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    Sturgis' Illustrated Dictionary of Architecture and Building: An Unabridged Reprint of the 1901-2 Edition, Vol. II
    Sturgis' Illustrated Dictionary of Architecture and Building: An Unabridged Reprint of the 1901-2 Edition, Vol. II
    Sturgis' Illustrated Dictionary of Architecture and Building: An Unabridged Reprint of the 1901-2 Edition, Vol. II
    Ebook1,731 pages73 hours

    Sturgis' Illustrated Dictionary of Architecture and Building: An Unabridged Reprint of the 1901-2 Edition, Vol. II

    By Russell Sturgis and Francis A. Davis

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    About this ebook

    Volume 2 of monumental 3-volume classic offers comprehensive and detailed coverage of architectural terms, individuals and national styles. Total in set: over 100 photographs and more than 1000 illustrations. Bibliography.
    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherDover Publications
    Release dateApr 23, 2013
    ISBN9780486145921
    Sturgis' Illustrated Dictionary of Architecture and Building: An Unabridged Reprint of the 1901-2 Edition, Vol. II

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      Sturgis' Illustrated Dictionary of Architecture and Building - Russell Sturgis

      DOVER BOOKS ON ARCHITECTURE

      ORNAMENTAL DESIGNS FROM ARCHITECTURAL SHEET METAL, Broschart & Braun. (27039-4) $8.95

      WALTER GROPIUS, Sigfried Giedion. (27118-8) $14.95

      LUXURY APARTMENT HOUSES OF MANHATTAN, Andrew Alpern. (27370-9) $11.95

      CLASSIC HOUSES OF THE TWENTIES, Loizeaux. (27388-1) $12.95

      FLORIDA ARCHITECTURE OF ADDISON MIZNER, Addison Mizner. (27327-X)$14.95

      THE ARCHITECT, OR PRACTICAL HOUSE CARPENTER (1830), Asher Benjamin. (25802-5) $11.95

      VICTORIAN BRICK AND Terra-Cotta ARCHITECTURE IN FULL COLOR, Pierre Chabat. (26164-6) $24.95

      COUNTRY HOUSES AND SEASIDE COTTAGES OF THE VICTORIAN ERA, William T. Comstock. (25972-2) $5.95

      HISTORIC HOUSES OF THE HUDSON VALLEY, Harold D. Eberlein and Cortlandt Van Dyke Hubbard. (26304-5) $14.95

      CLASSIC MODERN HOMES OF THE THIRTIES, James Ford and Katherine Morrow Ford. (25927-7) $12.95

      SPANISH-COLONIAL ARCHITECTURE IN THE UNITED STATES, Rexford Newcomb. (26263-4) $12.95

      THE SEVEN LAMPS OF ARCHITECTURE, John Ruskin. (26145-X) $8.95

      500 SMALL HOUSES OF THE TWENTIES, Henry Atterbury Smith (ed.). (26300-2) $15.95

      CRAFTSMAN BUNGALOWS, Gustav Stickley (ed.) (25829-7) $8.95

      STURGIS’ ILLUSTRATED DICTIONARY OF ARCHITECTURE AND BUILDING, Russell Sturgis, et al. (26025-9, 26026-7, 26027-5) Three-vol. set

      VICTORIAN DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURAL PLANS AND DETAILS, William T. Comstock. (25442-9) $7.95

      AMERICA’S LIGHTHOUSES, Francis Holland, Jr. (25576-X) $11.95

      EARLY AMERICAN ARCHITECTURE, Hugh Morrison. (25492-5) $14.95

      ROBERTS’ ILLUSTRATED MILLWORK CATALOG, E.L. Roberts & Co. (25697-9) $13.95

      A VICTORIAN HOUSEBUILDER’S GUIDE, George E. Woodward & Edward G. Thompson. (25704-5) $8.95

      THE TEN BOOKS OF ARCHITECTURE, Leon Battista Alberti. (25239-6) $14.95

      Paperbound unless otherwise indicated. Prices subject to change without notice. Available at your book dealer or write for free catalogues to Dept. 23, Dover Publications, Inc., 31 East 2nd Street, Mineola, N.Y. 11501. Please indicate field of interest. Each year Dover publishes over 200 books on fine art, music, crafts and needlework, antiques, languages, literature, children’s books, chess, cookery, nature, anthropology, science, mathematics, and other areas.

      Manufactured in the U.S.A.

      Published in Canada by General Publishing Company, Ltd., 30 Lesmill Road, Don Mills, Toronto, Ontario.

      Published in the United Kingdom by Constable and Company, Ltd., 10 Orange Street, London WC2H 7EG.

      This Dover edition, first published in 1989, is an unabridged and unaltered republication of the work originally published in 1901-02 by The Macmillan Company, New York under the title A Dictionary of Architecture and Building: Biographical, Historical, and Descriptive.

      DOVER Pictorial Archive SERIES

      This book belongs to the Dover Pictorial Archive Series. You may use the designs and illustrations for graphics and crafts applications, free and without special permission, provided that you include no more than ten in the same publication or project. (For permission for additional use, please write to Dover Publications, Inc., 31 East 2nd Street, Mineola, N.Y. 11501.)

      However, republication or reproduction of any illustration by any other graphic service whether it be in a book or in any other design resource is strictly prohibited.

      Manufactured in the United States of America

      Dover Publications, Inc., 31 East 2nd Street, Mineola, N.Y. 11501

      Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

      Sturgis, Russell, 1836-1909.

      Sturgis’ dictionary of architecture and building: an unabridged reprint of the 1901-2 edition / Russell Sturgis, et al. p. cm.

      Reprint. Originally published: New York: Macmillan, 1901-1902.

      Bibliography: p.

      9780486145921

      1. Architecture — Dictionaries. 2. Buildings — Dictionaries. I. Title.

      NA31.S838 1989

      720’.3 — dcl9

      89-1350 CIP

      Table of Contents

      DOVER BOOKS ON ARCHITECTURE

      Title Page

      Copyright Page

      LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS TO THE DICTIONARY OF ARCHITECTURE

      PREFACE TO VOLUME II., DICTIONARY OF ARCHITECTURE

      Table of Figures

      DICTIONARY OF ARCHITECTURE

      LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS TO THE DICTIONARY OF ARCHITECTURE

      CLEVELAND ABBE, Ph.D., LL.D.

      Meteorologist U. S. Weather Bureau, Washington, D.C.

      WILLIAM MARTIN AIKEN, F.A.I.A.

      Architect; New York. Late Supervising Architect of U. S. Treasury Department.

      EDWARD ATKINSON, Ph.D., LL.D.

      Economist,and President Manufacturers’ Mutl. Ins. Co., Boston, Mass. Author Mill Construction: What It Is and What It Is Not; Right Methods of Preventing Fires in Mills.

      CHARLES BABCOCK, M.A., Hon. Mem. A.I.A., Hon. Mem. R.I.B.A.

      Emeritus Professor of Architecture, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y.

      W. J. BALDWIN, Mem. Am. Soc. C.E., Mem. Am. Soc.M.E.

      Expert and Consulting Engineer in Heating and Ventilation; New York.

      CHARLES I. BERG, F.A.I.A.

      Architect; New York.

      C. H. BLACKALL, M.A., F.A.I.A.

      Architect; Boston, Mass.

