local church Pastor. My point of view is a conservative theology. Other opinions concerning the Scripture are presented and discussed as I believe will profit the target audience. Bible students who desire to understand and apply the scriptures are invited to study the book with me and come to their own conclusions.

      This material is copyrighted to prevent misuse or abuse. Those persons using this material in their teaching/preaching ministry may copy and distribute individual pages (e.g., an excursus, a table/list, or an appendix) for distribution to one’s students or auditors. The entire book may not be copied and/or distributed, nor large portions of the book, such as a chapter or extended comments on Scripture passages. The cost of this work has been kept as low as possible so every interested teacher, preacher, and student may afford a personal copy.

      Introduction

      Author

      This commentary accepts the historic position of the New Testament church that the apostle Peter was the author of the letter known as the second epistle of Peter. The author introduces himself as Simon Peter, an indication of an early date for the epistle since the term ‘Simon’ was not used in the second century" [Schreiner, 284]. The epistle was cited by name by Origen (AD 184–253) at the beginning of the third century, but papyrus discoveries in Egypt indicate the book was known and long in use before Origen. The pseudepigraphic book "The Apocalypse of Peter, written somewhere between AD 110–114, makes much use of 2 Peter" [Green, 14]. Hippolytus, (AD 170–236) quotes Peter in The Refutation of All Heresies, book 10, chapter 30, concluding address [Roberts, 5:153].

      The authorship of 1 Peter is less disputed [Michaels, lv-lvxii], making the stylistically differences between 1 and 2 Peter of some importance. The Greek of 1 Peter is polished, cultured, dignified; it is among the best in the New Testament. The Greek of 2 Peter is grandiose; it is rather like baroque art, almost vulgar in its pretentiousness and effusiveness [Green, 17]. However, modern linguistic analysis indicates Peter was the author of both epistles: the second Epistle of Peter is allied to no New Testament writing more closely than to his First . . . 1 and 2 Peter are as close linguistically as 1 and 2 Corinthians . . . 1 and 2 Peter stand as close on the score of words used as 1 Timothy and Titus, where nobody is inclined to doubt the unity of authorship . . . cumulative sum analysis on the computer [has shown] that 1 and 2 Peter are indistinguishable linguistically . . . 2 Peter is distinguishable from any New Testament book that is longer, with the sole exception of 1 Peter [Green, 18]. This commentary accepts the apostle Peter as the author of both New Testament books that bear his name.

      In accepting Peter as the author of 1 and 2 Peter, one cannot be blind to the stylistic differences between the two epistles. There are two reasonable explanations. The first is that Peter used a different scribe for each letter. The second is that Peter used a scribe for his first letter, but personally wrote the second letter. A common practice in Peter’s day was either to dictate a letter to a professional scribe, or to give the scribe the letter to copy for distribution. Peter tells us that Silvanus was the scribe for his first letter, 1 Peter 5:12. There is no such announcement in 2 Peter, which may mean the letter was direct from Peter’s hand, or he did not care to identify the scribe. In either case it would not have been unusual or unacceptable for the scribe to have reworked 1 Peter to a more acceptable grammar and style; editors have always been a part of writing. This does no violence to the doctrine of the inspiration of Scripture. The Holy Spirit is as capable of superintending the work of two men as well as one. If Silvanus, or some other scribe, did reformat Peter’s grammar in 1 Peter, we may be sure that the words remained God-breathed. Old Testament histories, e.g., Judges, Samuel, Kings, Chronicles, have an eyewitness quality that indicates they were written over a period of centuries, and in their present form were collected, collated, and edited into that which Jews and Christians have accepted as Scripture. The Holy Spirit ensured the authenticity, accuracy, and credibility of his Word in both the original record and the final form. So too with Peter, Paul, other biblical authors, and the scribes they used.

      The testimony of Papias (AD 70–155), as quoted by Eusebius (AD 260–340) regarding the relationship between Peter and Mark (as to the Gospel of Mark), supports the view that Peter was accustomed to using a scribe to put his thoughts on paper. Papias said, Mark, having become the interpreter of Peter, wrote down accurately, though not indeed in order, whatsoever he remembered of the things said or done by Christ [Schaff, 1:172].

