Wetland Systems to Control Urban Runoff

2006

Acronyms and Abbreviations

A =coefficient (unknown function of various variables including rainfall intensity and infiltration rate)

ANN =artificial neural network

AS =activated sludge

ATV-DVWK =German abbreviation for German Association for Water, Wastewater and Waste

B =maximum experimental depth (mm) within the infiltration basin during an individual storm

BMP =best management practice (US phrase for SUDS)

BMU =best-matching unit

BOD =biochemical oxygen demand (mg/l); usually five-days at 20°C

BRE =British Research Establishment

C =carbon

CBR =base-based reasoning

CIRIA =(British) Construction Industry Research and Information Association

COD =chemical oxygen demand (mg/l)

CST =capillary suction time (s)

D =infiltration basin design depth (mm)

DO =dissolved oxygen (mg/l or %)

DWF =dry weather flow (m³/s)

ETAAS =Electrothermal Atomic Absorption Spectrometer

GAC =granular activated carbon

GL =guidance level

ICP-OES =Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometer

IR =(empirical) infiltration rate (m/s)

kM =total-roughness

KNN =K-nearest neighbours

MAC =maximum admissible concentration

MASE =mean absolute scaled error

MLSS =mixed liquor suspended solids

MLVSS =mixed liquor volatile suspended solids

N =nitrogen

NTU =Nephelometric Turbidity Unit (similar to FTU)

P =phosphorus

PRAST =Prevalence Rating Approach for SUDS Techniques

QR =quantisation error

R =(mean product moment) correlation coefficient

R² =coefficient of determination

RBC =rotating biological contactor

RBF =radial basis function

SD =standard deviation

SOM =self-organising map

SS =(total) suspended solids (mg/l)

SUDS =sustainable (urban) drainage system

SVM =support vector machine

T (or t) =infiltration time (s) or temperature (°C)

TE =topographic error (usually in %)

TOC =total organic carbon (mg/l)

TS =total solids (mg/l)

UK =United Kingdom

U-matrix =unified distance matrix

USA =United States of America

UV =ultraviolet (light)

WTW =Wissenschaftlich Technische Werkstätten (German company)

Z1 =factor (defined by the BRE method)

Z2 =growth factor (defined by the BRE method)

Chapter 1

Water quality standards

Publisher Summary

The chapter focuses on the water quality standards used for judging the quality of water derived after the treatment process. An evaluation of health risks associated with drinking water is necessary and timely. There are three basic objectives of water treatment, namely, production of water that is safe for human consumption, production of water that is appealing to the customer, and production of water treatment facilities, which can be constructed and operated at a reasonable cost. Standards usually give two values, a guide level (GL) and a maximum admissible concentration (MAC). The GL is the value that is considered satisfactory and constitutes a target value. The MAC is the value that the corresponding concentration in the distributed water must not exceed. Treatment must be provided, where the concentration in the raw water exceeds the MAC. A properly designed plant is not a guarantee of safety of the water and standards regarding them change very often, so plant management must be flexible to ensure continued compliance. Storage and distribution systems need to be accomplished without affecting the quality of the water, and distribution systems should be designed and operated to prevent biological growths, corrosion, and contamination. Standards also specify the methods, frequencies, and nature of the analysis. For total hardness and alkalinity, the standards specify minimum values to be respected when water undergoes softening.

1.1 Introduction and historical aspects

Scientific and public interest in water quality is not new. In the United Kingdom (UK), it probably had its origins in the mid-eighteenth century. In 1828, the editor of Hansard, Mr. John Wright, published anonymously a pamphlet attacking the drinking water quality in London. This led to the setting up of a Royal Commission, which established the principle that water for human consumption should at all times be ‘wholesome’. The term wholesome has been incorporated into virtually every piece of legislation concerned with drinking water ever since.

The first unequivocal demonstration of water-borne transmission of the cholera disease was by Snow in 1854. This stimulated great advances in water treatment practices, in particular the routine application of slow sand filtration and disinfection of public water supplies.

Although the Royal Commission of 1828 was concerned with water quality, it had difficulty in defining it precisely, there being virtually no analytical techniques available at the time with which to determine either microbial or chemical contamination. Consequently, since that time, there has been a continuing and often fierce debate on what constitutes a suitable quality for human drinking water. Not surprisingly, in the nineteenth and early part of the twentieth century, the evaluation was largely based on subjective, usually sensory, perception.