      EDWIN H. BLASHFIELD, N.A., Hon. Mem. A.I.A.

      Mural Painter; New York. Joint Author Italian Cities; Joint Editor Vasari.

      H. W. BREWER, Hon. Assoc. R.I.B.A.

      Author many papers published in the Proceedings R.I.B.A. ; London, England.

      ARNOLD W. BRUNNER, F.A.I.A.

      Architect; New York. Joint Author Interior Decoration.

      CARYL COLEMAN, A.B.

      Ecclesiologist and Decorative Designer; President Church Glass and Decorating Co.

      WALTER COOK, F.A.I.A.

      Architect; New York. President Soc. of Beaux Arts Architects; President N.Y. Chapter A.I.A.

      EDWARD COWLES, A.M., M.D.

      Medical Supt. McLean Hospital, Waverley, Mass. ; Clin. Instruc. Ment. Dis. Harvard University.

      R. A. CRAM.

      Architect; Boston, Mass.

      FREDERIC CROWNINSHIELD.

      Mural Painter and Decorative Artist; New York. Author Mural Painting.

      FRANK MILES DAY, F.A.I.A.

      Architect; Philadelphia, Penn.

      CHARLES DE KAY.

      Writer on Fine Art; New York. Author Life and Works of Barye, the Sculptor.

      F. S. DELLENBAUGH.

      Painter; Writer and Lecturer on American Archaeology and Ethnology; New York.

      WILLIAM DE MORGAN.

      Keramist and Designer ; London, England.

      BARR FERREE, Hon. Cor. Mem. R.I.B.A., Cor. Mem. A.I.A.

      JOHN SAFFORD FISKE, L.H.D.

      Alassio, Province of Genoa, Italy. Writer on Fine Art, especially of Italy.

      ARTHUR L. FROTHINGAM, Jr., Ph. D.

      Princeton, N.J. Professor Ancient History and Archæology, Princeton University; Late Editor Am. Journal Archœology; Joint Author History of Sculpture.

      WILLIAM PAUL GERHARD, C.E.

      New York. Consulting Engineer for Sanitary Works; Cor. Mem. A.I.A. ; Author volume on American Plumbing in the Handbuch der Architektur publishing at Darmstadt and Stuttgart, Germany; and many works and articles, in English and German, on Sanitary Engineering.

      ROBERT W. GIBSON, F.A.I.A.

      Architect; New York; President Architectural League.

      WILLIAM H. GOODYEAR, M.A.

      Archaeologist; New York. Professor Brooklyn Inst. of Arts and Sciences (Curator since 1899) ; Author The Grammar of the Lotus; Roman and Mediœval Art; Renaissance and Modern Art.

      ALEXANDER GRAHAM, F.S.A.,Mem. Council R.I.B.A.

      London, England. Author Travels in Tunisia; Remains of the Roman Occupation of North Africa.

      A. D. F. HAMLIN, A.M.

      Adjunct Professor Department of Architecture, Columbia University, New York; Author A Text-book of the History of Architecture.

      H. J. HARDENBERGH, F.A.I.A.

      Architect; New York.

      GEORGE L. HEINS.

      Architect; New York.

      GEORGE HILL. M.S., C.E., Assoc. Mem. Am. Soc. C.E., Mem. Am. Soc. M.E.

      Architect; New York. Author Office Help for Architects ; Modern Office Buildings ; Test of Fireproof Floor Arches.

      FRED. B. HINCHMAN.

      Architect; New York. Late U. S. Engineer Corps.

      WILLIAM RICH HUTTON, C.E., Mem. Am. Soc. C.E., Mem. Inst. C.E., Mem. Inst. C.E. of London.

      Civil Engineer; New York.

      JONH LA FARGE, N.A., Hon. Mem. A.I.A.

      Mural Painter, Artist in Mosaic and Decorative Windows; New York. Author Considerations on Painting; An Artist’s Letters from Japan.

      W. R. LETHABY.

      London; England. Joint Author Sancta Sophia, Constantinople; Author Architecture, Mysticism, and Myth ; Leadwork, Old and Ornamental.

      W. P. P. LONGFELLOW, S.B., Hon. Mem. A.I.A.

      Cambridge, Mass. Editor Cyclopcedia of Architecture in Italy, Greece, and the Levant; Author Essays on Architectural History; The Column and the Arch.

      ALLAN MARQUAND, Ph.D., L.H.D.

      Professor Archæology and the History of Art, Princeton University, Princeton, N. J.; Joint Author History of Sculpture.

      HENRY RUTGERS MARSHALL, M.A., F.A.I.A.

      Architect; New York. Author Pain, Pleasure, and .Æsthetics; .Æsthetic Principles.

      GEORGE P. MERRILL.

      Head Curator Dept. of Geology, U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C. ; Professor Geology and Mineralogy, Corcoran Scientific School of Columbian University, Washington, D.C. ; Author Stones for Building and Decoration ; Rocks, Rock-weathering, and Soils; The Onyx Marbles.

      W. T. PARTRIDGE.

      Lecturer on Architectural Design, Columbia University; New York.

      CHARLES A. PLATT.

      Architect and Landscape Architect; New York. Author Italian Gardens.

      CORYDON T. PURDY, C.E., Mem. Am. Soc. C.E.

      Civil Engineer; New York. Author Pamphlets and Reports on Construction and Fire-proofing.

      RUSSELL ROBB, S.B., M.A.I.E.S.

      Boston, Mass. Author Electric Wiring for the Use of Architects.

      W. C. SABINE.

      Assistant Professor of Physics, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. Engineer for Acoustics, Boston Music Hall (1900).

      ALEXANDRE SANDIER.

      Architect ; Directeur des Travaux d’rt, Manufacture Nationale, Sèvres, France.

      JEAN SCHOPFER.

      Paris, France. Author many articles on Architecture in American and European periodicals.

      MONTGOMERY SCHUYLER, A. M., Cor. Mem. A.I.A.

      New York. Author Studies in American Architecture; Joint Editor New York Times.

      F. D. SHERMAN, Ph.B.

      Adjunct Professor of Architecture, Columbia University, New York.

      EDWARD R. SMITH, B.A.

      Librarian Avery Architectural Library, Columbia University, New York.

      CHARLES C. SOULE.

      Boston, Mass. President Boston Book Company ; Trustee Am. Library Assoc. ; Trustee Brookline, Mass., Pub. Lib.

      R. PHENÉ SPIERS, F.S.A., Mem. Council R.I.B.A.

      London, England. Editor Fergusson’s History of Ancient and Mediœval Architecture, Third Edition ; Editor Pugin’s Normandy, Second Edition.

      DANFORD N. B. STURGIS.

      Architect; New York.

      RICHARD CLIPSTON STURGIS, F.A.I.A.

      Architect; Boston, Mass.

      ANDREW T. TAYLOR, F.R.I.B.A., R.C.A.

      Architect; Montreal. Author Towers and Spires of Sir Christopher Wren ; Dominion Drawing Books.

      EDWARD L. TILTON.

      Architect; New York. Late Student and Explorer, Am. School of Classical Studies, Athens, Greece.

      T. F. TURNER, B.S.

      Architect; New York.

      HENRY VAN BRUNT, F.A.I.A. and late President A.I.A.

