Emotions, Technology, and Behaviors

Emotions, Technology, and Behaviors

First Edition

Sharon Y. Tettegah

Professor, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, College of Education, Las Vegas, NV, USA

Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, National Center for Supercomputing Applications, affiliate, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, USA

Dorothy L. Espelage

Department of Educational Psychology, University of Illinois, Champaign, IL, USA

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Contributors

Foreword

Acknowledgments

Preface

Empathy & Perspective-Taking

Trust, Loss, and Technology

Bullying and Technology

Philosophy, Emotions, and Virtual Environments

Section I: Empathy and Perspective-Taking

Chapter 1: Emotional Modulation of Perspective Taking: Implications for Computer-Supported Argumentation

Abstract

Acknowledgments

Introduction

Literature Review

Exploring How Emotions Might Influence Perspective Taking During Argumentation

Discussion

Conclusions and Implications for Computer-Supported Argumentation

Chapter 2: Empathy for the Digital Age: Using Video Production to Enhance Social, Emotional, and Cognitive Skills

Abstract

Acknowledgment

Introduction

What Is Empathy?

Can Empathy Be Learned?

Can Empathy Be Mediated?

Can Media Production Foster Empathy?

Digital Empathy

Challenges

Significance

Chapter 3: The Intersection Between Technology, Mind-Wandering, and Empathy

Abstract

Attention in Empathy

Attention in Technology

Attention, Empathy, and Technology

Qualitative Data

Quantitative Data

Methods

Results

Discussion

Chapter 4: Emotional Contagion and Socialization: Reflection on Virtual Interaction

Abstract

Introduction

Emotional Contagion

Emotional Contagion Hypothesis

Sources of Emotional Contagion

Emotional Contagion: Practical Applications and Consequences

Technology-Mediated Interactions and Emotional Contagion

Socialization in the Context of Technology-Mediated Social Interactions

Section II: Trust, Loss, and Technology

Chapter 5: When, How, and Why Do We Trust Technology Too Much?

Abstract

Authorial Perspective

The Nature and Components of Trust

Technology, Trust, and Reduced Vigilance

Issues and Illustrations

Examples in Business

Examples in Government

Personal User Examples

Examples in Higher Education

Control Issues in Technology Security

Marketers Perpetuating the Myth of Technology Infallibility

Causes of Overtrust or Blind Faith in Technology?

Dimensions of Overtrust in Technology

Broad Loss of Confidence and Guilt by Association

Summary

Chapter 6: Disconnect to Connect: Emotional Responses to Loss of Technology During Hurricane Sandy

Abstract

Acknowledgments

Theoretical Framework

Methods

Major Findings

Discussion

Chapter 7: Balancing Behaviors: Design-Relevant Phenomena in Couples’ Argumentation via Different Media

Abstract

Introduction

The Current Corpus

Analytic Method

Phenomena in Prior Literature

Disagreement Relevance

Preferred and Dispreferred Responses

Consensus Orientation

Dispute Orientation

Aggravation Markers

Reluctance Markers

Associations Between Phenomena

Reluctance Markers in Consensus and Dispute Orientation

Dispreferred Dissent, Preferred Dissent, Dispreferred Assent, Preferred Assent

Establishing Dispute Orientation

New Phenomena in the Couples and Technology Corpus

Apparently Unilateral Dispute

Maintaining Ambiguity

Taking Care

Dispute Denial

Discussion

Section III: Bullying and Technology

Chapter 8: Cyberbullying and Its Emotional Consequences: What We Know and What We Can Do

Abstract

What is Cyberbullying?

Theoretical Underpinnings

What is the Prevalence of Cyberbullying?

What are the Emotional Consequences of Cyberbullying?

