Wheat and Wheat Quality in Australia

Chapter 1

Wheat production in Australia

The history of wheat production in Australia

DISASTER MARKED THE BEGINNINGS OF the wheat industry in Australia. Most of the seed carried to this country in the ships of the First Fleet under Governor Phillip in 1788 spoiled on the voyage. The grain that was finally planted in a small plot of 8 acres at Farm Cove (now the Sydney Botanical Gardens), yielded pitifully—one-sixth of a bushel per acre. Two years later, Surgeon White wrote all the grain we have been able to raise in two years and three months would not support us for three weeks (Macindoe 1975).

The problems encountered by the early settlers were twofold. Not only were they unaccustomed to the vastly different conditions of their new land, but the wheats they brought with them were quite unsuited to the Australian climate. Furthermore, the pathogens of wheat in its country of origin were either already present or were brought to Australia on the grain itself. Little is known about the varieties grown in this early period, but it is assumed that they were of English origin (Lupton and Derera 1981). All were rust-susceptible and harvests fluctuated widely according to whether or not seasonal conditions favoured the spread of this disease. Matters improved when wheat growing shifted westwards towards Parramatta and in 1804 the harvest was more than double the young colony’s needs. However, 2 years later, floods destroyed the crop in the Hawkesbury–Nepean area and it was again necessary to import grain for survival.

Varieties such as Red Lammas and White Lammas together with Talavera, Red Tuscan and White Tuscan were grown during the period 1800–1850. They were introduced from England or western Europe and were adapted to lower temperatures and higher rainfall than those prevailing in their new homeland. Since they were also late-maturing, they failed to cope with Australia’s extensive dry periods and especially the long hot summers. It was not until mid-century that an earlier maturing variety, White Essex, was introduced from England. It rapidly proved to be more successful than its predecessors and became very widely grown. The Purple Straw type wheats, destined to play an important role in Australian wheat breeding were introduced around 1860. Their origin is uncertain but it is thought they also came from England. Although of earlier maturity than the Red and White Lammas, they were still quite late-maturing in Australia. Many of the most productive wheats grown in Australia trace their ancestry through one parent to the Purple Straw wheats. A second variety of importance at this time was Du Toit, introduced from South Africa in 1881 by the Director of the Adelaide Botanic Gardens, Dr Schomburgh.

In the early days of the colony, little attempt was made to keep individual varieties well characterized and pure. Indeed the names of the varieties being grown were often not recorded and most plots would have been mixtures of varieties in any case. In an endeavour to improve this situation, the Agricultural Society of New South Wales was established in 1822 with the idea of importing seed from overseas countries. There is, unfortunately, no record of the names of the varieties imported at this time by the Society, nor any evidence that any of them later became significant as breeding stock.

The big expansion of wheat growing in Australia occurred between 1860 and 1880 with the colonization of Tasmania, Victoria and South Australia. The less humid conditions in these latitudes reduced the devastation from stem rust and other diseases prevalent on the moist coastal plains of New South Wales. During the period 1860–1890 the area under cultivation increased from 400 000 to 1 760 000 ha. South Australia came to be regarded as the granary of Australia, and a significant trade developed to the other States. There was even a surplus for export.

At the beginning of the 20th century the area devoted to wheat production again increased dramatically, from 2.03 million ha in 1900 to 4·86 million ha by 1915, as a result of the entry of Australian wheat into world markets. From this period until the 1930s, Australian wheat was accepted as a soft white wheat with good milling quality and a low moisture content. It was used for blending with higher quality wheats produced elsewhere, particularly in the United States and Canada.

While Australian wheat production in the 1930s was largely comprised of soft grained, weak quality types, by 1965 an increasing proportion (up to 30% of the total) of hard grained and strong wheats was being grown. The descriptions weak and strong refer to the dough characteristics of flours produced from these wheats. Improvements in protein content and quality came with changes in agricultural practices such as the use of fertilizer, introduction of crop rotations and clover-ley farming. Low-protein soft-grained wheats for biscuit manufacture must now be specially grown and segregated. The first segregation of such wheats took place in 1963 in Western Australia and in 1972 in Victoria. Concurrently, facilities for segregating and storing wheats of several different qualities have evolved.

