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Algebra: Polynomials, Galois Theory and Applications
Algebra: Polynomials, Galois Theory and Applications
Algebra: Polynomials, Galois Theory and Applications
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Algebra: Polynomials, Galois Theory and Applications

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Suitable for advanced undergraduates and graduate students in mathematics and computer science, this precise, self-contained treatment of Galois theory features detailed proofs and complete solutions to exercises. Originally published in French as Algèbre — Polynômes, théorie de Galois et applications informatiques, this 2017 Dover Aurora edition marks the volume's first English-language publication.
The three-part treatment begins by providing the essential introduction to Galois theory. The second part is devoted to the algebraic, normal, and separable Galois extensions that constitute the center of the theory and examines abelian, cyclic, cyclotomic, and radical extensions. This section enables readers to acquire a comprehensive understanding of the Galois group of a polynomial. The third part deals with applications of Galois theory, including excellent discussions of several important real-world applications of these ideas, including cryptography and error-control coding theory. Symbolic computation via the Maple computer algebra system is incorporated throughout the text (though other software of symbolic computation could be used as well), along with a large number of very interesting exercises with full solutions.

LanguageEnglish
Release dateJan 9, 2017
ISBN9780486818849
Algebra: Polynomials, Galois Theory and Applications

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    Algebra - Frédéric Butin

    Algebra

    Polynomials, Galois Theory and Applications

    Algebra

    Polynomials, Galois Theory and Applications

    Frédéric Butin

    DOVER PUBLICATIONS, INC.

    Mineola, New York

    Copyright

    Copyright © 2017 by Frédéric Butin

    All rights reserved.

    Bibliographical Note

    This Dover edition, first published in 2017, is a new English translation of Algèbre Polynômes, théorie de Galois et applications informatiques, published in Paris by Hermann Editeurs in 2011.

    Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

    Names: Butin, Frédéric.

    Title: Algebra : polynomials, Galois theory and applications / FrédéricButin.

    Other titles: Algèbre. English

    Description: Dover edition. | Mineola, New York : Dover Publications, [2017] | Series: Aurora Dover modern math originals | English translation of: Algèbre : Polynômes, théorie de Galois et applications informatiques (Paris : Hermann Editeurs, 2011). Includes bibliographical references and index.

    Identifiers: LCCN 2016043751| ISBN 9780486810157 | ISBN 0486810151

    Subjects: LCSH: Galois theory. | Polynomials. | Algebra, Abstract.

    Classification: LCC QA214 .B8813 2017 | DDC 512/.32—dc23

    LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016043751

    Manufactured in the United States by LSC Communications

    81015101 2017

    www.doverpublications.com

    Preface

    Many students are familiar with Galois theory because they have learned that equations of degree greater than or equal to five are not solvable by radicals, or because they have heard about insolvable problems such as the Delian problem, the angle trisection or the quadrature of the circle.

    Luckily, Galois theory is not restricted to negative solutions of historical problems! The theory makes many issues easier to understand through the agreement that it establishes between the subfields of a given field and the subgroups of the group of its automorphisms. It is also linked to practical applications such as error-correcting codes that are widely used in digital storage media.

    This book is addressed to undergraduate and graduate students, to students who are preparing for a master’s degree, and to anyone who wants to discover the properties of this theory. Engineering students will also find a presentation of the mathematical tools underlying the techniques that they use.

    The aim of the book is to provide the reader with a clear and precise way to use all the tools needed for their progress (the book is self-contained). The proofs of the theorems and the exercises (they are all entirely solved) are detailed to facilitate understanding. The book is divided into three main parts, as well as a small number of chapters (10), which presents the topics with unity.

    The first part introduces the essential notions of Galois theory. It reviews arithmetic, cryptography, and the symmetric group in the first chapter; in the second chapter, rings and polynomials, Euclidean division and the extended algorithm are discussed, as well as multivariate, symmetric, and general polynomials that are irreducible.

    The second part is devoted to algebraic, normal and separable extensions, Galois extensions (which are at the center of the theory), followed by abelian, cyclic and radical extensions, as well as cyclotomic polynomials. After completing the second part, the reader will have a good understanding of the Galois group of a polynomial.

    Applications of Galois theory are presented in the third part. Ruler and compass constructions are followed by the study of irreducible polynomials over finite fields, their factorization and applications—particularly in computer science, where the error-correcting code of CDs is explicitly worked out—and results about algebraic integers.

    From the beginning of the book, the study takes place in a general framework to provide the reader with a global view of the subject. The goal is not to engage in abstract applications for fun, but to avoid masking the essential point by many supplementary hypotheses due to particular cases. Starting from this general framework, the book always aims for practical applications: therefore, the calculations are entirely worked out, because if the theory seems transparent, this is often due to insight gained by working through the relevant calculations.

    Throughout the book we also make use of formal computation: many applications suggest a different and wider view of problems and use a current tool to provide examples that are too tedious to study by hand. The chosen software is Maple, but other software programs can be used.

    The book gives several results rarely found in the literature, such as the Chebotarev theorem, the explicit study of error-correcting codes and the irre-ducibility of the permanent.

    A biography of quoted mathematicians is located at the end of the book, which enables the reader to examine their mathematical culture.

