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    Basic Hydraulics and Controls
    Basic Hydraulics and Controls
    Basic Hydraulics and Controls
    Ebook188 pages2 hours

    Basic Hydraulics and Controls

    By Winston LM

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    About this ebook

    This book is structured to provide an introductory course of basic hydraulics system and programmable logic controller. Technological advances in recent years have resulted in the development of powerful programmable logic controller and caused a revolution of control engineering. Therefore, learning and acquiring knowledge about control systems become increasingly important for designers, engineers, technologists, system integrators and entrepreneurs.

    This book aims to enable the readers to
    * acquire the basic knowledge about hydraulic systems and controls.
    * a basic understanding of internal architecture and operating principles of PLCs
    * understand the processing of inputs and outputs of PLCs
    * develop ladder programs to control of hydraulic systems.

    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherWinston LM
    Release dateJan 3, 2015
    ISBN9781311871053
    Basic Hydraulics and Controls

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      Book preview

      Basic Hydraulics and Controls - Winston LM

      Chapter 1

      Basic Principle of Fluid Flow

      The movement of air over a curved surface produces unexpected forces that allow objects heavier than air to fly. These forces can be explained using Newton's laws, and can also be related to the way water flows, in pipes and rivers for example.

      Newton's laws of motion are best expressed for fluids in a statement of the Swiss mathematician Daniel Bernoulli (1700 - 1782) and known as Bernoulli's principle. Other important ideas that we use in this section of the chapter are fluid pressure, thrust and viscosity (the name for the internal friction of a fluid). We consider hydrostatics and hydraulics, which deal with the behaviour and uses of liquids under pressure. We also deal with the behaviour of fluids in response to forces and vice versa. This is known as the Fluid Power.

      What is Fluid Power?

      Utilization of fluid power is important because it is one of the three available means of transmitting power. Other methods of transmitting power are by utilizing mechanical means and by applying electrical energy. To demonstrate this we will consider that we have a prime mover such as a diesel engine on one side of the room and a mechanical contrivance on the

      other. The objective is to see how, in a generic sense, power can be used by the methods quoted above to perform the necessary mechanical work.

      For mechanical power transmission, the prime mover is connected to the device and, by use of gearboxes, pulleys, belts and clutches, the necessary work can be performed. With the electrical method, an electrical generator is used. The current developed can be carried through electrical cable to operate electrical motors, linear or rotary, modulation being provided by variable resistance or solid state devices in the circuits. For fluid power utilization, an oil pump is connected to the engine and instead of electrical cables, high pressure hose is used to convey pressurized fluid to motors (again linear or rotary), pressure and flow modulation now being provided within the motors or by means of hydraulic valves. Any of the three methods described may be used however, if an engineering system requires:

      1. Minimum weight and volume

      2. Large forces and low speeds

      3. Instant reversibility

      4. Remote control

      then the fluid power technique will often have significant competitive advantages. It is indeed unfortunate that design of fluid power systems is seldom taught in main stream school. At the same time formal teaching of power transmission systems involving mechanical and electrical systems may be quite shallow. Such comprehensive design teaching would demonstrate adequately the advantages of such systems.

      In some instances hydraulics power transmission is the only technique that can be used. The most spectacular example is that of extending an aircraft’s control surface into a high velocity airstream where the only technique available is that of using fluid power actuators because of their high power to weight and volume to weight advantages.

      Advantages of using Fluid Power Systems

      It was stated earlier that there are advantages to using hydraulic systems rather than mechanical or electrical systems for specific applications and for those applications using large powers. Some of these advantages are given below:

      1. Force multiplication is possible by increasing actuator area or working pressure. In addition, torques and forces generated by actuators are limited only by pressure and as a result high power to weight ratio and high power to volume ratio are readily achievable.

      2. It is possible to have a quick acting system with large (constant) forces operating at low speeds and with virtually instant reversibility. In addition, a wide speed range of operating conditions may be achieved.

      3. A hydraulic system is relatively simple to construct with fewer moving parts than in comparable mechanical or electrical machines.

      4. Power transmission to remote locations is also possible provided that conductors and actuators can be installed at these locations.

      5. In most cases the hydraulic fluid circulated will act as a lubricant and will also carry away the heat generated by the system. 6. A complex system may be constructed to perform a sequence of operations by means of mechanical devices such as cams, or electrical devices such as solenoids, limit switches, or programmable electronic controls.