Wheat production today: the wheat-growing areas

Wheat is grown in all States of Australia except the Northern Territory. Its production is largely confined to areas bounded by the 300 and 650 mm rainfall isohyets. These areas encompass a wide range of soil types and climatic conditions and this contributes to the variability encountered throughout the crop in any one season and from season to season. Fig. 1 shows the wheat-growing areas and rainfall belts in Australia, as well as the location of grain export terminals serving the overseas market.

Most wheat is grown under a Mediterranean-type climate, characterized by moist winters and long dry summers with relatively sparse rainfall during autumn and spring. In such a climate, the winters are usually mild, while the summers are warm to hot and sunny. The Australian wheat belt has therefore become stabilized within the areas which receive between 225 and 375 mm of rainfall during the period May to October. In Western Australia, with its more extreme Mediterranean-type climate, crop growth, except in the southern disticts, is entirely dependent upon winter rains. In other States, spring rainfall is usually considerable and promotes high yields in western Victoria and southern New South Wales. In northern New South Wales and southern Queensland, a summer rainfall pattern prevails and, where soils are suitable, moisture from these rains can be conserved by fallowing.

Fig. 1.1. Wheat-growing areas and rainfall belts in Australia. The map also shows the location of export grain terminals around the coast of the major wheat-growing States. (Source: Australian Wheat Board.).

The area under cultivation in any one season is determined by the rainfall received during ground preparation and at the time of seeding. However, in the longer term the main factors influencing decisions by growers to plant more wheat include:

the price of wheat relative to the price of competing products;

the area of cultivated land available; and

machinery technology.

Increased wheat production has resulted from improved machinery, a greater cropping intensity on existing wheat land and from an expansion of wheat-growing areas in marginally productive land. This has been achieved through the development of better adapted varieties, new cultivation techniques and better disease, fungal and weed control. In all States further potential exists for new rotational and cropping practices and better disease control to permit greater cropping intensities.

Soil types in the wheat-growing zones vary from heavy, deep clays in northern New South Wales and southern Queensland to very light and sandy soils in parts of Western Australia. As a result, different types of wheat are grown in the different climate/soil zones. These differences are reflected in the protein content, quality type and grade of wheat produced. In parts of western New South Wales, South Australia and Western Australia, the wheat-growing belt has been pushed out into marginal areas posing particular problems related to rainfall and soil fertility.

The main factor affecting variability of wheat production in Australia is the incidence of rainfall. Wheat yields vary from year to year largely because of the timing and amount of rain received during a season. In some years rainfall is not uniform across the whole wheatbelt from east to west. For a wheat crop to develop fully, there needs to be adequate subsoil moisture for the root system to tap, combined with a good rain at seeding time to wet the top soil and allow the seed to germinate. Follow-up rains during winter, and especially in spring, replenish subsoil moisture so that the wheat plant grows and fills out in the head. In some places, particularly in northern New South Wales and southern Queensland, summer thunderstorms are not infrequent and in some seasons may cause severe weather damage when the crop is ripe but not yet harvested.

Some production statistics

Tables 1.1 and 1.2 show the annual area planted and wheat production by State in Australia during the period 1975–76 to 1987–88.

TABLE 1.1. Area (’000 ha) of wheat planted in each State for the seasons 1975–76 to 1987–88.

TABLE 1.2. Production (’000 t) of wheat by States for the seasons 1975–76 to 1987–88

Fig. 1.2. Production and disposal of wheat between 1940–41 and 1987–88. (Source: Australian Wheat Board.)

The conditions determining optimum yields of wheat in Australia have been discussed by Callaghan and Millington (1956). As we have already seen, the biggest single factor responsible for the wide fluctuations in yield from season to season is the variability in rainfall experienced in this country. It will be noted from Fig. 1.1 that the inland or dry margin of the wheat-growing belt receives about 225 mm of rainfall during the growing period from May to October. Where the rainfall during this period exceeds 375 mm, the topography of the country, prevailing temperatures and heavy winter rainfall combine to make the region better suited to pastures than to wheat.

The wheat breeder and wheat improvement

Early wheat varieties

Wheat would not have attained its preeminent position in Australian agriculture without the endeavours of a few dedicated growers and breeders. The earliest efforts were directed towards the introduction and testing of varieties from overseas. This was first undertaken in a systematic way by the Agricultural Society of New South Wales following its establishment in 1822. Unfortunately, most of these introductions proved unsatisfactory. However, by the latter half of the last century, many growers were obtaining seed from overseas countries and selecting the outstanding plants and heads from their crops. The seed they obtained undoubtedly contained mixtures of varieties and they found that the quality of their crop could be upgraded by careful selection of the most promising material. Generally it was believed that the more closely the climate of the country of origin resembled that of Australia, the more likely were the introductions to thrive. Thus wheats adapted to Algerian, Egyptian, Indian and Californian conditions were believed to do better than those brought from northern Europe.

