An Introduction To Solar Radiation

presentation.

Chapter 1

SUN–EARTH ASTRONOMICAL RELATIONSHIPS

Publisher Summary

This chapter discusses the motion of the earth around sun and around its polar axis, the angle between the earth’s equator and the plane containing the sun–earth orbital system. It presents the trigonometric equations relating the position of the sun to a horizontal or an inclined surface. The chapter focuses on the relevant astronomical relationships that do not require a prior knowledge of solar radiation. The earth revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit with the sun at one of the foci. The amount of solar radiation reaching the earth is inversely proportional to the square of its distance from the sun. Solar time is based on the rotation of the earth about its polar axis and on its revolution around the sun. A solar day is the interval of time as the sun appears to complete one cycle about a stationary observer on earth. The solar day varies in length through the year. The chapter presents an overview of the calculation of the sun–earth distance, declination, and the equation of time.

1.1 Introduction

This book begins by considering the motion of the earth around the sun, the motion of the earth around its polar axis, and the angle between the earth’s equator and the plane containing the sun‐earth orbital system. Trigonometric equations relating the position of the sun to a horizontal or an inclined surface are presented. The main objective, however, is to write down the relevant astronomical relationships that do not require a priori knowledge of solar radiation.

1.2 Sun‐Earth Distance r

The earth revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit with the sun at one of the foci (Fig. 1.2.1). The amount of solar radiation reaching the earth is inversely proportional to the square of its distance from the sun; an accurate value of the sun‐earth distance is, therefore, important. The mean sun‐earth distance ro is called one astronomical unit:

Figure 1.2.1 Motion of the earth around the sun.

or, more accurately, 149 597 890 ± 500 km.¹ The minimum sun‐earth distance is about 0.983 AU, and the maximum approximately 1.017 AU. The earth is at its closest point to the sun (perihelion) on approximately 3 January and at its farthest point (aphelion) on approximately 4 July. The earth is at its mean distance from the sun on approximately 4 April and 5 October. In long-term cycles, these distances are influenced, however slightly, by other heavenly bodies and the leap year cycle. However, the sun‐earth distance r for any day of any year is known with considerable accuracy. For precise information on a particular year, an ephemeris should be consulted, such as the American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac, published each year by the U.S. Naval Observatory.

It is more desirable, however, to have this distance expressed in a simple mathematical form: for this purpose, a number of mathematical expressions of varying complexities are available. Traditionally, the distance r is expressed in terms of a Fourier series type of expansion with a number of coefficients. With a maximum error of 0.0001, Spencer [1] developed the following expression for the reciprocal of the square of the radius vector of the earth, here called the eccentricity correction factor of the earth’s orbit, E0:

(1.2.1)

In this equation, Γ, in radians, is called the day angle. It is represented by

(1.2.2)

where dn is the day number of the year, ranging from 1 on 1 January to 365 on 31 December.² February is always assumed to have 28 days; because of the leap year cycle, the accuracy of Eq. (1.2.1) will vary slightly. For most engineering and technological applications, however, a very simple expression,

(1.2.3)

used by Duffie and Beckman [2] may be employed. A comparison of Eq. (1.2.3) with the Almanac values has shown that this equation can be safely employed for most engineering calculations. For greater accuracy and for use in digital machines, Eq. (1.2.1) is preferred. For individual calculations, Table 1.2.1 lists the eccentricity correction factor E0 for all days of the calendar year.

Table 1.2.1

Eccentricity Correction Factor E0 = (r0/r)²for Each Day of the Yeara

aCalculated from Eq. (1.2.1).

EXAMPLE 1.2.1

Calculation of the sun‐earth distance r on 16 October.

Solution

On October 16 the day number dn = 289 and the day angle Γ = 2π(288)/365 = 4.958 rad or Γ = 284.16°.

From Eq. (1.2.1)

Therefore, r = 0.9968 AU.

From Eq. (1.2.3)

or

1.3 Solar Declination δ

The plane of revolution of the earth around the sun is called the ecliptic plane. The earth itself rotates around an axis called the polar axis, which is inclined at approximately 23½° from the normal to the ecliptic plane (Fig. 1.2.1. The earth’s rotation around its axis causes the diurnal changes in radiation income; the position of this axis relative to the sun causes seasonal changes in solar radiation. The angle between the polar axis and the normal to the ecliptic plane, however, remains unchanged. The same is true of the angle between the earth’s equatorial plane and the ecliptic plane. However, the angle between a line joining the centers of the sun and the earth to the equatorial plane changes every day, in fact, every instant. This angle is called the solar declination δ. It is zero at the vernal and autumnal equinoxes (literally, equal nights) and has a value of approximately + 23½° at the summer solstice and about — 23½° at the winter solstice. The four seasons pertain here to the northern hemisphere; the reverse is true in the southern hemisphere.

The actual dates of the equinoxes and solstices vary slightly from year to year. Because of this, one encounters slightly different dates for when the earth is in these four principal positions.