      Architect; Kansas City, Mo. Author Greek Lines and other Architectural Essays.

      WILLIAM R. WARE, LL.D., F.A.I.A.

      Professor of Architecture,Columbia University, New York. Author A Treatise on Plain and Curvilinear Perspective.

      H. LANGFORD WARREN, F.A.I.A.

      Architect; Boston, Mass. Asst. Professor of Architecture, Lawrence Scientific School, Harvard University.

      EDMUND M. WHEELWRIGHT, A.B., F.A.I.A.

      Late City Architect of Boston, Mass. Author Municipal Architecture in Boston.

      PETER B. WIGHT, F.A.I.A.

      Architect; Chicago, III. Secretary Illinois State Board of Examiners of Architects.

      The Author of ARCHITECT, THE, IN ITALY records his indebtedness for special information to the Commendatore Camillo Boito.

      The Author of LAW, — to Mr. Philip Golden Bartlett.

      The Author of Music HALL, — to Mr. Theodore Thomas.

      The Author of SURVEYING, — to Mr. Edward B. Sturgis.

      PREFACE TO VOLUME II., DICTIONARY OF ARCHITECTURE

      A GOOD dictionary will be good reading even if a column or a page be read consecutively; but it will be still better reading if the reader is in the mood to take a little pains and turns to one article after another, following not the alphabetical sequence of the terms, but the sequence of his own thought. This matter of the student’s use of the book, briefly touched upon in the Preface to Vol. I., becomes of more obvious importance now that two thirds of the whole work is in print. There are some large general subjects which can be fairly well studied if this plan is followed; and with the appearance of the third and final volume, four months hence, these studies can be carried yet farther.

      An obvious instance is that subject, the most important to us moderns of all matters of architectural history, the system of building and design of the great Empire, from 50 B.C. to 250 A.D. The building and the art of the European world since that time, and of much beyond the European world, take their origin in what was done during that epoch; and yet there is so little generally known about it, and it is so misunderstood, that all architectural thought and writing is seriously marred by this lack of accuracy. This very subject will be found treated at great length in the Dictionary. If, for instance, the reader begins with Italy, Part IX., Latium, and especially the second division of Part IX. where the city of Rome itself is treated; if then he seeks in the other parts of the article, Italy, for Roman remains, and farther in the article France, especially Part X., and in Asia Minor, the Balkan Peninsula, and North Africa; if he then studies Memorial Arch, Memorial Column, Amphitheatre, Basilica, and the technical terms referred to under Columnar Architecture, the subject will have been presented to him from several points of view. The appearance in Vol. III. of the general article on Roman Imperial Architecture and that on Syria, with Portico, Thermæ, and Tomb, may seem to complete fairly well (especially if Masonry, Vaulting, and the like be looked up) the presentation of what is known on the general subject.

      The mechanical and scientific art of building may be followed up from item to item in the same easy and natural way; and the present volume gives Floor, Foundation, Frame, Framing, Iron Construction, Masonry, and Mortar, to be read with Builder, Brickwork, and the like in Vol. I.

      Gas Fitting and House Drainage come here; Plumbing, Ventilation, and Warming in Vol. III., and these may be read in connection with Hotel, or with Apartment House (and with Tenement House, when it appears), or with Library, or with Hospital; for to many readers these hygienic departments are what is most important in modern building. The valuable and novel work given in Vol. I. under Acoustics, and its kindred shorter articles, receives a practical confirmation in Vol. II. by the article Music Hall ; and some further help is given in Vol. III. under the caption Sounding Board.

      The volume now issued contains the longest of the guidebook articles, Italy first, treated with unexampled thoroughness; France, Germany, Greece, Japan, North Africa, each written by one who knows well and loves the land in question and its monuments. Other vast regions, such as India, have received treatment less full and less minute, because of their very greatness and of their less immediate interest to students of European tradition; Farther India and Hungary, Ireland, Mexico, have proportionate space allowed them. There are articles which must be cousidered as continuations of those named above; thus Moslem Architecture helps greatly India and North Africa, as it will help Balkan Peninsula and Egypt in Vol. I., and Persia, Spain, and Syria in Vol. III.

      R. S.

      Table of Figures

      FIG. I

      FIG. II

      FIG. 1

      FIG. 2

      FIG. 3

      FIG. 4

      FIG.5

      FIG. 6

      FIG. 7

      FIG. 8

      FIG. 9

      FIG. 10

      FIG. 11

      FIG. 12

      FIG. 13

      FIG. 14

      FIG. 1

      FIG. 1

      FIG. 2

      FIG. 3

      FIG. 4

      FIG. 5

      FIG.6

      FIG. 7

      FIG. 8

      FIG. 9

      DICTIONARY OF ARCHITECTURE

      F

      FAÇADE. The architectural front of a building ; not necessarily the principal front, but any face or presentation of a structure which is nearly in one plane, and is treated in the main as a single vertical wall with but minor modifications. Thus, if a large building presents toward one street a front consisting of the ends of two projecting wings with a low wall between them enclosing a courtyard, that would be hardly a façade, but rather two façades of the two pavilions.

      With buildings which present on all sides fronts of similar or equivalent elaborateness of treatment, it is, perhaps, incorrect to speak of a façade; thus, in a great church, although the west front may be described by this term, it is inaccurate because that front would not be what it is were it presented without the flanks or north and south sides. The façade rather comes of street architecture and of buildings which have but one front considered of sufficient importance to receive architectural treatment. — R. S.

      FAÇADE: CATHEDRAL, CREMONA; NORTH TRANSEPT. This, having no intimate connection with the side walls, is essentially a façade.

      FACE (v.). A. To dress or finish one or more faces of a piece, member, or structure.

      B. To provide with a relatively highly finished face by the application of a finer or more elaborately worked material.

      FACE MOULD. In stair building, a full-sized pattern of the inclined projection of a wreath, in sense B, produced by projecting the given horizontal plan vertically upon an inclined plane which corresponds to the slope of the wreath, or as nearly so as possible. If the plan of the wreath is, as usual, described on a circular arc, the face mould will be elliptical. (See Falling Mould.)

      FACET. Any one of the several polygonal faces of a crystal or cut jewel; hence, any one of the faces or plane surfaces of a stone cut into like forms, as in rusticated masonry where each is dressed to a pyramidal projection. There are many examples in Italy, among them the exterior east façade of the Doge’s palace at Venice and the Palazzo dei Diamanti at Bologna.

      FACE WORK. That part of a masonry structure which forms the exposed or more important face, especially when constructed of better material or more elaborately worked. (See Ashlar, B; Face; Face Brick, under Brick; Facing.)

      FACING: TWO BYZANTINE STILTED

      ARCHES, IN VENICE.

      The rough brick work shown in a is covered in b

      by very thin facing of marble.

      FACING. Any material used to face with, whether forming an integral part of a structure and built simultaneously with it as in certain methods of brick building, or applied to the completed rough structure as a veneer, as in the case of a marble dado; in this sense distinguished from Face Work. (See Ashlar; Face; Face Brick, under Brick.) (Cut, cols. 5, 6.)