Intervention Strategies

Future Research

Chapter 9: Technology and Positive Behavioral Interventions and Support: Evaluation, Selection, and Implementation of Computer-Based Socioemotional Training

Abstract

Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS)

PBIS With Technology

Integrating Technology in the PBIS Tiers

Future Needs for Technology Research and Development

Conclusion

Section IV: Philosophy, Emotions, and Virtual Environments

Chapter 10: Enactive Emotion and Presence in Virtual Environments

Abstract

Conflict of interest

Introduction

Enactive Approach

Enactive Approach to Emotion

Approaches to Presence

Emotional Episodes

Where

A Proposed Enactive Approach to Presence

Summary

Index

Copyright

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Contributors

Mariana Bockarova     University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada

Hamilton C. Carvalho     University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

Sibel Erduran     EPI-STEM, The National Centre for STEM Education, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland

Yonty Friesem     Department of Communication, Central Connecticut State University, New Britain, Connecticut, USA

Patricia L. Hardré     University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, USA

Steve Harrison     Center for Human-Computer Interaction, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA

Giuliana Isabella     University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

S. Kathleen Krach     Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida, USA

Cyntianna C. Ledesma Ortega     Florida International University, Miami, Florida, USA

Joon Suk Lee     Department of Computer Science, Virginia State University, Petersburg, Virginia, USA

Michael P. McCreery     University of Nevada, Las Vegas, Nevada, USA

Ekaterina Prasolova-Førland     Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway

Thomas G. Reio     Florida International University, Miami, Florida, USA

Sue Rivers     Birmingham City University, Birmingham, UK

Joni Schwartz     Department of Humanities, LaGuardia Community College, City University of New York, New York, USA

Deborah Tatar     Center for Human-Computer Interaction, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA

Tom Willans     Coventry University, Coventry, UK

Ulises Xolocotzin     Centre for Research and Advanced Studies of the National Polytechnic Institute, Mexico City, Mexico

Chloe Shu-Hua Yeh     Liverpool Hope University, Liverpool, UK

Samantha Yglesias     Center for Human-Computer Interaction, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA

Foreword

With respect to technology, it is important to place terms and tools within a historical context, given that in today’s society when speaking to a person who is a Millennial (individuals who are born in the early 1980s to 2000), s(he) may tell you that technology is the Internet and Smart Phones. For the Millennial, then, technology may only mean digital or biotechnologies. If we were to speak broadly to some individuals from The Silent Generation, Boomers, Millennials, and Generation Y, technology may also mean automobiles, airlines, overhead projectors, flashlights, microwaves, ATMs, etc. Hence, technology in the twenty-first century can mean many things. For example, technology could mean software applications, hardware, social media platforms, functional magnetic resonance imaging, mobile technology, learning, and content management systems, just to name a few.

Humans and other animals have used tools for centuries; however, the most important aspect of any tool is how we use and interact with it and the emotional responses we experience, while we interact with it either physically or consciously. The focus of this book series is to provide a variety of conceptual, theoretical and practical perspectives on the role of emotions and technology. Various psychological and social-emotional aspects of communicating through and with many types of technology are engaged in ways that extend our understanding of technology and its consequences on our lives.

A specific goal and purpose of this book series focuses on emotions and affective interactions with and through technology. In some cases, these interactions are user to user, supported by the technology. In other instances, these interactions are between the user and the technology itself. Let us take, for example, researchers who have used animated social simulation technology to measure emotions of educators (Tettegah, 2007) and others who use biotechnology to measure decision making and emotional responses of users of technology (Baron-Cohen, 2011; Decety & Ickes, 2009). In a recent article, Solomon (2008) points out, One of the most critical questions about human nature is the extent to which we can transcend our own biology (p. 13). I would argue that through our use of technology we, in fact, are attempting to extend and transcend our emotions by way of robots and other intelligent technological agents. As such, we should then ask ourselves: why are discussions of emotions and technology so important?

Inquiry regarding the nature of emotions is not new. In fact, examples of such forms of inquiry have been documented since the dialogues of Socrates and Plato. Researchers and practitioners in psychology, sociology, education, and philosophy understand the complicated nature of emotions, as well as (the importance of) defining emotions and social interactions. The study of emotions is so complicated that we still continue to debate within the fields of philosophy, education, and psychology, the nature of emotions, and the roles of affective and cognitive processes involving human learning and behavior. The volumes in this series, therefore, seek to present important discussions, debates, and perspectives involving the interactions of emotions and various technologies. Specifically, through this book series on Emotions and Technology, we present chapters on emotional interactions with, from and, through technology.

The diversity of emotions, played out by humans with and through technology run the gamut of emotions, including joy, anger, love, lust, empathy, compassion, jealousy, motivation, frustration, and hatred. These emotional interactions can occur through interactions with very human looking technologies (e.g., avatars and robots) or through everyday commonplace technologies (e.g., getting angry with an ATM machine when the user fails to follow instructions). Hence, understanding the ways in which technology affords the mediation of emotions is extremely important toward enhancing our critical understanding of the ways in which student minds, through technology, are profoundly involved in learning, teaching, communicating, and developing social relationships in the twenty-first century.

