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    Concise Dictionary of Mathematics
    Concise Dictionary of Mathematics
    Concise Dictionary of Mathematics
    Ebook651 pages9 hours

    Concise Dictionary of Mathematics

    By EDITORIAL BOARD

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    About this ebook

    Remarkable progress continues to be made in mathematical sciences. This advancement has made inter-relationships amongst various branches within mathematics and with other branches of science highly evolving; leading to newer 'terms' being invented and getting added. These additions make mathematics a little more complex. Emerging complexity translates into more difficulties for students in grasping the problem. And what makes the comprehension problematic? It is the introduction of 'terms', their definition and how to apply them in physical, chemical, biological, biotechnology, and social sciences works. And if these terms are not adequately explained, students and other interested readers face a herculean task in understanding what the question is all about, and unless readers clearly understand the terminology, finding a solution is next to impossible.

    This book contains mathematical terms related to arithmetic, algebra, trigonometry, geometry, analytic geometry, differential & integral calculus and differential equations, probability, statistics, logic etc.

    Appendices in the form of important formulas from algebra, geometry, trigonometry, calculus, logarithms and antilogarithms have been added. A few entries contain cross references indicating where to find further applications of the topic under discussion.

    It is an ideal manual for mathematics complete with illustrative diagrams and formulas. Inclusion of Greek Alphabets, metric systems and other useful mathematical symbols in the book helps make the dictionary a complete mathematical reference tool.

    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherV&S Publishers
    Release dateJun 1, 2015
    ISBN9789350574140
    Concise Dictionary of Mathematics

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      Concise Dictionary of Mathematics - EDITORIAL BOARD

      dictionary.

      Introduction

      Mathematics is a subject of abstract reasoning. At first, it may appear frightening; but learning about properties of mathematics can help a reader appreciate its practical usefulness in solving problems associated with physics, biotechnology, bioinformatics, statistics, and astronomy through symbolic formulas expressing complicated ideas within a few lines.

      Imagine you are going to build a bridge, or a stereo, or even a bookshelf. In each case you need to have a plan first, before beginning to build. During the stage of planning you will be required to develop a model in an abstract form of the finished object. When you are developing a model, you are doing mathematics. And to do mathes, you must be clear about the terms used theirin. This book will help you how to use the terms.

      The book puts together in one volume all reference information that is valuable for students of mathematics and for persons with careers that use mathematics frequently. It also covers mathematical terms that are used by students who are studying in secondary schools and colleges.

      History of Mathematics

      Like every invention made by man since times immemorial, mathematics has its origin, and like every technology, mathematics too has its origin based upon needs of mankind. A particular need for invention arises from the wants of society; more complex the society, the more complex the needs. The primitive tribe had little mathematical needs beyond counting. The modern society intent on building great temples, mustering conquering armies, or managing large capital assets has logistical problems that demand mathematics to solve. Launching a satellite requires another kind of computations.

      The study of mathematics as a subject in its own right began in the 6th century BC with the Pythagoreans, who coined the term mathematics from the ancient Greek word, meaning ‘subject of instruction’. Greek mathematicians refined the methods through the introduction of deductive reasoning and proofs. Chinese mathematics made early contributions, including a place value system. The Hindu-Arabic numeral system and the rules of its operations, in use throughout the world today, evolved in the first millennium in India and thereafter transmitted to the west via Islamic mathematics. Many Greek and Arabic texts on mathematics were translated into Latin. Beginning in Europe in the 16th century, new mathematical developments, interacting with new scientific discoveries, were made that continues through the present day.

      Contribution by India

      The ‘zero’ was known to the ancient Indians and this knowledge spread from India to other cultures. The symbols for nine numerals and a symbol for zero were well- established by the fifth century AD. The decimal system is also believed to have originated in India. Two Arab mathematicians named Al Khawarizmi and Al-Nasavi in 825 AD and 1025 AD respectively refered to the decimal system as ta-rikh ai- Hindi and al-amal al-Hindi.