      Subject Matter

      Peter’s first epistle addressed conflict originating outside the church. In 2 Peter he addressed conflict and danger within the church. Lloyd-Jones [1–2] commented:

      The world is a place of difficulty and thus, I say, we find that these people in their age and time, as we in ours, were conscious of terrible problems. They had believed the Christian Gospel and, perhaps, at first had partly misunderstood it, thinking that everything was suddenly going to be all right and that they would have no further problems. But they had now reached the stage in which they had discovered that was not the case. They had opposition from without; there were persecutions, there were trials, there were difficulties even in the matter of food and clothing and in various other things. Then in addition to all these things there were troubles also arising from within the church, and this second Epistle of Peter is particularly concerned about these problems . . . This second Epistle of Peter was written to strengthen Christian people against various forces and factors that were tending to shake and unsettle them in their faith . . . Peter tells us at great length in the second chapter that false teachers had crept into the churches and that these, with their false teaching, were trying to undermine the faith of these early Christian people.

      From Peter and these early Christians we today may learn our faith is firmly founded on things believed among us from the first. The Christian faith is based upon a divine revelation brought to our hearts through divine power by which we, like they, have obtained with the apostles like precious faith. May the Lord Jesus bless 2 Peter to us and make it of practical worth, effect, and efficiency.

      Authenticity

      Peter uses many terms and concepts from his Jewish heritage and his knowledge of Gentile customs and religions. For some commentators this means Peter’s letter was influenced by and incorporated traditional Jewish interpretations and Gentile beliefs. How do these views fit into the doctrine of inspiration? The inspiration of Scripture includes the sovereignty of the Spirit in all things concerning the production of the sacred Word. By this is meant the Spirit guided the human writers in what they wrote, and in the selection of source materials they may have used, and protected the scriptures from false beliefs, whether held by the human author, or in the human author’s selection of source material.

      By source material is meant the selection and judicious use of biblical and extra-biblical materials. For example, the book of Judges was undoubtedly composed using a variety of historical accounts preserved and handed down through 350–400 years of Israelite history. The Holy Spirit guided the original writers of these materials to record accurately an account of the events they experienced or observed. I do not mean everything these unknown individuals wrote was accurate (although it may have been), but that the accounts contained historically accurate information. At a later date the Holy Spirit used someone to bring the various accounts together to produce what we recognize as the book of Judges. The Spirit so guided and so superintended that person that his selection of materials and his own words were and are the inspired Word of God. The narration, thoughts, speeches, events, circumstances, etc., reported in Judges is an authentic, accurate, and credible report of what really happened: an account of the period meeting the standards of historicity. The same accuracy, authenticity, and credibility is true for every book of the Bible.

      I noted above the Spirit protected Scripture from the false beliefs of the writers. By false beliefs I mean those things commonly believed in their particular culture or world-view, but which were not accurate. For example, there were many creation stories and many flood stories when Moses wrote Genesis. Undoubtedly, as a prince of the Egyptians, Moses had access to many documents containing many accounts of these events. However, none of those false beliefs appear in Scripture. Luke was a physician, a highly educated man for his time. Yet, the medical errors and practices of Luke’s day are absent from his writings. Luke is accurate even to the details of demonic habitation. He clearly distinguishes demonization from genuine medical problems. However, the medical practices of his day are notably absent. Coming to Peter we note that his scientific understanding would have been based in part on an Aristotelian view of the world. Yet, none of Aristotle’s errors in the natural and physical sciences are reported in Scripture.

      The same watchful care by the Holy Spirit was present when Peter wrote. Peter may have used extra-biblical materials and he may have been influenced by Jewish interpretations and Gentile beliefs. However, the Spirit protected Peter’s letters from any errors. They are the authentic words of Peter the apostle and credibly report the conditions and circumstances under which Peter wrote and which he addressed. Peter was a product of his culture, but he was also a born-again believer writing under the superintending influence of the Holy Spirit. Therefore, his epistles are the product of the sovereign superintendence of God the Holy Spirit, even as he himself exclaimed, 1 Peter 1:11; 2 Peter 1:21. Whatever cultural or religious errors Peter may have believed they are not in the Scripture he wrote.

      I believe 2 Peter is the product of Peter the apostle writing without a scribe. I believe the Holy Spirit effectively and efficiently superintended Peter as he wrote. His choice to express himself in Gentile words borrowed from pagan religions was a deliberate choice on the part of Peter and the Spirit: a good pastor meeting his audience with familiar terms and then instructing them away from error to truth. For example, looking to 2 Peter 2:4, it seems likely Peter knew various Jewish interpretations about angels. However, he was superintended by the Spirit to write only those things which did not contradict the whole testimony of Scripture concerning angels and mankind. I might multiply examples, but the text of the commentary lies before the reader.

      Many commentators have noted the resemblance between 2 Peter and Jude. These similarities raise a question? Did one copy from the other? Lenski [606] believed Jude wrote after Peter, but does not believe Jude was a mere copyist. Rather, he believed that while Peter wrote prophesying of coming apostates, Jude wrote of their arrival. Jude, said Lenski, made use of Peter’s work because he was writing to the same audience.