The majority of the chapters presented in the books that are included in the series will no doubt draw on some of the recent, pervasive, affective computing (Calvo, D'Mello, Gratch, & Kappas, 2015) and ubiquitous technologies. Readers can expect to encounter chapters that present discussions involving emotions and mobile phones, iPads, digital games, simulations, MOOCs, social media, virtual reality therapies, and Web 2.0/3.0 technologies. However, the primary focus of this book series engages the readers in psychological, information communication, human computer interaction, and educational theories and concepts. In other words, technologies will showcase the interactions, however, the concepts discussed promise to be relevant and consistent constructs, whether engaging current technologies or contemplating future tools.

The book series began with a call for a single volume. However, there was such a huge response that one volume turned into eight volumes. It was very exciting to see such an interest in literature that lies at the intersection of emotions and technology. What is very clear here is that human beings are becoming more and more attached to digital technologies, in one form or another. In many ways, we could possibly posit the statement that many individuals in the world are inching their way toward becoming cyborgs. It is apparent that digital technologies are in fact more and more second nature to our everyday life. Actually, digital technologies are changing faster than we are aging.

The life of a new technology can be 6 months to 1 year, while human lifespan ranges from 0 to 80 years. With the aforementioned in mind, humans have to consider how their emotions will interact and interface with the many different technologies they will encounter over the course of a lifetime. It seems as if it were only yesterday when the personal computer was invented and now we have supercomputing on a desktop, billions of data at our fingertips on our smartphone computers, and nanotechnology assisting us with physiological functions of living human animals. Regardless of the technology we use and encounter, emotions will play a major role in personal and social activities. The major role that technology plays can be observed through the many observations of how humans become excited, frustrated, or relieved when interacting with new technologies that assist us within our daily activities.

Our hope is that scholars and practitioners from diverse disciplines, such as Informatics, Psychology, Education, Computer Science, Sociology, Engineering and other Social Science and Science, Technology, Media Studies, and Humanities fields of study will find this series significant and informative to their conceptual, research, and educational practices. Each volume provides unique contributions about how we interact emotionally with, through, and from various digital technologies. Chapters in this series range from how intelligent agents evoke emotions, how humans interact emotionally with virtual weapons, how we learn or do not learn with technology, how organizations are using technology to understand health related events, to how social media helps to display or shape our emotions and desires.

This series on Emotions and Technology includes the following volumes: (1) Emotions, Technology, and Games; (2) Emotions, Technology, Design, and Learning; (3) Emotions, Technology, and Behaviors; (4) Emotions, Technology, and Learning; (5) Emotions, Technology, and Health; (6) Emotions, Technology, and Design; (7) Emotions, Technology and Social Media; and (8) Emotions and Mobile Technology.

Sharon Tettegah, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, USA

Acknowledgments

I would like to give a special thank you to Martin Gartmeier, Dorothy Espelage, Richard Ferdig, WenHao David Huang, Grant Kien, Angela Benson, Michael McCreery, Safiya Umoja Noble, Y. Evie Garcia, and Antonia Darder and all of the authors for their reviews and contributions to this work.

References

Baron-Cohen S. The science of evil. New York: Basic Books; 2011.

Calvo R.A., D’Mello S.K., Gratch J., Kappas A. The Oxford handbook of affective computing. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2015.

Decety J., Ickes W., eds. The social neuroscience of empathy. Cambridge: The MIT Press; 2009.

Solomon R.C. The philosophy of emotions. In: Lewis M., Haviland-Jones J.M., Barrett L. Feldman, eds. The handbook of emotions. 3rd ed. London: Guildford Press; 2008:3–16.

Tettegah S. Pre-service teachers, victim empathy, and problem solving using animated narrative vignettes. Technology, Instruction, Cognition and Learning. 2007;5:41–68.

Preface

Human behavior has never in history been such an open book as it is today. Through the development and creation of the Internet, World Wide Web, and virtual environments people are more open than ever about bringing their personal and private behaviors into public spaces. As spectators and users, we are receiving more information and insight into the minds and emotions of people. Individuals communicate for, with, and through digital media, such as Facebook, Twitter, online dating sites, and online shopping spaces, such as, Amazon. No one would have ever imagined the depth and breath of private feelings and expressions of emotions and behaviors that friends and strangers would share publicly.