      Vedic Mathematics is the ancient system of Indian mathematics which was rediscovered from the Vedas between 1911 and 1918 by Sri Bharati Krsna Tirthaji (1884-1960). According to him all of mathematics is based on sixteen Sutras, or word-formulae. For example, ‘Vertically and Crosswise’ is one of these Sutras. These formulae describe the way the mind naturally works and are, therefore, a great help in directing the student to the appropriate method of solution.

      Important Contributors

      Aryabhata (476-529) - great Indian mathematician wrote the Aryabhatiya, which apart from discussing astronomy, laid down procedures of arithmetic, geometry, algebra and trigonometry. He calculated the value of Pi at 3.1416 and covered subjects like numerical squares and cube roots. Aryabhata is credited with the emergence of trigonometry through sine functions.

      Srinivas Ramanujan (1887-1920) developed the formula for partitioning any natural number, expressing an integer as the sum of squares, cubes, or higher powers.

      Varahamihira (505-668) worked on Hindu astronomy before Aryabhata. He wrote manuals, which refer to the addition and subtraction of zero.

      Pythagoras of Samos (570 -495 BC), a Greek mathematician - Pythagoras is considered by some to be one of the first great mathematicians. He is credited with the Pythagorean Theorem within trigonometry.

      Sir Isaac Newton (1643 -1727) was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer and theologian, who is considered to be the greatest scientist ever lived. Apart from describing laws of universal gravitation and three laws of motion, in mathematics, he is credited with Gottfried Leibniz for the development of differential and integral calculus. He developed binomial theorem, method for approximating the roots of a function, power series and infinite series.

      Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646 - 1716) was a German mathematician, and logician who is probably most well known for having invented the differential and integral calculus (many formulas independently of Newton).

      Euclid lived around 300BC and he is considered the Father of Geometry and his magnum opus: Elements, is one the greatest mathematical works in history, with its being in use in education up until the 20th century.

      Apart from the above, there are many, such as, Leonhard Euler, Carl Friedrich Gauss, Bernhard Riemann, Rene Descartes, Alan Turing, Leonardo Pisano Blgollo, and Andrew Wiles whose contributions have immensely benefitted the development of modern day mathematics.

      Branches of Mathematics

      Given below are some of the general subjects that form necessary components of mathematics:

      Arithmetic: the properties of numbers and the four basic operations: addition, subtraction, multiplication, division.

      Algebra: the first step to abstract symbolic reasoning. In algebra we study operations with the help of symbols (usually letters) that stand for numbers. This makes it possible to develop many general results. It also saves work because it is possible to derive symbolic formulas that will work for whatever numbers you put in; this saves time from having to determine the solution each time one or more numbers are changed.

      Geometry: the study of shapes - lines, angles, triangles, circles. Geometry is important because it is an example of a rigorous logical system where theorems are proved on the basis of postulates and previously proved hypotheses and theorems.

      Analytic Geometry: it is an area of study where algebra and geometry come together as algebraic formulas; and are used to describe geometric shapes.

      Trigonometry: the study of triangles, but involves much more. Trigonometry is based on six functions defined in terms of the sides of right angles (sine, cosine, tangent, secant, cosecant, and cotangent) but then it undergoes many twists and turns. For example, oscillating phenomena such as pendulums, springs, waves- water, light, sound, and electronic circuits can all be explained in terms of trigonometric functions.

      Calculus: involves the study of rates of change. For example: how much does one value change when another value changes? How steep is a slope? How fast does an object move? Problems like these can be solved by calculating the derivative, which also helps to answer the question: what is the highest or lowest value? Similarly, the process can be reversed to calculate an integral. Integrals can also be used to calculate areas, volumes, arc lengths, and other quantities. This dictionary covers the calculus of one variable as also multi-variable calculus, such as partial derivatives and integrals of higher orders.

      Statistics and Probability: the study of random occurrences, chance phenomena, and how that study can be applied to determine the probability of a thing or an incident happening.