      FACTOR OF SAFETY. The quantity by which the numerically stated ultimate strength of a member is divided, in order to determine what force the member may resist with entire safety. Thus, in practice, an iron column is commonly allowed to support a load only one fifth the amount it would actually carry before breaking, the factor of safety thus being five. The amount of a factor of safety, as usually employed, is determined by experience and practice, but is arbitrarily assumed in any given case or arbitrarily established by law or custom. (See Strength of Materials.) — D. N. B. S.

      FACTORY. A. A building in which factors (that is to say, agents, as of merchants or other business men) reside or conduct their business. In this sense, the term corresponds nearly to the Italian fondaco. In the Middle Ages, and to a certain extent in later times, the merchants of one country doing business in another required a building which would be a centre of their position as tolerated foreigners who must have some common office and place of gathering. Even in very recent times the existence of such buildings in Oriental lands is not unknown. The factory (called in French hôtel, or simply maison) of an important commercial country built in a seaport of another commercial country would often be a building of some architectural pretensions.

      B (abbreviated from manufactory). A building in which manufacturing is carried on. Such buildings rarely receive architectural treatment; but some cotton mills and the like have square entrance towers and present a seemly appearance of decent construction and simple proportion. (For their structural peculiarities, which are sometimes of interest, see Slow Burning Construction.) — R. S.

      FAIENCE. Pottery of coarse or dark coloured body covered by an opaque coating, such as is called enamel, which enamel may be elaborately painted. This is the proper signification, and it covers all the beautiful decorative wares of Italy from the fifteenth to the eighteenth centuries, including the richest varieties of majolica, and also the various potteries of France of slightly later epoch, such as those of Rouen, Nevers, Moustiers, and many more. These wares are often very soft, both enamel and body; but when used for external decoration, such as wall tiles and the like, the same effects of colour and brilliancy are possible with an extremely hard and enduring substance, and the greatest epochs have been marked by the production of cresting tiles, ridge tiles, finials for painted roofs, and the like, which are perfectly durable. (See Épi; Keramics; Tile.) — R. S.

      FAIN, PIERRE; architect and sculptor.

      In 1501-1502 Fain worked on the archiepiscopal palace at Rouen. December 4, 1507, he contracted with others to build the chapel of the château of Gaillon (Eure, France). In 1509 he completed the portal leading from the outer to the inner court at Gaillon, which is now at the École des Beaux Arts, Paris. (See Delorme, Pierre.)

      Deville, Comptes de Gail/on.

      FALCONET, ÉTIENNE MAURICE; sculptor; b. 1716; d. 1791.

      Catherine II. invited Falconet to Russia to make the colossal equestrian statue of Peter the Great. The Œuvres d’tienne Falconet, Statuaire (6 vols. 8vo) were published in 1781.

      Gonse, Sculpture Française; La Grande Encyclopédie.

      FALCONETTO, GIOVANNI MARIA ; painter, architect, and sculptor; b.1458; d. 1534. Falconetto spent twelve years in an extensive study of the antique remains of architecture and sculpture in Rome. He also measured and drew the antiquities of Verona, Naples, and Spoleto, and later of Pola, in Istria. He settled finally in Padua, under the patronage of Luigi Cornaro, for whom he designed and built the famous palace now called Giustiniani, which bears his signature and the date 1524. Falconetto built the Porta S. Giovanni, Padua, in 1528 (signed) ; made the design and model for the church of S. Maria (delle Grazie, Padua; and other buildings. In 1533 he began the stucco work of the Cappella del Santo, in the church of S. Antonio, Padua, which was finished after his death by Tiziano di Guido Minio.

      Müntz, Renaissance ; Redtenbacher, Die Architektur der ltalienischen Renaissance.

      FALKENER, EDWARD; architect and archaeologist ; b. February, 1814; d. Dec. 17, 1896.

      He was a student of architecture at the Royal Academy, London, and in 1839 won its gold medal. He travelled extensively in Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, Greece, Crete, Italy, and Russia, and in 1849 excavated a house in Pompeii. Falkener was editor of the Museum of Classical Antiquities during the three years of its publication. He published a pamphlet on the ancient theatres in Crete (1854), Dœdalos, or the Causes and Principles of the Excellence of Greek Sculpture (1860), a pamphlet on the Hypæthron of Greek temples, and other works.

      Obituary in Journal of Royal Institute of British Architects, 1896—1897, p. 149.

      FALL (as of a roof, gutter, or the like). Same as Pitch.

      FALLING MOULD. In stair building, a full-sized pattern of the side of a wreath. It is cut out of a thin piece of veneer, or the like, following the lines of the developed (i.e. unrolled or opened out) curved elevation, and is then bent around the wreath to give the actual lines of the steps, mouldings, and other parts. (See Face Mould.)

      FACING: GIOTTO’S CAMPANILE, FLORENCE, COVERED WITH AN ELABORATE FACING OF COLOURED MARBLES.

      FALSE BEARING. In English usage, a bearing or point of support which is not vertically over the supporting structure below, as that which is afforded by a projecting corbel or cantilever. (Apparently an attempt to translate the French term, porte-à-faux.)

      FAN. A contrivance for creating a current of air, either within a limited space, as in a room to which no air is supplied from without (compare Punkah), or as in the ventilation of a house, a mine, or the like, in which cases air is driven by it from without into the space to be ventilated, or from that space outward. The fans used merely for agitating the air in a room are either revolved slowly in a horizontal plane and have large vanes or wings, or are wheel-shaped, set vertically, and revolved at high speed. (For the fan used in thorough ventilation, see Ventilation; Warming.)

      FAN LIGHT OF WOOD AND WROUGHT IRON, FROM A DOORWAY IN PARIS — RUE ANTOINE DUBOIS.

      Plenum Fan. One which supplies a current of air by forcing it from without into the given space.

      Vacuum Fan. One which causes a current of air by drawing it out from the given space.

      FANCELLI, LUCA; architect; b. 1430; d. about 1501.

      On the recommendation of Cosimo de’ Medici, Luca entered the service of Lodovico Gonzaga, Marquis of Mantua, about 1450, and superintended his constructions for forty years at Mantua He carried out, from the plans of Alberti (see Alberti), the small church of S. Sebastiano (1460—1472) and the more important one of S. Andrea (begun 1472). After the death of Giuliano da Maiano (see Giuliano da Maiano) he was employed by Ferdinand I., King of Naples.

      Braghirolli, Luca Fancelli in L’Archivio Storico Lombardo, Vol. III. (1876); Carlo d’Arco, Delle Arti e degli Artefici di Mantova.

      FANE (I.). A temple, especially one devoted to pagan worship ; hence, a place of worship of any kind, but in a general and somewhat poetical sense. The word profane is connected with this as meaning outside of (before) the fane.

      FANE (II.). A weathercock; a vane. The term means originally a flag (German, Fahne), and in the present signification is probably confused with Vane.

      FAN GROINING. Same as Fan Vaulting, under Vaulting.

      FAN LIGHT. Strictly speaking, a glazed sash filling the arched head of a door or window opening, and having radiating sash bars like a fan; hence, any window occupying a similar position over a door or window. (Compare Transom Light.)

      FAN ROOF. A vaulted roof adorned with fan tracery.

      FANSAGA, COSIMO; architect and sculptor; b. 1591, at Bergamo, Italy; d. 1678. According to Milizia, he built the facade of the church of S. Spirito de’ Napolitani, in Rome. About 1626 he went to Naples, and built the façade of the church of S. Ferdinando (1628), the church of S. Theresa (Terresella, 1625), the fine façade of the Sapienza, and other buildings.