      Basic Properties of Fluids

      A fluid is defined as a substance that cannot sustain a shearing stress. A fluid can be liquid or gaseous. The science of fluid power is concerned with the utilization of pressurized liquid or gas (pneumatic) to transmit power, but we will be dealing exclusively with hydraulic fluids (i.e., liquids).

      Many books have units of measurement in the U.S. Customary system based upon the former British (or Imperial) system. The use of the more recently defined S.I. system is becoming more common in U.S. industry and for this reason practicing engineers will have to be familiar with both U.S. basic and SI. The rests of the world, perhaps, are familiar with SI system. We shall use SI throughout this book.

      Oil density

      This is defined as mass per unit volume. For petroleum based hydraulic fluids the approximate value is = 850 kg/m3. It should be observed that a dynamic analysis that uses lbf/in.2 as a pressure unit must be consistent and use mass in lbf · s2/in. Accelerations will be in in./s2.

      Unfortunately there is no special name for a mass unit in the pound force, inch, second system. A mass unit in the pound force, foot, second system is the slug where 1 slug = 1 lbf · s2/ft.

      Some authors use weight per unit volume, then the term Specific Weight should be used.

      Specific Gravity

      This is the ratio of the mass of a substance divided by the mass of an equal volume of water at some specified temperature, usually 20C. The unit is therefore dimensionless and varies between 0.8 for some petroleum based fluids to as high as 1.5 for the chlorinated hydrocarbons.

      Viscosity

      Layers of fluids move over each other very easily; for this reason a fluid cannot resist a shearing stress. But fluids do have a kind of internal friction known as viscosity.

      This varies: moving a knife blade through water is much easier than moving it through honey. Similarly, viscous forces arise when adjacent layers of liquid move against each other.

      In a simple model of what happens, we assume that when a fluid moves through a pipe the fluid layer next to the wall of the pipe is at rest, and that the fastest stream is at the center of the pipe, as in Figure 1.1. There is a constant velocity gradient in the fluid, ( ), where y is the distance measured radially in the pipe.

      Frictional stress t working on the boundary is proportional to velocity grade line of an adjacent layer ( ), as shown in Figure 1.1 and is expressed by the following formula:

      t = u ....... (Eq. 1.1)

      Figure 1.1

      A liquid that behaves like this is called a Newtonian liquid. Friction between adjacent layers in the fluid determines how fast the fluid can flow - compare pouring water and honey. A fluid has a coefficient of viscosity 'u' which determines the size of the viscous force.

      Proportional constant u in the formula takes different values according to type, temperature, and pressure of fluid.

      The resistive viscous force is greater for a wider pipe. These factors are combined in Newton's law of viscosity. When F is the force due to viscosity acting on a fluid stream of cross-sectional area A, against the direction of flow, then;

      The force is also the drag force on the sides of the container.

      Engineering units of viscosity u are kg.s/m² and c.g.s. units are g/cm.s. 1 g/cm.s is called 1 poise (p), 1/100 of which is 1 centi-poise (c.p). SI unit of viscosity has units of Nsm-2.

      The engineering units of kg.s/cm² are converted to c.p units by the following formula:

      1 c.p. = 1.02 x 10-4 kg.s/m²

      Since a fluid changes in viscosity and density with change in pressure, the unit of dynamic viscosity ע is used. This is obtained by dividing viscosity u by corresponding density ρ, or

      ע = .

      The unit of dynamic viscosity ע, both for engineering and c.g.s unit, is m²/s or cm²/s. 1 cm²/s is called 1 stoke (St), of which is 1 centi-stoke (cSt).

      The dynamic viscosity is determined by measuring the time (seconds) required for a gravity flow of a specified amount of fluid by a viscometer.

      While cent-stokes are usually used in Japan, Engler degrees are used in France and Germany, Saybolt universal seconds (SUS, or Saybolt seconds universal, SSU) in the USA, and Red wood seconds in the UK.

      Approximate conversions of Engler degrees to centi-stokes can be made by the following formula:

      ע = 7.6 E(1 – )c.St ........... (Eq. 1.3)

      Where E is Engler degree.

      Approximate conversions of Saybolt Universal seconds and Red wood seconds to centi-stokes can be made as follows:

      ע = At – c.St ............... (Eq. 1.4)

      Where t is the number of seconds in each

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