      Logic: the study of reasoning.

      Matrices and Vectors: study of vectors helps one to learn about quantities that have both magnitude and direction; how a table of numbers can be used to find the solution to an equation system with many variables.

      Apart from the above, a few other topics have also been briefly mentioned in the books because they are important elements of mathematics in everyday use, such as, banking, interest, profit & loss, interactive shapes, partnership, stock capital, true discount, surds and indices.

      In addition, references to several mathematicians who have made major contributions are included.

      The Appendices include formulas from algebra, geometry, trigonometry, integral and differential calculus, logarithms and antilogarithms. Important theorems, such as the Pythagorean Theorem and the quadratic formula, are included. A few entries contain cross references indicating where to find further applications of the topic under discussion. A list of Greek Alphabets, metric systems and other mathematical symbols given in the book help make the dictionary a complete mathematical reference tool for anyone needing application of mathematics to arrive at a solution.

      Addition Table

      Addition Table

      Addition is a mathematical operation that represents combining collections of objects together into a larger collection. It is signified by the plus sign (+). For example, in the picture below, there are 3 + 2 apples—meaning three apples and two other apples— which is the same as five apples. Therefore, 3 + 2 = 5. Besides counting fruits, addition can also represent combining other physical and abstract quantities using different kinds of numbers: negative numbers, fractions, irrational numbers, vectors, decimals and more.

      3 + 2 = 5 with apples, a popular choice in textbooks.

      Example:

      Notation

      Addition is written using the plus sign + between the terms; that is, in infix notation. The result is expressed with an equals sign. For example,

      1 + 1 = 2

      (verbally, one plus one equals two)

      2 + 2 = 4

      (verbally, two plus two equals four )

      5 + 4 + 2 = 11

      3 + 3 + 3 + 3 = 12

      There are also situations where addition is understood even though no symbol appears:

      1. A column of numbers, with the last number in the column underlined, usually indicates that the numbers in the column are to be added, with the sum written below the underlined number.

      2. A whole number followed immediately by a fraction indicates the sum of the two, called a mixed number.

      Age

      Odd Days

      We are supposed to find the day of the week on a given date. For this, we use the concept of ‘odd days’. In a given period, the number of days more than the complete weeks are called odd days.

      Leap Year

      (i) Every year divisible by 4 is a leap year, if it is not a century.

      (ii) Every 4th century is a leap year and no other century is a leap year.

      Note: A leap year has 366 days. Examples:

      i.  Each of the years 1948, 2004, 1676 etc. is a leap year.

      ii. Each of the years 400, 800, 1200, 1600, 2000 etc. is a leap year.

      iii. None of the years 2001, 2002, 2003, 2005, 1800, 2100 is a leap year.

      Ordinary Year

      The year which is not a leap year is called an ordinary years. An ordinary year has 365 days.

      Counting of Odd Days

      1. 1 ordinary year = 365 days = (52 weeks + 1 day.)

      .•. 1 ordinary year has 1 odd day.

      2. 1 leap year = 366 days = (52 weeks + 2 days)

      .•. 1 leap year has 2 odd days.

      3. 100 years = 76 ordinary years + 24 leap years

      = (76 x 1 + 24 x 2) odd days = 124 odd days.

      = (17 weeks + days) ° 5 odd days.

      .•. Number of odd days in 100 years = 5.

      Number of odd days in 200 years = (5 x 2) ° 3 odd days.

      Number of odd days in 300 years = (5 x 3) ° 1 odd day.

      Number of odd days in 400 years = (5 x 4 + 1) ° 0 odd day.

      Similarly, each one of 800 years, 1200 years, 1600 years, 2000 years etc. has 0 odd days.

      Day of the Week Related to Odd Days

      No. of days: 0     1     2     3     4     5     6

      Day:             S     M   T    W    T     F     S

      Algebra

      Absolute Value

      The absolute value of a number is the distance the number is from the zero point on the number line. The absolute value of a number or an expression is always greater than or equal to zero (i.e. nonnegative).