The variety Purple Straw was one of the most important ancestors of present-day Australian wheats. It was the most widely cultivated wheat in Australia for about 30 years from 1860 and was originally a selection from a mixture of similar wheats being grown by a farmer, Mr J. Frame, in the Mt Barker district of South Australia. It quickly became popular in other wheat-production zones and later became immortalized as a parent of one of Australia’s best known wheats—Federation (Purple Straw 14A X Yandilla A). Federation was widely grown in Australia between 1901 and 1938 and was also popular on the eastern seaboard of the United States during the 1920s.

Wheat improvement by breeding and selection of the progeny had its beginnings in South Australia and New South Wales at about the same time. In South Australia, Professor Custance of Roseworthy Agricultural College, established trials of several agricultural crops at Roseworthy in 1882. These included 27 varieties of wheat comprising recognized South Australian varieties and importations from England, India, South Africa and New Zealand. Custance was convinced that early maturity and drought tolerance were essential agronomic qualities for the local environment. A contemporary South Australian farmer was Mr R. Marshall of Wasleys, who not only carried out careful selections from his crops, but also performed specific crosses to create new genetic combinations having better adaptation to the environment, early maturity, strong straw, rust resistance and better milling qualities.

In New South Wales, William Farrer had already formulated plans in 1882 for developing wheats with improved milling quality and rust resistance. Farrer achieved particular fame because of his major contributions to the breeding and selection of Australian wheats having not only high yields, but also disease resistance and good milling qualities. Farrer’s association with the government chemist Guthrie around the turn of the century was unique because it teamed breeder and cereal chemist, both dedicated to the idea that quality was as important as yield and disease resistance in the development of new varieties. Following Farrer’s death in 1906, emphasis on quality faded for a time, though when quality-oriented wheat breeding assumed importance again in the 1930s, the varieties developed by Farrer provided valuable parental material. By coincidence, or possibly good management, all Australian varieties possessing some resistance to pre-harvest sprouting damage include in their parentage several wheats bred by Farrer.

Farrer’s interest in quality testing convinced him that the way to success lay in combining the drought resistance and early maturity of the Indian wheats with the quality characteristics (high protein, strong gluten) of the Canadian Fife wheats. His first move therefore was to introduce some of these Indian wheats to replace the late-maturing varieties being grown at that time. While Farrer’s first crosses were between the Indian and Fife wheats, he soon realized that for Australian conditions, the productivity of Purple Straw was required. The triple cross of these three wheat types gave rise to the variety Federation.

Fig. 1.3 shows how these early varieties have contributed to the pedigrees of wheats widely grown in Australia until quite recently. Fig. 1.3 contrasts the simple system of selection (lower left, indicated by a row of dots), with the breeding methods of Farrer and the more recent multiple back-crossing procedures (shown 2*). Countries of origin, names of breeders and the years when the varieties were named are in italics.

Fig. 1.3. Pedigrees of some important Australian wheats. (Courtesy: Wrigley and Rathjen, 1981)

The history of wheat breeding in Australia is described in greater detail in Chapter 6 by Macindoe and Walkden Brown (1968) and in two more recent publications by Wrigley and Rathjen (1981) and Hollamby (1982).

Spring and winter wheats

Most varieties grown in Australia are so-called spring wheats, even though they are grown through the winter months. They are planted in late autumn (April, May, June) after the season’s opening rains and make slow to moderate growth during winter, (June, July, August) depending upon temperatures and rainfall. They then develop rapidly during the spring (September) and mature from early to mid summer (October–January). Their growth during the winter months is possible because the Australian winters are mild compared to those experienced in the wheat-growing regions of the Northern Hemisphere.