Many authorities (for example, Sir Edwin Chadwick) believed an atmospheric ‘miasma’ above the water, rather than the water itself, was responsible for disease transmission. As a consequence, great efforts were made to remove the smell, assuming that this would dispel the disease. In 1856, during the ‘great stink’, sheets drenched in chemicals were hung from the windows of the Houses of Parliament to exclude the smell. This action did at least focus the minds of the politicians on the need to take action to improve the quality of London’s water supply.

Even today, taste, smell and appearance (colour and turbidity) are considered useful criteria for judging water quality. However, in addition, there are now objective methods for determining the presence and level of many (but by no means all) of the microbial contaminants likely to be present in drinking water.

Since the 1960s, the emphasis regarding drinking water quality has shifted from the bacteriological quality to the identification of chemical contaminants. This reflects largely the very considerable success of the water industry in overcoming bacteriological problems, although this victory is not complete; i.e. many viruses and Cryptosporidium cause public health concerns.

With the great methodological improvements in analytical chemistry over the past 50 years, it was recognised that water contains trace amounts of several thousand chemicals and that only the limitations of analytical techniques restrict the number of chemicals that can be identified. Many of these chemicals are of natural origin, but pesticides, human and veterinary drugs, industrial and domestic chemicals, and various products arising from the transport and treatment of water are very commonly found, albeit normally at very low concentrations.

In addressing the problem of the contribution of water-borne chemicals to the incidence of human disease, water scientists, whose previous experience has typically been confined to microbiological problems, have tended to focus on acute risks. The absence of detectable short-term adverse effects of drinking water has been taken by many as conclusive evidence that the presence of such chemicals is without risk to man.

While information on the acute toxicity of a chemical can be very useful in determining the response to an emergency situation such as an accidental spillage or deliberate release of chemicals into a watercourse or even into the water supply, such information is of little use in predicting the effects of daily exposure to a chemical over many years.

However, low levels of chemicals are much more likely to cause chronic than acute effects to health. Here, direct reliable information is very sparse. Some authorities appear to have accepted the ‘naïve’ assumption that information on the acute effects of a chemical, in either man or experimental animals, can be used to predict the effects of being exposed over a lifetime. In practice, the chronic effects of a chemical have rarely any resemblance to the acute effects.

An evaluation of health risks associated with drinking water is necessary and timely. If we are to obtain a proper assessment of the health risk that could arise in humans through exposure to chemicals in water over a lifetime, understanding must be developed on the following:

• Identification of the chemicals, which are of most concern;

• Data on the effects of long-term exposure in humans and/or animals to each chemical;

• A measure of the extent and form of exposure to each chemical;

• Identification of particularly at-risk groups; and

• The means of establishing how exposure to other chemicals in the water can modify the toxicity.

1.2 Water quality standards and treatment objectives

It is commonly agreed that there are three basic objectives of water treatment, namely:

(1) Production of water that is safe for human consumption;

(2) Production of water that is appealing to the customer; and

(3) Production of water treatment facilities, which can be constructed and operated at a reasonable cost.

The first of these objectives implies that the water is biologically safe for human consumption. It has already been shown how difficult it is to determine what ‘safe’ actually means in practice. A properly designed plant is not a guarantee of safety, standards will change and plant management must be flexible to ensure continued compliance.

The second basic objective of water treatment is the production of water that is appealing to the customer. Ideally, an appealing water is one that is clear and colourless, pleasant to taste, odourless and cool. It should be non-staining, noncorrosive, non-scale forming and reasonably soft. The consumer is principally interested in the quality of the water delivered to the tap, not the quality at the treatment plant. Therefore, storage and distribution need to be accomplished without affecting the quality of the water; i.e. distribution systems should be designed and operated to prevent biological growths, corrosion and contamination.

The third basic objective of water treatment is that it can be accomplished using facilities with reasonable capital and operating costs. Various alternatives in plant design should be evaluated for cost-effectiveness and water quality produced.

The objectives outlined need to be converted into standards so that proper quality control measures can be used. There are various drinking water standards. The key variables are as follows:

• Organoleptic parameters: colour, turbidity, odour and taste.