Humans are also willing to share emotions in a different way, by developing and imposing, or projecting, their emotions through avatars, robots, and other animated agents in technology. For example, the recent film Ex Machina demonstrates our desire and interest in artificial intelligence and the development of avatars with human qualities, such as emotions. Humans, as organic machines, clearly have desires to extend and share their behaviors and emotions with inorganic machines. Not only are our organic machines, known as humans, willing to share, but they are also truly interested in building inorganic machines that behave and express emotions in the same way that organic machines do. We should ask ourselves, why do we, as humans, desire to replicate ourselves, behaviorally, emotionally, and physically? Why do we create inorganic machines that are duplications of organic machines? What is it about humans that makes us continue to imagine, design, and develop inorganic machines (e.g., robots, avatars, animated agents) that are just like organic machines?

Other ways that humans share their emotions are through various social media and mobile technology. Let us consider the ways that humans share their emotions using words and emoticons to express themselves. Although certain technologies allow or afford us to express our emotions, other technologies, such as content management systems, limit the ways we express our emotions. As we continue to rely on technology for everyday management of our lives, we will have to determine how technology affords opportunities for facilitation of our emotions and behaviors.

What is very clear is that humans want to perfect emotions and behaviors in particular ways. How and what we cultivate is still in development. In order to develop robots or avatars with human qualities, we will need to understand human behaviors and what stimulates humans emotionally. If we better understand human emotions and behaviors, then humans will have more guidance and knowledge to perfect and develop the emotions and behaviors necessary to generate an empathic, positive world to live. One challenge is to remove dysfunction from behaviors and emotions, so we do not duplicate the dysfunctional aspects of behaviors and emotions in the development of technology. Humans should not want to duplicate the dysfunctions that we observed in Ex Machina (2015), 2001: A Space Odyssey’s Hal (1968), or the behaviors’ of the intelligence agents in The Matrix (1999) and Surrogates (2009). However, the path of curiosity and desire propels humans to continue towards understanding our emotions and behaviors through the projection of emotions into inorganic machines. Our journey toward understanding human emotions through technology continues as we develop and engage with various forms of technology. What is evidently clear is that engaging with technology inherently involves both emotions and behavior. Thus, it is important for science to improve its theories, methods, and applications that are focused on the role of technology in the evolution of both emotions and behavior, and their interactions. The focus of this volume is Emotions, Technology, and Behaviors. There are four sections in this volume. Chapters vary depending on each section. The chapters that are in the four sections provide diverse perspectives and representations of how people communicate, display, and enact their emotions and behaviors through digital media.

Empathy & Perspective-Taking

In the first section, the chapters draw upon present empirical discussions of emotions, empathy, and/or perspective taking. Xolocotzin, Yeh and Erduran present research on Emotional Modulation as Perspective Taking-Implications for Computer Supported Argumentation. In their research, they maintain that computer-supported argumentation has failed to include emotional factors. The authors present a study that explores the effects of positive, negative, and neutral affect on the constructs of argumentation and perspective taking. Results indicate that individuals who engage in argumentation and simultaneously experience positive affect might invest more effort as they process others’ arguments. The authors suggest that tools that provide technological support to facilitate a positive affective experience during argumentation would be helpful in fostering an enhanced ability to understand the perspective of others online.

Next, Friesem, in his chapter Empathy for The Digital Age: Using Video Production to Enhance Social, Emotional, And Cognitive Skills introduces the concept of digital empathy. He also illustrates how collaborative video production processes can cultivate social, emotional, and cognitive behaviors that result in empathic understanding. He argues that the structured five-stages of video production: screenplay writing, pre-production, production, post-production and screening, enhance six distinctive empathy phenomena: empathic concern, cognitive empathy, projective empathy, affective empathy, psychological empathy, and aesthetic empathy.

Expanding on the ways in which empathy is influenced by the use of technology, Bockarova, in her chapter entitled The Intersection between Technology, Mind-Wandering, and Empathy, considers how empathy might be declining with the increased use of technology. Employing a mixed-methods approach, she investigates the extent to which empathy and mind-wandering are related. Participants of her investigation watch an emotional film clip, and complete pre- and post-questionnaires. Their browser switching is also assessed to get to a measure of mind-wandering. Frequent browser switching was significantly associated with higher mind-wandering and lowered associative empathy, suggesting that increase in technology use was not critical in explaining lowered empathy, but scattered engagement explained lowered empathy.