Small acreages of so-called winter wheats are also sown in Australia. Until recently they have been confined to the northern wheat-growing belt of New South Wales, being grown in areas particularly prone to frost damage. Winter wheat types exhibit an extended period of vegetative growth before flowering and producing seed. One type of winter wheat is photoperiod (daylength) sensitive. In such varieties, flowering is delayed by the short days of winter. In the other type, flowering is initiated only after the plant has been exposed to a sufficiently long period of cold temperature (between 0°–10°C and preferably between 0°–5°C). This is known as vernalization and an interesting feature of this phenomenon is that it is cumulative. Thus low temperatures experienced by the developing grain while in the head prior to harvest can contribute to the vernalization requirement when the seed is planted out the following season. Seed may be completely vernalized by placing it in a refrigerator at below 5°C. Once the vernalization requirement has been met the plant will initiate heads in the normal way, but until the requisite time at low temperature has elapsed it will remain in the vegetative state indefinitely.

Spring wheat cultivars are sown in late May to early June in order to delay ear emergence until late October or early November and so avoid frost damage. However, wheats having a winter habit, and suited to the growing areas of Victoria and southern New South Wales are now being developed to provide greater flexibility at sowing time. Since these have a vernalization requirement prior to flowering, they can be sown early, if conditions are favourable, in the knowledge that they will remain in the vegetative phase until their vernalization requirements with regard to day length or temperature are met. On the other hand, they can, if necessary, be sown late in the expectation that they will still come into head at about the same time as earlier sown material. An additional advantage of winter wheats is that, while in the vegetative phase, they can be grazed by sheep or cattle without unduly affecting grain yield. Several advanced lines having a winter habit suited to Australian conditions have been developed and a number of new varieties of this type may soon be released.

The terms ‘spring’ and ‘winter’ wheats have much greater significance in colder wheat-growing countries. As their name suggests, winter wheats are planted just prior to the onset of winter. They remain in the vegetative stage, covered with snow, during the winter months. Being subjected to frost and snow cover for up to 6 months, they obviously also possess winter hardiness. With the spring thaw, winter wheats grow rapidly and mature towards the end of summer. Spring wheats, on the other hand, have a much shorter growing period. They are planted as soon as possible after the snow cover has melted and complete their cycle by summer’s end or early autumn.

Until recently all new varieties of winter and spring wheats were developed from entirely separate gene pools because they flower at different times, making cross-fertilization impossible. However, inter-breeding can be achieved by artificial vernalization and growth under controlled environmental conditions. Consequently, desirable characteristics can be exchanged between both gene pools, to the significant improvement of each type.

Red and white wheats

Grain colour provides yet another basis for classifying wheats. Grains carrying a red or reddish brown pigmentation of the seed coat are termed red wheats. Varieties lacking this pigmentation in the grain are called white wheats. Some white wheats, particularly those with high protein contents may appear light to mid brown, but this should not be confused with the reddish pigmentation of red wheats. This colour distinction is made more obvious by treatment with sodium hydroxide solution (see Chapter 2). Australia grows no red wheats and has gained a firm place in international markets with its prime quality white-grained wheats.

Marketing and handling wheat

Export and domestic consumption

Today, Australia harvests up to 22 million tonnes of wheat in a good year. Average annual wheat production from 1985 to 1990 is forecast to approach 20 million tonnes. Average annual wheat export income in recent years (1980–1985) has approximated $1800 million and in some years wheat has been the nation’s top export earner. Generally, wheat exports amount to about 10% of Australia’s total export earnings. In 1980 Australia was second to the United States as the main exporter of wheat; usually Australia ranks fourth behind Canada and the EEC.

The role of the Australian Wheat Board

Responsibility for the acquisition and marketing of the wheat crop within Australia and overseas rests with the Australian Wheat Board (AWB), although recent changes in the wheat-marketing legislation have allowed stockfeed buyers to purchase wheat direct from growers for stockfeed use. The AWB conducts an integrated export and domestic marketing operation with the main objective of maximizing returns to wheat growers. Domestic consumption is relatively stable from year to year (around 2 million tonnes) except in drought years when stockfeed demand increases significantly. More than 80% of the wheat produced in Australia is exported and in recent years the figure has approached 90%. Export availability can vary between 9 and 21 million tonnes or even more, due the effects of environmental conditions during growth and harvesting of the crop.

Fig. 1.4. Wheat exports and domestic consumption in Australia between 1940–41 and 1987–88. (Source: Australian Wheat Board.)

Fig. 1.4 shows that wheat exports have fluctuated widely over the years, depending upon the size of the crop and the carry-over surplus to domestic requirements. As already mentioned, there has been a steady trend towards increased exports which reached 16 million tonnes in 1985–86. It is likely that wheat exports will represent an even larger share of future wheat production and receivals.