• Physical-chemical parameters: temperature, pH, conductivity, dissolved oxygen, dissolved solids, chlorides, sulphate, aluminium, potassium, silica, calcium, magnesium, sodium, alkalinity, hardness, and free carbon dioxide (CO2).

• Parameters concerning undesirable substances: nitrate, ammonium, total organic carbon (TOC), hydrogen sulphide, phenols, dissolved hydrocarbons, iron, manganese, suspended solids, and chlorinated organic compounds other than pesticides.

• Parameters concerning toxic substances such as arsenic, mercury, lead and pesticides.

• Microbiological parameters: total coliforms, faecal coliforms, faecal streptococci, sulphite reducing clostridium and total bacterial count.

Standards usually give two values: a guide level (GL) and a maximum admissible concentration (MAC). The GL is the value that is considered satisfactory and constitutes a target value. The MAC is the value that the corresponding concentration in the distributed water must not exceed. Treatment must be provided, where the concentration in the raw water exceeds the MAC.

Standards also specify the methods, frequencies and nature of the analysis. For total hardness and alkalinity, the standards specify minimum values to be respected when water undergoes softening.

Most standards group substances into five categories, namely:

(1) Microbiological;

(2) Inorganic with consequences on health;

(3) Organic with consequences on health;

(4) Appearance; and

(5) Radioactive components.

1.3 Some thoughts on the standards

One of the main sources of confusion regarding water standards and their interpretation is the lack of any clear indication as to how the standard was derived. This results in the interpretation of all standards as ‘health standards’ by the public, and subsequently in the difficulty of assessing what should be done by the water supplier, if a threshold is exceeded.

This is particularly true of drinking water quality directives as insufficient explanation of the derivation of the actual numbers is often given. There are even thresholds for variables regarded as toxic, which are based on political or other considerations, and are therefore only loosely based on science (e.g., pesticides). The use of such approaches is acceptable as long as the reasoning behind them is clear to all.

International guidelines are usually intended to enable governments to use them as a basis for standards, taking into account local conditions. They are intended to be protective of public health and they should be absolutely clear, even down to the detailed scientific considerations such as derivation of uncertainty factors and the rounding of numbers. It is therefore incumbent on the expert groups to justify their thinking and present it openly for all to see. Such a discipline avoids the ‘fudging’ of issues while giving the impression of scientific precision, and can only be of value in increasing public confidence in the resulting guidelines. It is clear that at present, standards for water quality are as follows:

• Loosely based on science (though the situation is improving);

• Not static (the science of monitoring as well as our understanding of the health implications of chronic exposure of many contaminants is improving); and

• Important in the quality control of potable water (both for supplier and consumer).

Concerning the outflow water quality of most wetland systems, standards are either unclear or are currently being developed. The local environment regulator usually sets standards for specific wetland system applications.

Chapter 2

Water treatment

Publisher Summary

The source of raw water has an enormous influence on the water chemistry and consequently its treatment. Usually, raw water is abstracted from boreholes extracting groundwater, rivers, natural lakes, and man-made lakes and reservoirs. Screens are applied to remove solid floating objects, which may cause damage or blockage in the plant in the raw water. Sometimes a much finer screening is carried out, called straining, which is usually performed on lake and reservoir water to remove algae. A coagulant is added to the raw water to de-stabilize the colloidal material in the water. The most commonly used chemicals for this purpose include alum (aluminum sulphate) Al2(SO4)3·nH2O; ferric chloride (FeCl3), and ferrous sulphate (copperas) FeSO4·7H2O. To make the coagulant function efficiently, it must be rapidly and uniformly mixed through the raw water, which usually takes place in a high shear (turbulent) environment such as, one induced by a hydraulic jump (low cost option), pump, jet mixer, or propeller mixer. To remove either solids carried over from settling tanks and/or any uncoagulated material (organic or inorganic), a sand bed filter is used. The water flows downwards through the bed and the impurities are removed by attachment to the sand grains. Sometimes fluoride is added to the water to reduce the incidence of dental caries, and in the USA and UK, chlorine is usually added to the water to disinfect it.

2.1 Sources of water

The source of raw water has an enormous influence on the water chemistry and consequently its treatment. Raw water is commonly abstracted from one of the four sources:

1. Boreholes extracting groundwater: This water is usually bacteriologically safe as well as being aesthetically acceptable. It may require some treatment such as aeration or softening.