      Gurlitt, Geschichte des Barockstiles in Italien, Milizia, Memorie; Sasso, Monumenti di Napoli.

      FANTAIL. A. Any member or piece of construction having a form approaching that of a fan, as a dovetail or a combination of radiating pieces. Especially, a centring constructed with such pieces, and hence, —

      B. One of the radial struts forming the support of the ribs in a centring, as above described.

      FAN TRACERY. (See Fan Vaulting, under Vaulting.)

      FAN WINDOW. A. The same as Fan Light.

      B. Any approximately semicircular or semielliptic window upon a horizontal diameter; especially one having radiating bars or leading, like a fan in appearance. (See Fan Light.)

      FANWORK. Decorative work abounding in fanlike patterns; especially Fan Vaulting, and the imitation of this and of late Lierne Vaulting, in the carved stone canopies of tombs and the like.

      FANZAGA. (See Fansaga.)

      FARLEIGH, RICHARD DE; architect.

      Supposed to have built the spire of Salisbury cathedral, England, about 1334.

      Redgrave, Dictionary of Artists.

      FARLEY, or FERLEY, WILLIAM; ecclesiastic and architect.

      Abbot of Gloucester from 1472 to 1498 ; finished the Lady Chapel of Gloucester cathedral begun by Abbot Henley between 1457 and 1472.

      Winkle, Gloucester Cathedral; Britton, Architectural Antiquities.

      FARM BUILDINGS. Those which are occupied by an agriculturist and his family and assistants, and including all the stables, poultry houses, cart sheds, and the like, which make up the necessary provision for carrying on the work of a farm. In the United States it has never been customary to make of the farm buildings any architectural arrangement or grouping; and even in England the accidental clustering of the different structures in places found convenient at the moment has been generally the rule. Moreover, in both countries the common use of cheaper and less enduring material, such as wood, has caused the erection of barns, cribs, sheds, and the like, which have no permanent character. On the Continent of Europe the unsettled condition of the country for many centuries, and the constant possibility of attacks by a considerable force, have always led to the arranging of farm buildings around a court and with but few windows in the exterior walls, and those high above the ground. There results from this system an extremely suggestive architectural arrangement which it is easy to make effective in every way ; and the much more common use of masonry has tended to make these French and German farms permanent ornaments of the country. The same arrangement and disposition carried out on a larger scale and at greater cost produces the typical manor house of the Continental nations, of which many admirable examples still exist, at least in part. One of the most attractive of these is the celebrated Manoir dAngo, near Varangeville (Seine Inférieure), in Normandy. (Compare Barn; Byre; Colombier; Dovecote; Stable.)

      Halsted, Barn Plans and Out-Buildings; Denton, Farm Homesteads of England; Narjoux, Histoire d’une Ferme. — P. S.

      FARMHOUSE. That one of a number of farm buildings in which the farmer and his family reside.

      FARMING SHELTER. A structure erected by American Indians near their tilled fields, where crop tenders dwell till harvest time. These constructions are of various kinds, from rude brush shelters to good houses built of stone, on the level, in cliffs, or forming small villages. Of the latter class the modern village of Nutria, belonging to Indians of Zuni, is a good example, though there is a growing tendency to occupy such villages all the year, as there is now no defensive motive for retiring to the pueblos when the crops have been gathered. Many cliff dwellings and cavate lodges were no more than farming shelters. (See Communal Dwelling.) — F. S. D.

      FARNHAM, NICHOLAS. (See Ferneham, Nicholas.)

      FARTHER INDIA, ARCHITECTURE OF. That of the old native states of Burmah, Siam, Anam (now more commonly called Cochin China), Cambodia, which is more or less dependent upon Siam, Lower Cochin China with Saigon as its capital, and the Malay Peninsula with the ancient town of Malacca. The European occupation of single points like Singapore, now for many years, Pulupenang and the province of Wellesley, and Burmah since 1885, all by the British, and the very extensive invasions of the eastern coast (Anam and Cochin China) by the French, have not sufficed to change the architectural question, for the building of the Europeans has not attained any peculiar importance. The same tropical climate which makes domestic architecture a thing of little account has prevented the factories and dwellings of Europeans from assuming an architectural character worthy of special note.

      The French government centre at Saigon has one or two buildings of pseudo-European style ; and with better taste the barracks are surrounded by broad balconies, giving them a semitropical look not inelegant. An iron bridge of great boldness spans the broad Chinese river at Saigon. The country is almost wholly within the tropics, and much the greater part of it lies between the Tropic of Cancer and the line of ten degrees north latitude ; that is to say, exactly the latitude of the West India Islands. If the insular form of the latter, opening parts of the territory to the regulating climatic influence of the ocean and to the steady trade wind for much more than half the year has given to them an exceptionally favourable climate, the climate of Farther India is diversified by mountain chains; and nothing at all resembling the great plain of Northern India, with its extreme heats of summer contrasting with a much colder winter, seems to exist, the peculiar conditions of the mountainous country alone excepted. The whole peninsula, in general, is thinly settled, for, while its superficies is about equal to the United States east of the Mississippi, the highest estimate put upon its total population is about 35,000,000. In other words, it is much more thinly settled than any of the states of Western Europe, and in this respect cannot bear the least comparison with the peninsula of India, properly so called, or the southern provinces of China.

      One result of these conditions is that vast tracts of forest, with enormous trees arguing a duration of six or seven centuries, cover half the larger peninsula, and this not merely in the almost unknown interior, but within fifty miles of the sea in many places. It is in these vast forests that are found those surprising ruins which have been explored chiefly by French government missions, and which are spoken of by the French writers as the work of the Khmers. The district assigned to this ancient people is on the boundary between Siam and Cambodia, along the twelfth and thirteenth degree of latitude, and due east of Bangkok. Fragments of the ancient buildings have been brought to France, and Delaporte (op. cit.) has given a number of representations which seem trustworthy, sometimes of a building as conjecturally restored, though only in detail, the main masses remaining intact, sometimes of a measured plan, sometimes of fragments as the artist saw them. The general character of these buildings is one with that of the pagodas, stupas, and topes of India, in that they are without interiors in the ordinary sense, consisting, as they do almost exclusively, of shrines carried up into pinnacle-like masses, and larger structures in which many shrines are combined, and piled high with masses of carved stone. The shortcoming of all this work is, as a European student conceives it, in the absence of structural reasons for architectural design. Although the Oriental builder has had what few Europeans have ever possessed, a power of designing in the abstract, — of designing for monumental effect and without utilitarian significance, — there still is something lacking when it appears that vast and lofty structures of carved stone are in the forms and proportions which we see merely because they were thought to be effective in those forms and when carved with those details. The lover of highly specialized tra-beater or arcuated building, with its resulting appropriateness to secular or to religious uses, feels in that work with which he has greater familiarity a satisfaction which the most magnificent piles of the East do not afford to him. Thus much urged, there remains nothing but praise and the question of relative merit between the superb ruined piles of the forests of Cambodia, those hardly less ruined of the Malay Islands (see Malay Architecture), and the better known religious piles of India proper.