      Adding Integers

      To ADD integers with the same sign, add their absolute values. Give the result the same sign as the integers. To ADD integers with different signs, SUBTRACT the lesser absolute value from the greater absolute value. Give the result the same sign as the integer with the greater absolute value.

      Addition

      a mathematical process is to combine numbers and/or variables into an equivalent quantity, number or algebraic expression

      Addition (and Subtraction)

      Property for Inequality

      For all numbers a, b, and c, the following are true:

      1. If a > b, then a + c > b + c and a - c > b - c

      2. If a < b, then a + c < b + c and a - c < b - c

      In words, if the same number or expression is added or subtracted from both sides of a true inequality, the new inequality is also true.

      Additive Inverse for Arithmetic

      The opposite of a given number. Change the sign of a number to have its additive inverse. The sum of a number and its additive inverse is always zero.

      Additive Inverse Property

      For every number a, a + (-a) = 0 e.g.

      5 + ? = 0       5 + (-5) = 0

      -17 + ? = 0     -17 + 17 = 0

      In words, if the opposite of a number is added to the original number, the sum is equal to zero.

      Additive Property of Equality

      This property allows us to add equals to equals to stay equal. Given two equal values, we may add the same quantity to both values and retain an equality.

      Additive Identity Property

      For any number a,

      a + 0 = 0 + a

      In words, adding zero to a number leaves the number unchanged, hence the identical number.

      Algebra

      A language that helps translate real- life situations into mathematical form so that we can analyze change and answer the question What if?

      Algebraic Expression

      An expression consisting of one or more numbers and variables along with one or more arithmetic operations.

      Arithmetic

      A branch of mathematics built upon the basic operations of addition, subtraction, division, and multiplication. Powers, roots, and logarithms are often considered arithmetic in nature.

      Arithmetic Operation

      a mathematical process of addition, subtraction, multiplication or division.

      Associative Law of Addition

      Provides that addition of groups of terms or values is indifferent to the order of grouping. We may add terms in any order, or group them in any order.

      Associative Law of Multiplication

      Provides that multiplication of groups of terms or factors is indifferent to the order of grouping. We may multiply factors in any order, or group them in any order.

      Axes

      Two perpendicular number lines that are used to locate points in a coordinate plane. By convention, the x-axis is the horizontal line and the y-axis is the vertical line.

      Best-Fit Line

      A line drawn so it is close to most or all of the data points in a graph.

      A best-fit line is described as strong or weak depending on how close the data points are on average.

      Beta

      Beta is the second letter of the Greek alphabet.

      Binomial

      The sum of two monomials.

      Boundary

      A boundary line of an inequality is a line that separates the coordinate plane into half-planes.

      Braces

      Braces act just like parentheses. Always (almost) used in pairs, braces look like this: { }.

      Brackets

      Brackets act just like parentheses, coming in pairs to group data or terms.

      Cardinal Number

      The number of objects or elements within a set is the Cardinal Number of the set.

      Closed Function

      In convex analysis, this is where its epigraph is a closed set. (If f is concave, it is its hypograph that must be closed.)

      Cluster Sampling

      A multi-stage sampling scheme in which the population is first divided into clusters, then a sample of these clusters is chosen via simple random sampling, and then a simple random sample of population elements is selected within the chosen clusters. This differs from stratified sampling in that in stratified sampling, all strata are sampled, whereas in cluster sampling we take a sample of clusters, not all clusters. Cluster sampling is used when it is difficult to construct a sampling frame for the entire population, or when it is too costly to visit randomly chosen population elements.

      Coefficient

      The numerical factor in a term. In the term 4x, 4 is the coefficient. In the term 4x/5 ; 4/5 is the coefficient. Note that 4x/5 can also be written as (4/5)x.