The AWB coordinates the shipment of Australia’s wheat. This involves the loading of 600 or more ships at 18 ports with seven classes and up to 35 marketing categories of wheat destined for 50 potential markets. In each State the AWB has appointed an authorized receiver (the Bulk Handling Authority) responsible for the storage and handling of wheat on behalf of the AWB. The authorized receivers weigh every truckload on delivery to the silo, take a sample of the load for testing against the quality standards set by the AWB, and issue a weighbridge ticket for various grades. The wheat is also treated at the time of receival for protection against the possibility of insect infestation during storage. Altogether, there are more than 1000 receival sites throughout Australia, usually located at rail sidings within the wheat-growing belt.

Through its quality control network, the AWB obtains a continuous indication of the quality and condition of the wheat harvest as it proceeds. This monitoring of the incoming crop enables AWB marketing staff to approach buyers with accurate information on the availability of different classes and grades of Australian wheat. AWB laboratories in each State receive representative samples of every grade of wheat delivered at every silo in that State, each week. Analytical tests carried out on these samples include: wheat protein content, moisture level, test weight, unmillable material (screenings), and, in some instances, the identification of particular wheat varieties.

The map below (Fig. 1.5) shows where Australia’s wheat was sold in 1984–85. The greatest share of exports went to Middle Eastern countries (including Egypt), the USSR and East Asian countries such as the Peoples’ Republic of China and Japan.

Fig. 1.5. Australian wheat exports for the 1984–85 season. (Source: Australian Wheat Board.)

The guaranteed minimum price (GMP) for wheat

On delivery to the Bulk Handling Authority, the AWB pays the growers the ruling Guaranteed Minimum Price (GMP) for their crop. The GMP is based on a formula which yields an amount approximating 95% of the estimated market return for the season’s Australian Standard White (ASW) wheat. Once the GMP is established for this grade, government guaranteed differentials are applied to other specified grades. These differentials are based on the expected market value of the latter relative to the ASW grade. The GMP is paid in two instalments. An interim payment is made upon delivery of the wheat to the country silo. This represents about 90% of the estimated GMP. A final payment is made in the following March when the size and composition of the harvest is better known and the government has a closer estimate of the Australian Wheat Board’s borrowing costs. In effect, the Australian government underwrites the GMP. Each year the AWB borrows billions of dollars on the Australian and international money market. These borrowings are repaid as the wheat is sold, after which the growers receive further payments until the net return from a season’s pool is finalized. The AWB is a non-profit organization which deducts its operating costs from the grower’s returns. These costs usually amount to less than one dollar per tonne each year. The bulk handling and rail authorities are also paid by the AWB. Their charges could amount to $45 t−1 overall. Hence the wheat grower receives the GMP payment, less deductions for handling, freight and a small levy (30 c t−1) for scientific research. The last mentioned is matched dollar for dollar by the Federal government. At 1985 prices, the grower received a net payment of around $115 t−1 but these returns later dropped dramatically due to lower export prices being received by the Board. They have since risen considerably. The prices set by the grain handling and rail authorities for their services affect farmers’ profits, and ultimately the farmers pay for the capital costs of these facilities.

Fig. 1.6. Aerial view of the Australian Wheat Board’s export grain terminal at Glebe Island, Sydney, N.S.W. (Source: Grain Handling Authority of N.S. W.)

Fig. 1.7. Country receival and storage facilities in New South Wales.

(a) Steel bins with receival and outloading facilities.

(b) Aerial view of a silo installation at Narrandera.

(c) Aerial view of a subterminal at Werris Creek.

(Source: Grain Handling Authority of N.S.W.)

Wheat classes and grades in Australia

The wheat industry deals with a non-standard raw material—one whose quality characteristics can vary widely from year to year. Differences in wheat varieties, soil types and harvesting conditions all influence the appearance and properties of the grain. Wheat buyers have fairly precise quality requirements, demanding wheats of a basically uniform quality. For this reason, grading systems have been developed that allow buyers to select from grades of wheat with reasonable confidence that they will receive consistent quality from season to season. The grading system allows wheats within a certain range of quality to be binned together to achieve uniform, average quality levels.

The Australian grading system has evolved as a result of demands from buyers, and because of the success of wheat-breeding programs in meeting those demands. Over the years it has incorporated more complex segregations into grades and classes, giving wheat growers greater opportunities to earn potentially higher returns.