      A shrewd writer has pointed out that in all the Khmer monuments the doorway, or gateway of entrance, is the important feature. With this statement should be compared the significance of the Indian gateway towers (see Gopura) and the city gates with their defences, their water steps, and their accessories (see Ghat). It is worthy of consideration, also, how far the respect shown by the Chinese for the memorial gateway independent of walls or enclosures (see Pailoo) and the Japanese torii (see Torii) compares with this disposition to adorn gateways which lead, at all events, to a covered and enclosed place of prayer and meditation. The Khmer gateway is in itself of no great size. It allows an elephant with its canopied saddle seat to pass through, and is, therefore, 16 or 18 feet high in the clear; but these limited dimensions have nothing to do with the enormous structure which is found piled upon and above the square head of the gateway. The famous temple near the city of Angkor, or Ongkor, which is called indifferently the Angkor Wat or the Nakhon Wat, is very like the Boro Buddor in Java, but larger. The platform is 600 feet square, and from this rises a slowly developing mass of steps and platforms carrying porticoes, covered corridors, and nine lofty towerlike masses only to be compared to the Buddhist temple gateways of India. Cut stone of the most massive character is the material, except that wooden ceilings, sometimes serving as tie beams, are used in places where a rounded roof having the shape of a wagon vault is found, whose structure of the corbelled or horizontally bedded pseudo-vault seems inadequately protected against thrust. The ruins of the city of Angkor (called Angkor Thom) are so lost in a dense tropical forest that exploration is of immense difficulty. Malaria of deadly kinds and abounding carnivorous and poisonous creatures make access difficult, and nothing approaching complete exploration has been carried out by any European. The city is known to contain a great palace spoken of as that of the forty-two towers, and a temple called the temple of Baion.

      In Burmah, the architecture which has attracted the attention of Europeans is much more recent than the undated but very ancient buildings of Cambodia. The palaces and temples, though not wholly unlike the ancient stone pagodas, are to a great extent built of wood, which, being of enduring quality and protected by lacquer, gilding, mosaic, and the like, all which were kept in repair so long as the building was cherished, has proven as indestructible as that of the Japanese temples. At Rangoon there is indeed a monstrous pagoda commonly called the Shway Dagoon (by Fergusson, Shoë-dagong), which is, indeed, of stone, and so is the magnificent and, from any point of view, beautiful tope of the temple at Pegu, the Shway Madoo (Fergusson, Shoëmadu) ; but the palaces at Mandelay and elsewhere seem always to have been largely of wood, and the exquisite decoration by means of gilded and lacquered ornament and mosaic of glass of many different varieties seems to have been thought sufficient as splendour for even an absolute and splendour-loving monarch. The important building known as the Queen’s Monastery (kioun), in Mandelay, is entirely of wood, and in part has been left to show the effects of the weather, the unpainted wood acquiring a lovely gray in the equable and warm climate. Gilding, however, has been evidently an important part of the adornment and of ceremony in Burman architecture, the effect of which metallic lustre when seen investing richly modulated surfaces is far more harmonious and refined than when it is applied to such smooth rounded cupolas as those of Paris.

      All these buildings are one-storied. Even when the roofs are piled high like those of the Japanese pagoda, balconies and sloping roofs succeeding one another for a height of seven or more apparent stories, there is but one floor of occupation. Balconies and galleries there may be above, but the avoidance of upper floors is so complete that the assertion is made by European travellers that the Burman sense of personal dignity forbids any one to endure the feet of other persons being above his head, and that on this account upper stories are unknown. The result of the one-story arrangement has been the development of a columnar architecture of extraordinary interest. Separate columns are not unlike Roman Doric columns in the proportions of capital to shaft and in the character of the capital, but the shafts are usually thicker in proportion to their height; they are cylindrical, and their surfaces are covered with patterns in low relief reminding one of the mosaic-covered pillars in Pompeii and the stucco-patterned pillars of the Palazzo Vecchio in Florence.

      The architecture of Siam is admitted to be of less importance than that of Burmah; and that of the eastern coast is still more nearly that of a race which, though having many of the habits of a civilized people, has never undertaken great architectural labours. Throughout the peninsula the domestic architecture of the people, though, as has been suggested above, slight and of a character not apparently permanent, is yet worthy of the closest study by all interested in domestic building. The tropical residence, as suggested in the article House, is apt to consist of little more than uprights and a roof, the walling, of whatever description, being of little consequence, and often temporary. To raise a floor above the earth and to support it on posts which are difficult for reptiles and insects to climb is to provide the extreme of comfort which the climate demands. As, however, it is not considered important to make such a dwelling stately or impressive in appearance, domestic architecture is in itself a matter of inevitable and almost unthought-of picturesque effect, while any approach to grandeur is to be had only by the great accumulation of small buildings within a fortified enclosure or upon a walled terrace.

      It is unfortunate that European buildings in tropical countries are always built on European lines, or with such slight and fantastic admixture of foreign elements as spoils their character without giving them a new and independent significance. If European architects of intelligence, with power to see the possibilities of the local systems of construction and arrangement, were to try to develop the pillared and heavily roofed house of Farther India into a European dwelling or palace with offices, very beautiful results might follow. This, which is true in a special sense of Japan, with its highly organized architecture of post and beam, is applicable to the more tropical regions under consideration.

      Albert de Pourvouville, L’Art Indo- Chinois ; Delaporte, Voyage au Cambodge ; James Fergusson, History of Indian and Eastern Architecture; Henri Mouhot, Travels in Indo-China, Cambodia, and Laos; Garnier, Voyaye d’ Exploration en Indo-Chine; Abel Remusat, Nouveaux Melanges Asiatiques; Mrs. Ernest Hart, Picturesque Burma, Past and Present (with many illustrations) ; Captain Henry Yule, Mission to the Court of Ava in 1855; Lieutenant G. C. Rigby, Report of a Tour throuqh the Northern Shan States; Captain John Harvey, R.A., Report of the Thetta Column and Work in the Southern Chin Hills.

      — R. S.

      FASCES. The ancient Roman emblem of civil authority — a number of rods bound together with an axe into a cylindrical bundle. It appears frequently in Roman and in modern carved decoration.

      FASCIA. In Latin, a bandage, a strip; hence, —

      A. Any one of the long narrow bands or divisions of the Ionic architrave, each projecting slightly beyond the one below, as described by Vitruvius. Hence, also, —

      B. In modern usage, any similar band, as a string course or belt, or the plane face of a cornice or like member, but always a vertical surface, and broader than a mere fillet.

      FAST. Any simple contrivance to be attached to a door, window, or the like, to secure it when closed. Usually, in combination, as sash fast, casement fast.

      FASTIGIUM. In Latin, the crest or top of a roof ; the whole roof or upper part or side of anything ; especially, a roof having pediments or gables, as distinguished from one which does not affect in this way the exterior of the building. In no sense common in English usage, but originating the adjectives fastigiate, -ious, and the French faîte.

      FAUCES (Latin plural noun, the throat, etc.). A passage, inlet, or the like; in Vitruvius (VI., 4) a passage in a house, and generally, in Roman archæology, such a passage, especially if from the atrium to the peristylium, or garden. In Mau’s Pompeii, however, it is assumed that this is erroneous, and that the only passage properly called fauces is that from the vestibulum to the atrium. The main reason for this seems to be the general giving of Greek names to all rooms, etc., back and beyond the atrium, while the old Latin names remain to the rooms of the original house. (See plan of House of Pansa, under House.)