      Column Generation

      This pertains to solving a linear program whose columns are generated during pricing. Typically, the number of columns is astronomically large, possibly infinite. An example is when solving the randomized program, as with the Generalized Lagrange Multiplier method. In that case, column generation consists of maximizing the Lagrangian. A similar view applies to Dantzig-Wolfe decomposition. From the dual view, this is a cutting plane method since generating a column in the primal corresponds to generating a constraint in the dual. The concept applies to any mathematical program, and the randomized program model highlights the duality and how a completely general mathematical program can be considered with (generalized) linear programming.

      Commutative Law of Addition

      When adding terms the order in which we add them matters not at all.

      Commutative Law of Multiplication

      The order in which we multiply any number of factors (to obtain the product of those factors) matters not at all.

      Compact Formulation

      In integer programming, this refers to having a polynomial number of constraints. For example, look at the travelling salesman formulations. The linear form has an exponential number of subtour elimination consgtraints, so it is not compact. The quadratic assignment formulation is compact.

      Complex Fraction

      A fraction that has one or more fractions in the numerator or denominator.

      Complexity

      A measure of computer time or space to solve a problem by an algorithm as a function of the problem’s dimensions. Suppose T(n) is the time it takes to solve an instance of the problem with dimension n. Then, the algorithm has (worst-case) time complexity K(n), if the greatest time it could take to solve an instance of the problem is O(K(n)). When K(n) is a polynomial, we say the algorithm has polynomial time complexity. The Klee- Minty polytope shows that the elementary simplex method does not have polynomial time complexity. The average time complexity is the average (rather than worst) time of an algorithm (or class of algorithms) over some class of problems, for which some probability distribution is assumed. Absent a modifier, the complexity of an algorithm is taken to mean its worst-case time complexity. Whereas complexity refers to the performance of an algorithm, see the notion of NP- completeness for the related meaning of problem complexity. The standard notation to describe complexity in terms of problem dimensions, say n, is O(K(n)). This big-O notation means the following: a function, f:Z+— >R, is O(K(n)) if there exists a constant, c, and N in Z+, such that f(n) <= ck(n) for all n>=N. For example, if an algorithm requires 5nA3 + 2n + 10 fundamental operations on a problem of size n, its time complexity is O(nA3). Another definition also describes the Omega and theta functional forms, which you can see with Examples and a full Supplement.

      Complicating Variables

      Those variables which, when fixed at particular values, render the remaining mathematical program relatively easy to solve. One example is the use of binary variables for fixed charges in an otherwise linear program.

      Compound Event

      A compound event consists of two or more simple events (i.e. the tossing of two or more coins).

      Compound Inequality

      Two inequalities connected by AND or OR.

      Consistent

      A system of equations is said to be consistent when it has at least one ordered pair that satisfies both equations.

      Constants

      A monomial term that lacks a variable component.

      Coordinate Plane

      The plane containing the x- and y- axes.

      Countable

      In common language, countable just means reasonably enumerated or countable, as in there are not too many objects to physically count. In human terms, the grains of sand in the Sahara Desert are not countable. But mathematically they actually are. So Countable means something a little different to the mathematicians.

      Counting Numbers

      The set of Counting Numbers is (usually) identical to the set of Natural Numbers, the positive integers that we begin to count with when we’re little kids. Watch out, however: some people include zero in this set.

      Counting Numbers

      The set of counting (aka natural) numbers can be expressed as {1,2,3,...}. This set is identical to the set of whole numbers, less the number zero. Counting numbers are not negative.

      Cube Root

      The Cube Root of a real value is the number that when raised to the third power equates to the original real value.

      Degree of a Monomial

      The degree of a monomial is the sum of the exponents of its variables.

      Degree of a Polynomial

      The degree of a polynomial is the degree of the term of the greatest monomial degree.

      Denominator

      The Denominator of a fraction is the number on the bottom; it is the divisor of the numerator.

      Dependent (Equations)

      A system of equations that has an infinite number of solutions

      Dependent Event

      An occurrence or outcome that is affected by previous occurrences or outcomes. The probability of drawing a red or black card from a deck of cards is affected by the colours of cards previously drawn.