For many years Australia marketed its wheat under the description of FAQ (Fair Average Quality). Australian wheat had a good reputation in overseas markets for its cleanliness, low moisture content and freedom from insect infestation. However, it was principally used as a blending wheat, especially in the Northern Hemisphere, and was rarely milled on its own.

The first changes to this situation were in response to initiatives by flour millers in New South Wales who were paying premiums for high protein, hard-grained wheats. This led to the formation of the Prime Wheat Association (originally the Premium Wheat Growers’ Association), established as a limited liability company in 1958 for the purpose of testing, segregating and promoting premium wheats in northern New South Wales (Premium Wheat Growers’ Association, 1971). At around the same time (the 1957–58 season) in South Australia, Australian Hard wheat was segregated and marketed separately from South Australian FAQ wheat.

Following the lead established by the Prime Wheat Association, the wheat growers of southern New South Wales formed themselves into a similar group in 1969 for the purpose of supervising the segregation of a grade termed Southern Hard. In aggregate, these two wheat grades have attracted premium payments of more than $12 million in a single year.

The late 1960s saw an oversupply situation develop in world wheat markets. This resulted in buyers being able to demand more exacting quality specifications in their wheat purchases. Interchangeability of wheat grades between competing exporting countries became important. At this time, a series of internationally recognized wheat-quality types evolved. As a result, in the 1974–75 season Australia replaced the FAQ system with one based on the classification of the crop into Prime Hard, Hard, Standard White and Soft.

The current classification system

The last 15 years have seen a continuing and increasing emphasis placed on supplying wheats of specific qualities as flour-milling and flour-processing industries overseas have become established and increasingly more sophisticated.

Experience has shown that the market requires wheat grades in which there is a balance between grain hardness and protein content for different end uses. This relationship has been investigated by Moss (1973, 1978) resulting in the production of a diagram (Fig. 1.8) which shows the relevant protein and hardness values for each grade, and the different end uses to which wheat from each grade is put.

Fig. 1.8. The broad range of wheat types required for different end uses (Moss 1978).

To meet the needs of our extensive markets, Australian wheat is now classified into seven major classes, based on its variety, general cleanliness and soundness, and protein content. These classes are then further subdivided into a number of grades according to protein content, variety and State of origin as set out in Table 1.3.

TABLE 1.3. Classification of Australian wheats by class and grade. (Note that not all grades may be available in any particular season).

The high protein, Prime Hard wheats grown on the deep, black soils of northern New South Wales and southern Queensland are comparable to the Canadian Western Red Spring wheats and the U.S. Dark Northern Spring wheats. Prime Hard wheats have a high protein content (usually well over 13%), well-balanced dough properties, high resistance to rust pathogens and the maximum resistance to pre-harvest weather damage currently available in white-grained wheats. These wheats are used domestically for the production of flour for bread and noodle products, and for gluten and starch manufacture, or are sold to overseas markets. In southern New South Wales, South Australia, Victoria and Western Australia, the emphasis has been on the breeding of high yielding, hard-grained wheats for areas where protein contents are likely to be in excess of 11%, thus qualifying for inclusion in the Australian Hard No. 1 grade. High yielding harder and softer grained wheats have also been released for the lower protein areas of the Australian wheat belt. In general, these wheats comprise the greater proportion of the Australian crop. They are classified into the Australian Standard White (ASW) wheat category. Recently there has been a trend towards the production of wheats that have an intermediate level of grain hardness. These wheats are suitable for breadmaking at the higher protein levels (10·5–11·5%) and for the production of other end products at the lower protein levels. Biscuit wheats, having very low protein content, are grown under irrigation in southern New South Wales, in parts of Victoria, South Australia and southern Western Australia. Durum wheats are currently grown in restricted areas of northern New South Wales.

As indicated in Table 1.3, Australian wheats are classified into two broad categories (milling and non-milling or General Purpose/Feed wheats) according to test weight (hectolitre weight) and grain soundness. Australian milling wheat must meet a minimum set of receival standards. These are collectively referred to as ASW (Australian Standard White) specifications. These are: Test Weight (74 kg hl−1 minimum); Moisture (12% maximum); Unmillable Material (5% by volume maximum); freedom from live insects, and a high degree of soundness. The allowable limits for these basic quality attributes are established each year by the AWB and are set out in the form of notices and other publications that form part of the instructions to supervisors responsible for the receival of grain at country silos.