      In reality, we don’t know which man wrote first, or if one copied from the other; and it does not matter. The Holy Spirit used each man to communicate his message to believers. Peter wrote to scattered Hebrew Christian communities. Jude wrote to a church made up of Hebrew and Gentile Christians. But this does not affect the inspiration of Scripture. Both men were guided by the Holy Spirit in their service to Christ. Both letters are the inspired Word of God.

      The letters may have been independent productions. There are a few instructive similarities and differences. Jude is more detailed, Peter less so. They both use similar words, but these were words in common use, such as servant, Jesus Christ, Sodom, flesh, majesty, etc. Neither epistle shows slavish dependence, actual copying, literary poverty and incapacity; but whichever should be held posterior, it was prepared with literary freedom [Williams, Jude, in loco]. Both men had a message of warning about apostasy. The Spirit believed both were important enough to transmit to us for our comfort and learning. Both are Scripture. For a comparative table showing the similarities between the two letters, see the appendix in my book, A Private Commentary on the Bible: Jude.

      The commentary is based on my translation. See appendix one.

      2 Peter One

      1 Simon Peter, a servant and apostle of Jesus Christ, to those having obtained equally precious faith with us in the righteousness of our God and our Savior Jesus Christ:

      Simon Peter, an apostle of Jesus Christ

      Peter is first met, chronologically, in John’s Gospel, 1:40–42 [Cheney, in loco]. In the context of the passage, John Baptist is walking with two of his disciples, John the son of Zebedee and Andrew the son of Jonah, the latter being Peter’s brother. The Baptist sees Jesus and exclaims, Behold the Lamb of God! The two disciples immediately begin a conversation with Jesus and follow him to the place he was staying. Andrew then finds his brother Simon and brings him to Jesus.

      Peter must have been in the immediate area with Andrew, i.e., far to the south of their home near Capernaum. Peter may also have been a disciple of the Baptist. At the very least he was listening to the Baptist’s message of the Messiah; it is possible he had been baptized. According to John’s gospel, 1:28, these things were done in Bethabara. Some would locate Peter at Capernaum, and thus locate Bethabara in the north. The location of Bethabara is very disputed, and no village is known with that name in Jesus’ time. However, considering the combined witness of the four Gospels, e.g., the people who came to John for baptism, Jesus’ temptation in the wilderness west of the Dead Sea, and the trip to Nazareth before Passover, the location that makes the most sense is at the Jordan River southeast of Jericho and a few miles north of the Dead Sea. Peter was in the area when Andrew went to get him.

      At that first meeting Jesus gave Simon the son of Jonah a new name he would bear the rest of his life: Cephas, or Petros, meaning a small stone, and translated as Peter (pétros is the Greek; cephas is the Aramaic equivalent).

      Peter was a fisherman (Matthew 4:18), making a living by fishing the Sea of Galilee, residing in the town of Bethsaida (John 1:44), a town close to Capernaum (Mark 1:21, 29). Peter and his brother Andrew were business partners with James and John the sons of Zebedee, Luke 5:10. The four men had taken a break from their fishing business to listen to John Baptist. John and Andrew (at the least) had become the Baptist’s disciples. Then they met Jesus. Following his temptation by Satan, Jesus and these four (possibly others also) went to Galilee for the wedding at Cana, John 2:1–10. After the wedding Jesus moved his mother and family to Capernaum, John 2:12, Matthew 4:13. He then returned to Jerusalem with his disciples, including Peter, Andrew, John, and James, for Passover. In the fifty days between Passover and Pentecost they ministered with Jesus in Judea. After Pentecost they accompanied him as he returned to Galilee via Samaria. When they had returned to Galilee, Peter, Andrew, James, and John resumed their fishing business, until called by Jesus into full-time ministry.

      Peter’s first words are found at Luke 5:1–11, when Jesus finds these four fishermen at work on the Sea of Galilee. Here Peter was called to minister with Jesus, Matthew 4:18–22; Mark 1:16–20. Jesus commanded Peter to let down your nets for a catch after Peter had spent an entire night fishing with no catch. The experienced fisherman doubted the wisdom but followed the command. The net was drawn up filled to bursting. Peter, seeing this amazing catch, fell down at Jesus feet and confessed, Depart from me, for I am a sinful man, Lord! Jesus’ response was that Peter would from that time forward catch men.