      Dependent Variable

      When solving an equation for a given variable, that variable becomes the dependent variable. That is, its value depends upon the domain values chosen for the other variable. The dependent variable represents the range and is graphed on the y-axis.

      Difference

      The result of a subtraction operation. Order matters! The difference of 6 and 3 equals 3. The difference of 3 and 6 equals -3.

      Difference of Squares

      Two perfect squares separated by a subtraction sign: a² - b² & x² - 49 are both examples of the difference of squares.

      The difference of squares can easily be factored as follows:

      a² - b² = (a + b)(a - b)

      x² - 49 = (x + 7)(x - 7)

      Digit

      Each of the numerals 0 through 9 is a Digit. The term also refers to place value, as the tens digit or the hundredths digit.

      Dividend

      When we divide, we typically begin with a dividend. We divide the dividend by the divisor and we get the resulting quotient. In a fraction, which is always top-divided-by- bottom (numerator divided by denominator), the top of the fraction is the dividend, the bottom is the divisor, and the value of the resulting fraction is the quotient.

      Divisor

      The number we take into the dividend when we divide is termed the Divisor. In fractions, which are always top-divided-by-bottom (numerator divided by denominator) we divide the top (the dividend) by the bottom (the divisor) and the value of the resulting fraction is the quotient.

      Domain

      The set of all first (x-) coordinates from the ordered pairs in a relation.

      Double

      Twice the value of a real number is Double the value. To Double is to multiply by two, so to Double a half results in a whole.

      Element

      A member of a set.

      Elimination

      The elimination method of solving a system of equations is a method that uses addition or subtraction to eliminate one of the variables to solve for the other variable.

      Equal

      In the United States all men are created Equal, endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights that include life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.

      Equal (Also Equivalent)

      A term used to indicate that two or more quantities are of the same value.

      Equality

      A statement where two or more values are deemed to have an equal or identical value is a statement of Equality.

      Equation

      A mathematical sentence that compares two expressions linked by an equals sign (=).

      Evaluate

      To find the value of an expression when the value of the variables are known.

      Even (Integer)

      Even integers end with one of the following five digits: 0, 2, 4, 6, or 8. These digits are considered Even and the integers that end with them are also considered Even. When Even integers are divided by two the quotient is an integer.

      Exponent

      In an expression of the form xn, the exponent is n. The exponent represents the number of times the base (in this case, x) is multiplied by itself. The expression xn is called a power.

      Factors

      In a multiplication expression, the quantities being multiplied are called factors.

      In the monomial term 3bc, there are three factors: 3, b and c.

      In the algebraic expression 3(m+5) there are two factors: 3 and (m+5).

      Foil Method

      To multiply two binomials, find the sum of the products of:

      F the first terms,

      O the outside terms,

      I the inside terms, and...

      L the last terms

      Formula

      An equation that states a rule for the relationship between certain quantities. The formula for distance- rate-time problems is d = rt.

      Fraction

      Fractions are many, many things. But always, without fail, fractions are the result of dividing the top value (numerator) by the bottom value (denominator).

      Function

      A function is a relation in which each element of the domain is paired with exactly one element of the range.

      Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic

      A theorem that all integers can be written as the product of prime numbers is often called the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic.

      Googol

      Ten raised to the power of one hundred equals one Googol.

      Googolplex

      Ten raised to the power of a googol is a Googolplex; it is a huge number.

      Graph

      To draw or plot the points named by:

      1. certain numbers on a number line or

      2. certain ordered pairs on a coordinate plane.

      Greatest Common Factor

      The GCF of two integers (usually) is the largest integer that divides evenly into both integers. We sometimes use GCF for non-integral values.

      Half-Plane

      The region on a graph on one side of a boundary is called a half-plane.

      Height

      Altitude. How tall something is, measured in some perpendicular fashion to the bottom is its height.

      Horizontal

      Horizontal comes from orientation like the horizon; parallel to the flat surface of the earth; perpendicular to vertical.