All wheat conforming to the AWB’s basic receival standards for moisture, cleanliness and grain soundness, and having a test weight in excess of 74 kg hl−1 is considered to be suitable for milling on its own, without the need for blending with other wheat having a higher degree of soundness. Such grain is therefore classified as milling wheat. For receival into the premium wheat classes, i.e. Prime Hard, Hard, Hard No. 1, Soft and Durum, two additional quality criteria are used: these are wheat variety and wheat protein content. Wheat deliveries not meeting the basic standards with respect to test weight, weather damage or content of unmillable material, are classified either as General Purpose wheats (if their test weight is above 68 kg hl−1), or as Feed grade wheats depending upon the degree of soundness. Australian Feed wheats are generally classified as such if their Falling Number (see Chapter 3) is below 200 seconds.

A unique feature of Australian wheat production is that only white-grained varieties are grown and all receivals are assessed for classification using the same basic set of receival standards. Unlike the United States and Canadian numerical grading systems, all Australian wheats that meet the strict initial receival standards are classified as No. 1 grade. The only exception is the Australian Hard No. 2 grade. This was initially introduced in Queensland and Northern New South Wales to cater for mildly sprouted grain deliveries which otherwise satisfied the receival standards.

Grading Australia’s wheats

Australian wheat grades are segregated on the basis of variety, protein level and region of production. This ensures that Australian wheats can be marketed on a quality basis. Although a complex subject, there are four basic factors that affect wheat quality. They are: protein content, grain hardness, dough strength, and milling quality (yield and colour).

Protein content has a greater influence on overall processing quality than any other single factor. Although wheat varieties differ in their capacity to accumulate protein into the grain, the environment is the major determinant of the protein level of a particular wheat grade. Grain hardness, dough strength and milling quality are determined more by variety than environment which, nevertheless, has some significant influence.

Brief description of all Australian wheat classes are as follows.

Australian prime hard. This class is limited to a selected number of high quality, hard-grained varieties. Prime Hard wheat has excellent milling quality and is marketed at 15, 14, and 13% minimum protein levels. In recent years, varieties that possess high inherent dough strength and stability have been released for this class in order to increase the overall strength of Prime Hard wheat.

Australian hard. This class is also limited to hard-grained wheat varieties that have good milling and dough qualities. Australian Hard wheat is segregated in each State, and different wheat varieties predominate in the various State grades. Australian Hard is marketed at 14, 13, 12 and 11.5% minimum protein levels.

Australian standard white (ASW). ASW wheat is segregated throughout Australia and for this reason there is a wide range of qualities available. In order to meet their particular needs buyers have generally become accustomed to purchasing ASW from certain regions of production. Accordingly, attempts are made to ensure that there is some uniformity and continuity in the quality of wheat from these various production regions.

Australian soft. This class is segregated in New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia for domestic flour millings. The only large segregation oriented towards export occurs in southern Western Australia. The class consists of typical soft biscuit wheat varieties and the low protein and weak extensible dough properties exhibited by flour milled from this wheat, make it very suitable for biscuit manufacture and other soft wheat end uses.

Australian durum. Currently there is a very limited production of this class of wheat. It is mainly utilized in the domestic market in the production of semolina for pasta manufacture.

Australian general purpose. This class comprises wheats that have failed to meet the minimum receival standards for milling wheat grades, either on account of low test weight, presence of screenings, foreign material, excessive weed seeds or a mild degree of sprouting. It should be noted that the 1984–85 season was the first occasion when sprouted wheat was allowed into the General Purpose class.

Australian feed. In general, this class consists of severely sprouted wheat deliveries and is suitable only for feed-milling purposes.

The Bread Research Institute in conjunction with the Australian Wheat Board each year prepares a summary of the quality characteristics of all grades of Australian wheat produced in that season. The procedures for sampling and analysis are outlined in Chapter 3. However, typical analytical data for the major Australian wheat classes are summarized in Table 1.4.

TABLE 1.4. Typical analyses of Australian milling wheat classes.

A descriptive summary of the quality characteristics of the various grades is then prepared by the Australian Wheat Board for marketing purposes. An example, taken from the 1985–86 crop report of the Australian Wheat Board is presented here.

Australian prime hard. The Prime Hard grades have a bright appearance and are well filled. They are vitreous and contain low levels of screenings and foreign material. The Falling Number figures are high indicating the soundness of these wheats. Both grades milled to yield clean, white flours which have extensible dough characteristics. Baking results are excellent, with the Queensland sample showing improvement when the dough