      Peter’s vacillation between fishing and ministry, and his sudden confession of sin, tell us something about his character. He is impulsive and enthused one moment but cooled the next. When Jesus asked, Who do you [the twelve apostles] say that I am? Peter responded as spokesman for the group with that great confession, You are the Christ! Yet, moments later, he was rebuked by Jesus: Get behind Me, Satan (Mark 8:29, 33), because he denied Jesus’ salvific mission to be the crucified Christ. On the mountain at the transfiguration (Mark 9:2–13) Peter’s awe led him to an unthinking suggestion that made Moses and Elijah equally deserving in dignity and reverence with Jesus. On another occasion Peter, courageously and with great faith, stepped out onto the water to come to Jesus; then his courage failed as he took his eyes off Jesus and began to sink (Matthew 14). Peter vowed to remain with Jesus though everyone else deserted him; but he denied him, with an oath, when confronted by a serving girl (Mark 14:66–72).

      Yet, this is the man Jesus chose to lead the early church (Acts 1:15; 4:8; 5:3, 8; 15:7), the man whom Jesus entrusted to open the gospel to the Jews (Acts 2:38), Samaritans (Acts 8:14, 17), and Gentiles (Acts 10:44). Peter is more that an impulsive man controlled by his emotions. Jesus met especially and alone with Peter after the resurrection to affirm his faith (Mark 16:7; 1 Corinthians 15:5). Jesus reaffirmed Peter’s leadership position before he ascended to heaven, John 21:15–17. Peter’s leadership role became less after he brought the Gospel to the Gentiles, Acts 10. At the Jerusalem Council, Acts 15, it is James the half-brother of Jesus who is in charge. Peter had a role to play in establishing the New Testament church and bringing the salvation message to Jew, Samaritan, and Gentile. When those roles had been fulfilled, he blended into the Twelve, a leader among leaders, as he himself said, 1 Peter 5:1.

      Despite what we may see as his faults, Jesus saw a natural leader whom he could train and use for his glory. He saw a man, not unlike other men, who could be sanctified for the Master’s use. Peter was an obscure man, a fisherman, one of many, not distinguished by education, social status, wealth, or accomplishments. The Lord chooses the base and ignoble, the unlearned, the weak, and the foolish, that the glory of their accomplishments, when serving his will, will make known his glory. Jesus calls an individual from the crowd, trains him long and patiently, and finally makes him a partner . . . the channel through which He pours Himself upon the world [Meyer, 2]. Such is Peter, and such is the potential of every believer.

      Yes, Peter was a man like us, full of strengths and weaknesses. One moment we are hot for the Lord, daring great things, promising mighty deeds and wonderful works; the next moment we have let sin have its way with us, defiling our person, spoiling our fellowship with Christ, seemingly ending our mighty promises of good works for God’s glory. Peter was a man with a nature like ours who succeeded because he had a saving relationship with Christ and depended on the Holy Spirit to lead and empower him in his mission. His letters incorporate those experiences for our learning. Indeed, if one were asked to select out of the New Testament a series of passages best adapted for the guidance of the average Christian in all parts of the world, in all ages of man, one could not do better than make a little volume out of the sayings of Peter in his two letters [Macartney, 86].

      "Peter belongs to Jesus Christ because Jesus appointed him to his office" [Lenski, 20, emphasis original]. This letter of Peter belongs to the church, to you and me, because Jesus appointed Peter to write it. Let us approach this letter with reverence and curiosity, a teachable spirit to learn, and to find patience, comfort, and hope.

      Simon Peter, a servant and apostle of Jesus Christ

      In his first epistle Peter introduced himself an apostle of Jesus Christ. In his second Peter added that he was Christ’s servant. The Greek word doúlos [WSDNT, 1401] is here translated servant (bondservant in other translations). Its basic meaning is slave. Scripture uses this word to describe the servant relationship every believer has toward their Lord and Savior. Every Christian is called by virtue of his or her salvation to serve the Lord Jesus according to his will. It is not our will but rather our Master’s will that we are to perform.

      However, the master-slave relationship between the Christian and his Lord does not conform in every respect to the master-slave relationship of the ancient world. The slave was property and considered to have a lesser human value than the non-slave. A slave was thought to have an inferior humanity; that was why he was a slave. Others were masters because their humanity was superior. The philosophical proof that a person was destined to be a master or a slave was the fact that he or she was either a master or a slave. Some philosophers had even suggested the slave did not have a soul. Given that some philosophers doubted slaves had a soul, it is amazing that slaves were allowed and encouraged to participate in religion. Religious exercises were one of the very few areas where they had some limited freedoms.

      Certainly the slave in the ancient world did not have an identity separate from his master. He was property, like a rake or shovel, a separated part of his master’s body, to

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