      Hypotenuse

      The longest side of a right triangle is the Hypotenuse; it is always opposite the 90-degree angle (or right vertex).

      Identity Property of Addition

      The Identity Property of Addition says that adding zero to (or subtracting zero from) any real value will not change the value.

      Identity Property of Multiplication

      The Identity Property of Multiplication says that multiplication of a real value by one (or division by one) will not change the value.

      Impossibility

      Despite what some possibility thinkers espouse, some things are mathematically impossible. For example, an exact real number cannot be simultaneously irrational and rational.

      Inconsistent

      A system of equations is said to be inconsistent when it has no ordered pair that satisfies both equations.

      Increasing

      If the values in the range of a function increase as the values of the domain increase, the function is said to be Increasing.

      Independent (Equations)

      A system of equations is said to be independent if the system has exactly one solution.

      Independent Event

      An occurrence or outcome that is not affected by previous occurrences or outcomes. The probability of tossing a coin heads or tails is an independent event.

      Independent Variable

      The domain contains values represented by the independent variable. The domain values are graphed on the x-axis.

      Inequality

      Generally of one of the following four forms: less than, less-than-or-equal- to, greater than, or greater-than-or- equal-to.

      Inequality

      A mathematical sentence comparing two expressions that are linked by one of the following: <, <, >, or >.

      Infinite

      In common language, not countable in any practical manner. In math, having no bounds or boundary.

      Infinitesimal

      Infinitely small is Infinitesimal, so tiny that it occupies no space. While in human terms anything really small (a molecule) is Infinitesimal, in math the term means approaching zero in size.

      Infinity

      That without bound; limitless.

      Integer

      An Integer is a whole number or its negative. When expressed as a decimal, an Integer has nothing to the right of the decimal point (in American style).

      Integer

      The set of numbers represented as {..., -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3,...}.

      Integer Equivalent Aggregation

      Reduction of a system of linear algebraic equations with non-negative integer solutions to a single equation, which is a linear combination of the equations of the system and has the same set of non-negative integer solutions. For example, consider the system:

      S = {(x,y,z) in {0,1}^3: x + y = 1 and y + z = 1}.

      By simply adding the equations, we have the equivalent description:

      S = {(x,y,z) in {0,1}?3: x + 2y + z = 2}. Both sets consist of two points: (0,1,0) and (1,0,1).

      Interest

      Given the time-value-of-money, Interest is generated on a sum of capital as time passes.

      Interior

      Interior means within or in-between.

      Interior Solution

      An optimal solution to a mathematical program that is in the relative interior of its set of optimal solutions. This arises in interior methods, and relates to the strict complementarity of the solution.

      Intersection

      The term intersect is used when lines, rays, line segments or figures meet, that is, they share a common point. The point they share is called the point of intersection. We say that these figures intersect.

      Intersection (of Sets)

      The intersection of two sets A and B is the set of elements common to both A and B.

      Inverse of a Relation

      Relation Q is the inverse of Relation S if and only if for every ordered pair (a,b) in S, there is an ordered pair (b,a) in Q. For example, the inverse of (2, 5) is (5, 2).

      Irrational Number

      An irrational number is any real number that cannot be expressed as a ratio a/b, where a and b are integers, with b non-zero, and is therefore not a rational number.

      Informally, this means that an irrational number cannot be represented as a simple fraction. Irrational numbers are those real numbers that cannot be represented as terminating or repeating decimals. As a consequence of Cantor’s proof that the real numbers are uncountable (and the rationals countable) it follows that almost all real numbers are irrational.

      Least Common Denominator

      When two or more fractions are being summed we want the LCD to facilitate the operation of addition.

      Least Common Multiple

      The LCM is most typically applied to integers. It is the smallest value evenly divisible by each number for which we seek the LCM.

      Lexicographic Order

      A nonzero vector is lexicographically positive if its first non-zero coordinate is positive. The vector x is lexicographically greater than the vector y if x-y

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