Another means of describing the solar declination is by drawing a celestial sphere with the earth at the center and the sun revolving around the earth (Fig. 1.3.1). In the celestial sphere, the celestial poles are the points at which the earth’s polar axis, when produced, cuts the celestial sphere. Similarly, the celestial equator is an outward projection of the earth’s equatorial plane on the celestial sphere. The intersection of the plane of the earth’s equator with the plane of the sun’s revolution, the ecliptic, makes an angle of approximately 23½°. At any given time, the position of the sun relative to the plane of the celestial equator describes the declination angle. The main variations in the declination are due to the leap year cycle: during this four‐year period, the declination may vary from the order of ± 10′ at the equinoxes to less than 1′ at the solstices [1].

Figure 1.3.1 Celestial sphere showing apparent path of sun and sun’s declination angle.

In 24 h, the maximum change in declination (which occurs at the equinoxes) is less than ½°. Therefore, if the declination is assumed constant for 24 h, a maximum error of ½° may occur in calculating the solar azimuth and zenith angles (to be described later). To obtain an accurate value of solar declination, an ephermeris should again be consulted. Expressions giving the approximate values of solar declination with varying degrees of accuracy have been developed by a number of authors. Spencer [1] presented the following expression for δ, in degrees:

(1.3.1)

This equation estimates δ with a maximum error of 0.0006 rad (< 3′) or, if the final two terms are omitted, with a maximum error of 0.0035 rad (12′).

Two other simple and commonly used formulas for declination are

(1.3.2)

obtained from Perrin de Brichambaut [4] and

(1.3.3)

from Cooper [5].

The two simpler equations are in fact quite accurate. However, for greater accuracy and for use in digital machines, Eq. (1.3.1) is preferred. To facilitate rapid calculations for individual days, the values of the declination for all calendar days are given in Table 1.3.1.

Table 1.3.1

Declination for Each Day of the Yeara

aCalculated from Eq. (1.3.1).

EXAMPLE 1.3.1

Calculation of the solar declination on 16 October.

Solution

From Example 1.2.1, the day angle Γ = 284.16°.

From Eq. (1.3.1) the declination δ is

From Eq. (1.3.2)

From Eq. (1.3.3)

1.4 Equation of Time Et

Solar time is based on the rotation of the earth about its polar axis and on its revolution around the sun. A solar day is the interval of time (not necessarily 24 h) as the sun appears to complete one cycle about a stationary observer on earth. The solar day varies in length through the year. The two principal factors for this variance are the following: (1) the earth sweeps out unequal areas on the ecliptic plane as it revolves around the sun, and (2) the earth’s axis is tilted with respect to the ecliptic plane. In simple terms, this means that if an observer facing the equator today sets a clock (running at a uniform rate) at 12 noon, when the sun is directly over the local meridian, then after a month or so at 12 noon, clock time, the sun may not appear exactly over the local meridian. A discrepancy of as much as 16 min is possible. This discrepancy is called the equation of time and is measured relative to a perfectly uniform terrestrial motion. Again from Spencer [1], the following series gives the equation of time (in minutes):

(1.4.1)

In this equation, the first right‐hand‐side term in parentheses represents Et in radians and the multiplier 229.18 converts it into minutes. The maximum error³ with this series is 0.0025 rad, equivalent to about 35 sec. For less accurate calculations, the equation of time in minutes may be obtained from Fig. 1.4.1.

Figure 1.4.1 The yearly variation of the equation of time.

Solar radiation data are often recorded in terms of local apparent time (LAT), also called true solar time (TST). On the other hand, some meteorological data such as temperature and wind speed are often recorded in terms of local clock time, which may be local standard time or daylight saving time. In many solar energy studies, it is usually necessary to obtain the radiation, temperature, and wind velocity data for the same instant or duration. Therefore, it is desirable to convert local standard time to local apparent time. It is necessary to add that it is not uncommon, as in the radiation network of the United States, for hourly or instantaneous data to be recorded against the local standard time. In order to compute the incidence angles, it is necessary to determine the corresponding local apparent time. To carry out this conversion, it is necessary to know the standard meridian for the local time zone. All international standard meridians are multiples of 15° east or west of Greenwich, England. Therefore, all standard times are hour multiples ahead of or behind the Greenwich mean time (GMT). The standard meridians for North and South America and Hawaii are given in Table 1.4.1. It may be added here that, although all international zone times are multiples of a whole hour ahead of or behind GMT, it is not uncommon to find standards with a half‐hour time difference. For instance, Newfoundland standard time is a half hour ahead of Atlantic standard time, and consequently its standard meridian is 52½° W.

Table 1.4.1

International Zone Times for Several North and South American Time Zones

Local apparent time for a given standard time can now be written

(1.4.2)

where Ls is the standard longitude and Le is the local longitude. The longitude correction, 4 min for every degree, accounts for the difference between the local and the standard meridians. It should be noted that the longitude correction is positive if the local meridian is east of the standard and is negative west of the standard meridian. The value of the equation of time Et is added algebraically; it may be positive or negative. The correction for daylight saving time can be made