      FAUCET. A tube or hollow plug to facilitate the discharge or passage of water or other fluid, and fitted with some contrivance by which the flow is controlled. (See Spigot.)

      More specifically, in plumbing, a contrivance for allowing the outward flow of water and stopping it at will, this being usually a fixture at the end of a supply pipe for hot or cold water.

      Waterspouts so small as to be evidently intended for faucets, and wrought into very beautiful representations of lions’ heads, dogs’ heads, and the like, are found among Roman remains. These are usually of bronze. In modern decorative art, where the fittings of the bathroom or dressing room are to be made especially elegant, silver, plain or oxidized, and silver gilt have been used, the modelling being by sculptors of ability. These last are wholly exceptional, because modern plumbing appliances are made with sufficient accuracy and completeness of finish in great quantities and at a low price. In British usage, a Tap. (See Cock.) — R. S.

      Compression Faucet. One in which the valve is closed by being forced against its seat by compression applied through the handle. This is usually a screw by which, when turned, the valve is raised or lowered.

      Fuller Faucet. A certain kind of Compression Faucet, the name being originally connected with a patent.

      Rabbit-ear Faucet. A self-closing faucet in which a spring is compressed and the valve opened by the action of a pair of handles. These project from the faucet in the form of a V, and are shaped so as to give somewhat the appearance of a pair of rabbit’s ears. They are pressed together to open the valve.

      Self-closing Faucet. One containing a device which automatically closes the valve when the handle by which it is opened is released. The device is generally a spring, which must be compressed to open the valve.

      Swing Faucet. One having a horizontal biblike outlet which controls a valve by being rotated about a vertical pipe forming the inlet. The valve is opened when the horizontal arm is swung over the basin or other vessel, and is closed when the arm is turned away at the side.

      Wheel Faucet. One in which the valve is operated by turning a wheel on an axis projecting from the outlet. The term is not specific, and usually applies to a Compression Faucet in which the screw is turned by a wheel attached to the head.

      FAULCHOT, GÉRARD ; architect.

      The most important member of a family of architects employed in the city of Troyes (Aube, France). In 1577 he replaced Gabriel Favreau as maître de l’oeuvre (supervising architect) of the cathedral of Troyes.

      Assier, Les arts et les artistes de Troyes. FAVISSA. An underground cellar or reservoir under a Roman temple for the storage either of water, or, more generally, of worn-out and useless sacred implements and furnishings of the temple.

      FEATHER. A. A small projecting member worked along the edge of a board or the like, as in matched boarding. In this sense more commonly Tongue.

      B. Same as Loose Tongue (which see, under Tongue).

      FEATHER BOARD. Any board having a feather edge ; especially, in British usage, the same as Clapboard, A.

      FEATHER BOARDING. Feather-edged boards or clapboards, especially those intended to be applied to the sheathing of wooden buildings, each board overlapping with its thick edge the thin edge of the one below. (See Clapboard ; Feather Edge.)

      FEATHER EDGE. An edge formed by bevelling one or both sides of a slab, board, or the like, wholly or in part, so that they meet in a sharp arris ; or, by extension, a relatively narrow face enclosed between such sloping sides when they approach without meeting.

      FEATHERING. The cusping of tracery ; the elaboration of tracery by means of cusps. The term is not common ; introduced in the early years of mediaeval archæological research, it has been generally replaced by Foliation.

      Double Feathering. The subdivisions of larger cusps by smaller ones. (See Cush ; Tracery.)

      FEATHER WEDGING. (See Foxtail Wedge.)

      FEDERIGHI (DEI TOLOMEI), ANTONIO ; sculptor and architect ; d. 1490.

      He built, about 1460, the Loggia del Papa, at Siena, and also, at Siena, the open chapel near the Palazzo dei Diavoli. He made the beautiful holy water basins at the cathedral. Federighi designed four important compositions in the great mosaic pavement of the cathedral of Siena (see Beccafumi). He was employed in Rome during the pontificate of Pius II. (Pope 1458—1464).

      Müntz, Les arts à la cour des papes ; Geymüller-Stegmann, Die Architectur der Renaissance in Toscana.

      FÉLIBIEN DES AVAUX, ANDRÉ ; architect and writer; b. 1619 ; d. June 11, 1695.

      He was historiographe des bâtiments du roi, and was secretary of the Académie de l’Architecture at its foundation in 1671, and published Entretiens sur la vie et les ouvrages des plus excellents peintres anciens et modernes (Paris, 1885), Les Maisons royales des bords de la Loire (first published in 1874), and other works. His son Jean François succeeded him, and published Recueil historique de la vie et des ouvrages des plus célèbres architectes (12mo, Paris, 1705).

      Lance, Dictionnaire ; Bauchal, Dictionnaire.

      FÉLIBIEN DES AVAUX, JEAN FRANCOIS. (See Félibien des Avaux, André.)

      FELLOWSHIP. A. The position of a Fellow, one of the members of the corporation of a college, or the like.

      B. A kind of scholarship; a foundation or grant as of a certain sum of money paid annually to encourage post-graduate studies or to give opportunity for foreign travel.

      The term in sense A formerly implied life membership and residence in a college, with a share in the revenues and in certain rights of management. As this institution gave opportunities for study the term grew to cover the sense B. In nearly all of the existing architectural fellowships the money allowed is to be expended in foreign travel and study. The oldest existing fellowship in architecture is the Grand Prix de Rome, which was founded by the French Academy of the Fine Arts in 1720, and has been offered continuously ever since. The holders of this prize, which is open only to French citizens, receive a pension from the government of eight hundred dollars per year for four years, and are given commodious quarters, rent free, in the Villa Medici at Rome, where they are expected to reside a greater portion of the time, and to pursue their studies under the immediate guidance of the resident director. Next in importance is the travelling fellowship of the Royal Institute of British Architects, which affords the holder the opportunity for a year’s travel on the Continent. Besides this, several of the European governments have established travelling fellowships for architecture, but none of them are of special note. In the United States there are six architectural foundations, the oldest of which is the Rotch Travelling Scholarship, established and endowed by the heirs of Benjamin S. Rotch in 1883. The holder of this scholarship receives the sum of one thousand dollars per year for two years, during which time he is expected to travel and study in Europe under the advice and direction of a committee appointed by the Boston Society of Architects. A so-called Roman Fellowship was established in 1894, open in competition to graduates in architecture from either Cornell University, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the University of Illinois, Syracuse University, Lehigh University, Columbia University, or the University of Pennsylvania, and to all American students who have spent two years in the École des Beaux Arts. This fellowship provides for eighteen months in foreign travel and study in Italy, Sicily, and Greece, ten months to be spent as a student of the American School at Rome, and the other eight months as may be agreed upon between the fellow and the Executive Committee of the American School of Architecture in Rome. There are two architectural fellowships in New York, both of them in connection with Columbia University, designated as the Columbia and the McKim Fellowships. The former was endowed by Mr. F. A. Schermerhorn, of New York, in 1889, the successful candidate being expected to spend at least one year in foreign study. The second fellowship was endowed by Mr. C. F. McKim, in 1890, with two prizes given out simultaneously every second year, so as to alternate with the awards of the Columbia Fellowship. There is also an architectural fellowship, established in 1893, under the direction of the architectural department of the University of Pennsylvania, the winner of which is required to spend a full year of study abroad. The fellowship idea is being worked out in a somewhat different manner at Cornell University, where a fellowship is awarded each year for two years to encourage post-graduate study. The holder is required to study at the University during eight months of each year, alternating with four months’ travel abroad under the direction of the Department of Architecture. This fellowship has been in existence only since 1898. — C. H. BLACKALL.