2. Rivers: Water can be abstracted at any point along the length of a river; however, the further downstream, the more likely the water to require considerable treatment.

3. Natural lakes: The degree of treatment required for lake water depends on a number of factors such as the catchment use in the immediate vicinity of the lake, the lake trophic status, and the presence of sewage treatment works.

4. Man-made lakes and reservoirs: These are similar to lakes and rivers, but better managed. The degree of treatment depends on the management of the catchment and upstream catchment usage.

Water for domestic consumption may also come from other sources such as sea water (desalination) or treated sewage effluents.

2.2 Standard water treatment

The purpose of screens is simply to remove solid floating objects, which may cause damage or blockage in the plant in the raw water; e.g., logs and twigs. Sometimes a much finer screening is carried out, called straining. This is usually performed on lake and reservoir water to remove algae.

A coagulant is added to the raw water to de-stabilise the colloidal material in the water (Chapter 9). Commonly used chemicals are:

• Alum (aluminium sulphate) Al2(SO4)3•nH2O;

• Ferric chloride FeCl3;

• Ferrous sulphate (copperas) FeSO4•7H2O;

• Lime (burnt CaO; slaked Ca(OH)2); and

• Polyelectrolytes (long chain organic molecules normally used in conjunction with a conventional coagulant).

In order for the coagulant to function efficiently, it must be rapidly and uniformly mixed through the raw water. This usually takes place in a high shear (turbulent) environment such as one induced by a hydraulic jump (low cost option), pump, jet mixer or propeller mixer.

After the coagulant is uniformly distributed in the water, it requires time to react with the colloid, and then further time (and gentle agitation) to promote the growth (agglomeration) of settleable material (flocs). This is generally accomplished in either a tank with paddles (mechanical mixing) or through a serpentine baffled tank (hydraulic mixing). Once flows of a settleable size have formed, they are removed usually by sedimentation (sometimes by floatation).

In the UK and Ireland, developments in the 1940s led to the introduction of the sludge blanket clarifier (Chapter 10). This is a single unit which encompasses rapid mixing, flocculation and settling.

In order to remove either solids carried over from settling tanks and/or any uncoagulated material (organic or inorganic), a sand bed filter is provided. The water flows downwards through the bed and the impurities are removed by attachment to the sand grains. The sand grains therefore require periodic cleaning. The frequency of cleaning depends on the type of filter used. The two commonly used types are the following (Chapters 12 and 13):

• Rapid gravity sand filter (high loading rate); and

• Slow sand filter (loading rate is approximately one-tenth of that for rapid gravity sand filter).

Sometimes fluoride is added to the water to reduce the incidence of dental caries. This is a process which provokes public debate. In the USA and UK, chlorine is usually added to the water to disinfect it (Chapter 22). It follows that the water is bacteriologically safe when it leaves the treatment works, and excess chlorine is added to protect the water from contamination during the distribution process.

or OH−) and the cation (Ca²+ or Mg²+).

2.3 Basic water chemistry

) ions. The relative quantities of each are a function of pH.

No significant concentration of hydroxyl ions exists below pH 10, and no significant carbonate concentration can be detected below pH 8.5. For most waters, alkalinity thus consists of the bicarbonate ion. The other species may be formed in the treatment process. The bicarbonate and carbonate ions in the water result from the dissolution of carbonate rocks.

The pH is a measure of the free hydrogen ion concentration in water. Water, and other chemicals in solution, will ionise to a greater or lesser degree. The ionisation reaction is given in Eq. (2.3.1).

(2.3.1)

In neutral solutions, the [OH−] activity is equal to the [H+] activity. Hence the pH and pOH are both equal, and have the numerical value of 7. An increase in acidity, for example, leads to higher values of [H+], thus lowering the pH.

The various chemical reactions, which occur in natural waters and in process water, are generally considered to occur in dilute solutions. This permits the use of simplified equilibrium equations in which molar concentrations are considered to be equal to chemical activities.

The assumption of dilute conditions is not always justified, but the error introduced by the simplification is no greater than the error, which might be introduced by competing reactions with species that are not normally measured in water treatment.

Concentrations of different chemical species in water may be expressed in moles per litre, in equivalents per litre or in mass per unit volume (typically mg/l). The equivalent of a species is its molecular weight divided by the net valence or by the net change in valence in the case of oxidation and reduction