In the final chapter of this empathy section, entitled Emotional Contagion and Socialization: Reflection on Virtual Interaction, Isabella and Carvalho explore the interaction between emotional contagion and socialization. Emotional socialization involves the mechanism by which individuals learn how to interact in complex social environments. Whereas emotional contagion is an automatic and universal emotional process by which socialization occurs. These authors define emotional contagion as an outflow of emotions transmitted by facial expressions, voice, posture, movements, and other instrumental behaviors from one person to another. As technology takes up more of the interactions among children and adolescents, the question of how these technologies will impact the development of emotional contagion, and the ultimate form and function of emotional socialization, needs to be understood. The authors admit that as individuals spend more time interacting with others in virtual spaces, this will leave limited time for face-to-face interactions. This is likely to have direct implications for emotional socialization and emotion contagion.

Trust, Loss, and Technology

Are we becoming increasingly dependent on technology? Are we trusting technology too much? The second section of the book addresses these questions. In the first chapter, entitled How, When and Why Do We Trust Technology Too Much, Hardré provides illustrative examples of when individuals, businesses, and governments have placed too much trust in technology. The chapter highlights the various ways in which trust can manifest itself, and the costs associated with overtrust. Using a six-dimensional model of overtrust, the author highlights how overtrust can be seen in the technology’s functionality, its informational output, end-user perspective, and overtrust with IT support. Readers will find many examples where they themselves have overtrusted their interactions with technology.

The next chapter by Schwartz explores the ways in which human connection with technology was impacted by a natural disaster, which is entitled Disconnect to Connect: Emotional Responses to Loss of Technology During Hurricane Sandy. More specifically, the author examines the emotional responses among individuals impacted by Hurricane Sandy. They were not only faced with limited access to some technologies, but also coped through technology. A phenomenological study examined the loss and change of media communication during and after Hurricane Sandy through the lived experiences of 49 east coast community college students. Findings indicated that the challenges in assessing technology had a direct impact on relationships with family and friends. And, although the participants spoke to feelings of powerlessness, they also spoke to the lack of technology access as contributing to experiences of mindfulness.

The last chapter in this section, Balancing Behaviors: Design-Relevant Phenomena in Couples’ Argumentation Via Different Media by Yglesias, Tatar, Harrison, and Lee, expands the conversation about potential trust and loss with technology from individuals to couples. As they note, couples communicate through technology, and they argue through technology. Indeed, this means that loss can occur in these interactions. But, much is unknown about how couples argue through technology. These authors describe the elements of activities and the discourse associated with disputes and conflicts.

Bullying and Technology

When we think about using technology to understand the plight of the victim, much attention has been given to the construct of empathy Thus, this section of the book includes two chapters on elicitation of empathy and perspective-taking through either online videos or socially shared activities (Huang & Tettegah, 2010; Tettegah, 2007; Tettegah & Anderson, 2007). The third section addresses what has become a public health issue across the world – bullying among school-age children (for an exhaustive review see Espelage, 2015). Bullying face-to-face is still more prevalent than cyberbullying, but both have serious adverse outcomes for the victims. Increasingly, cyberbullying is causally linked to face-to-face bullying, and cyberbullying is seen as simply a mode to bully (Espelage, Rao, & Craven, 2013). The first chapter, Cyberbullying and its Emotional Consequences: What We Know and What We Can Do by Reio and Lesdesma Ortega, reviews the literature on definitions and impact of cyberbullying, and rates of cyberbullying across age, gender, and culture. The chapter also reviews correlates and prevention strategies to reduce cyberbullying. In the second chapter of this section, entitled Technology and Positive Behavioral Interventions and Support: Evaluation, Selection, and Implementation of Computer-Based Socioemotional Training, Krach and McCreery investigate challenges to integrating technology-based intervention tools into the very popular foundational behavioral system of positive behavioral interventions and support. Indeed, school-based curriculum must think about how to leverage technology to place less burden on teachers to deliver socially- and behaviorally-oriented content in the classrooms. Thus, this chapter is