      FELT. A material resulting from the compressing or matting together of minute fibres, as of wool or fur, the fibres clinging to each other by their natural roughness or microscopic hooklike protuberances ; therefore, generally, a flexible clothlike stuff made without weaving and without the spinning of threads. The finest felt known to modern times is that made in Persia, where floor cloths an inch or more in thickness, and of considerable size, are made to replace the very costly carpets of the country. These pieces of felt are sometimes richly adorned by the insertion into the surface of fibres of various colours, the whole substance being felted together. In Europe and the United States the architectural use of felt is chiefly limited to the covering of heating pipes, deafening and lining of walls and floors, and the like; the material, being an excellent non-conductor, tends to keep heat in, and thereby aid its safe delivery at a distant point, while at the same time woodwork is protected from ignition. — R. S.

      FENCE. A structure, as of bars, posts, and the like, used to enclose fields, gardens, orchards, etc. The term is generally limited to those in common use in connection with farms and country residences of the common sort. As long as wood is plentiful there is a disposition to enclose and separate all the fields of a farm from one another and from the high road, and fences are of various kinds, as the zigzag, or worm fence, post and rail fence, etc. As wood becomes scarce and dear these disappear, and are replaced, as in England in old times, by hedges ; and as in the newly settled countries and in the present age of cheap metal working, by wire secured to light iron uprights, or by slender strips of steel twisted or not, and sometimes furnished with sharp hooks or barbs at frequent intervals. These common fences have the advantage over hedges in that they do not affect the landscape as much, for the hedge divides a distant hillside into parallelograms much too strongly marked, and, moreover, a hedge 6 feet high will hide miles of country from the eye of a person passing in the road. The wooden fences, moreover, assume a pleasant colour and weather beautifully, while the light iron fence is practically invisible.

      (For fences made of boards set upright, planed, and finished, see Paling.) — R. S.

      FENESTELLA. A. Generally, a small glazed opening in an altar, shrine, or reliquary, to afford a view of the relics it contains.

      B. A small niche on the south side of an altar above a piscina or credence.

      C. Sometimes an opening for a bell at the top of a gable.

      FENESTRAL (n.). A small window, or (in old English usage) a window filled with oiled paper or cloth instead of glass.

      FENESTRAL (adj.). Of, or pertaining to, a window.

      FENESTRATION. A. The arrangement in a building of its windows, especially the more important and larger ones. In this sense fenestration is nearly the same thing as the providing of daylight for the interiors of buildings. (See Lighting.) (Cut, cols. 21, 22.)

      B. The art of adorning or designing architecturally the exterior of a building by the proper arrangement and apportioning of windows and doors considered together as openings in the wall, affording spots of darkness contrasting with the lighted surface of the wall, and also affording convenient spots for concentrating ornamental treatment.

      FERETORY ; FERETRUM. A. A portable shrine or reliquary in a church, to contain relics of saints or martyrs.

      B. A fixed shrine for relies ; or a place in a church reserved for such a shrine.

      FERGUSSON, JAMES, D. C. L., F. R. S. ; writer ou architecture ; b. 1808 at Ayr, Scotland ; d. 1886.

      James Fergusson was educated at the High School in Edinburgh and entered the firm of Fairlie, Fergusson and Company at Calcutta, India. He retired from business later, and devoted himself to archæological study. In 1840 he was elected member of the Royal Asiatic Society, of which, at his death, he was a vice president. In 1857 he was appointed a member of the Royal Commission to inquire into the defences of the United Kingdom. He published The Illustrated Handbook of Architecture (2 vols. 8vo, 1855). This book was revised and published under the title, A History of Architecture in all Countries from the Earliest Times to the Present Day (4 vols. 8vo, 1865-1876). In 1878 he published The Temples of the Jews and the other Buildings in the Haram Area at Jerusalem. The History of the Modern Styles of Architecture appeared in 1862, and a separate History of Eastern and Indian Architecture in 1876. In 1869 Fergusson was appointed secretary to Austin Henry Layard, commissioner of public works, and later inspector of public buildings and monuments. In 1871 he won the gold medal of the Royal Institute of British Architects. He was an active member of several commissions for the decoration of S. Paul’s cathedral.

      Leslie Stephen, Dictionary of National Biography.

      FERLEY. (See Farley.)

      FERME ORNÉE. A farm, and especially the buildings and gardens of a farm, treated in a decorative manner, and generally the residence of a man of means who carries on agriculture, stock-raising, or the like, for his gratification. Such buildings are not to be confounded with farm buildings of the Continent of Europe, or the small manor houses of England of the seventeenth and earlier centuries, although these may be extremely elaborate in their architectural character. Such a farm, as many of those in Normandy and northern France, was the centre of very serious agricultural and moneymaking occupations, but the conditions of the time required defensible buildings, and the spirit of the time required architectural treatment.

      FERNANDEZ, GREGORIO. (See Hernandez, Gregorio.)

      FERNEHAM (FARNHAM), NICHOLAS; bishop.

      The central tower of the old Norman cathedral of Durham was altered by Bishop Ferne-ham about 1241—1249. He constructed a lantern above the main arches.

      FENESTRATION : PALAZZO ANGARONI-MANZONI, GRAND CANAL, VENICE.

      An example of effective design, with many and large openings and little solid wall.

      King, Handbooks of the Cathedrals of England.

      FERSTEL, HEINRICH FREIHERR VON ; architect; b. July 7, 1828; d. July 14, 1883.

      From 1847 to 1851 Ferstel studied in the Architectural School of the Academy of Vienna. In 1855 he won first prize in the competition for the construction of the Votivkirche in Vienna. After travelling in Italy, France, and the Netherlands, he returned to Vienna and finished that building in 1879 in the style of the French cathedrals of the thirteenth century. He built at Vienna the Austro-Hungarian bank, the Austrian Museum for Art and Industry, and the University. In 1856 he was made professor of architecture in the Technische Hochschule (Vienna).

      Meyer, Conversations Lexicon.

      FESTOON. Anything hanging in a natural catenary curve ; especially in classical and neoclassical architecture, the representation of a garland of flowers, fruits, and the like, hanging from two points, heaviest at the middle and lightest at the points of suspension. Such festoons are common in Greco-Roman architecture, the most celebrated instances being those on the frieze of the round temple at Tivoli. They were taken up by the later neoclassic architects and much used in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The avoidance of festoons in all other styles than those named is somewhat remarkable, for the form is naturally a beautiful one and not difficult to compose. The apparent reason is the very artificial character of the bunched masses of leaves, flowers, and fruit which are generally employed; but it is still worthy of inquiry why the natural fall and sweep of branches trained from tree to tree, or of wild vines in the forest, have never suggested anything to the sculptor of ornament. The most

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