    I am grateful to Gadi S. Perets who helped me greatly with proofreading the English text.

    Frédéric Butin

    Paris, France

    Introduction

    Solutions of certain polynomial equations can be written with square roots, cubic roots, fourth roots ... (cf. solutions of equations of degree 2 with the discriminant formula). However, it is well known that equations of degree greater than or equal to 5 cannot, in general, be solved with this type of formula. What is the reason?

    Let us consider three examples. First, let us take the equation x], i.e., the set of numbers of the form a + b with (a, b).

    Let f ] that fixes the elements of ℚ. Then we have

    and we get two maps f1 and f2 determined by the relations fand f] that fix the elements of ℚ is

    2 and, in particular, this is a solvable group.

    Now, let us consider the equation x7x. The smallest subfield K of ℂ containing ℚ and the roots of this equation is the set of numbers of the form a + b + c + d with (a, b, c, d).

    Let f be an automorphism of the field K that fixes the elements of ℚ. Then f satisfies fand f. The group of automorphisms of K that fix the elements of ℚ is thus {f1, f2, f3, f4}, with

    This group is isomorphic to the group (ℤ / 2ℤ) × (ℤ / 2ℤ) and is solvable.

    Let us finally study the equation x⁵ + 4x⁴ + x² – 7 = 0, which possesses five complex roots. Let K be the smallest subfield of ℂ containing ℚ and the roots of this equation. We can show that the group of automorphisms of K 5. Moreover, it turns out that the roots of this equation cannot be written with square roots, cubic roots, etc.

    What can be deduced from these examples? Solutions of the first two equations can be explicitly expressed with radicals: one says that these equations are solvable by radicals5. This is not a coincidence, but a fundamental result of Galois theory that asserts that an equation is solvable by radicals if and only if the automorphism group associated with it is solvable. This automorphism group is called the Galois group of the equation.

    As a preliminary to the study of such equations, we will introduce the vocabulary related to algebraic extensions. An algebraic extension of a field K is a field L whose K is a subfield and whose every element is a root of a polynomial with coefficients in K. For example, the set of algebraic numbers is an algebraic extension of ℚ. We will say that L has a finite degree over K if L is a K-vector space of finite dimension.

    Then we will focus our attention on normal extensions. One says that an extension L of a field K is normal if every irreducible polynomial P K[X] that possesses a root in L possesses all its roots in L] introduced for studying the first equation is an example of normal extension.

    We will also study the problem of multiple roots, and for this purpose we will introduce another type of algebraic extension, namely separable extensions. An extension L of K is separable if every element of L is cancelled by a polynomial P G K[X] that is coprime to its derivative. This will lead us to study finite fields. as well as perfect fields.

    Finally, we will have all the tools for studying Galois extensions, that is to say extensions that are at the same time normal and separable. We will state the fundamental theorem of Galois theory: if if is a field, L a Galois extension of finite degree of K, and G the group of automorphisms of L that fix the elements of K, then there exists a one-to-one correspondence between the subgroups of G and the subextensions of L containing K. The automorphism group is called the Galois group of L over K. This theorem is in a sense the heart of Galois theory, in that it reduces the study of subfields of L to the study of subgroups of G.

    After introducing new types of algebraic extensions, such as abelian, cyclic, cyclotomic or radical extensions, we will prove another fundamental theorem, namely the theorem quoted at the beginning of the introduction: an equation is solvable by radicals if and only if its Galois group is solvable.

    Armed with these tools, we will be able to show how Galois theory is useful, providing applications in extremely diverse fields.

    A first application is an answer to a question that one can naturally ask: when is a given group the Galois group of an equation? We will answer in a (very) partial way, knowing that the general problem is still open.

    Galois theory answers another algebraic problem, which consists of searching integers in number fields. One says that a complex number is an algebraic integer if it is a root of a monic polynomial with integer coefficients. To know which algebraic integers are contained in a given subfield of ℂ, we will introduce two technical tools: the norm and the trace. Moreover, these tools will enable us to obtain normal bases of Galois extensions L of finite degree of a field K, i.e., bases of L whose elements form an orbit under the action of the Galois group of L over K.

    Another well-known application of this theory is the negative answer that it provides to historical questions of constructions with a ruler and a compass, such as the Delian problem, the angle trisection and the quadrature of the circle. Through the Galois correspondence, we will also know which regular polygons can be constructed with a ruler and a compass.

    In contrast to these questions that already intrigued the ancient world, the Galois theory is of utmost interest in the current problem of error-correcting codes: during the transmission of a message, errors often appear because the communication channel is not totally reliable. An error-correcting code is a computer tool that enables us to code the message before sending it, and also to recover the original message after having corrected the transmission errors. The framework of finite fields—whose classification results from Galois theory—is the foundation of the study of these codes. Among the many concrete areas where these codes are used, the case of CDs, and more generally, any digital storage media, will be studied in detail.

    Contents

    I Arithmetic, rings and polynomials

    1 Arithmetic and the symmetric group

    1.1 Reminder of arithmetic

    1.1.1 Ring ℤ / n

    1.1.2 Groups and Euler’s totient function

    1.2 Cryptography

    1.2.1 RSA

    1.2.1.1 Construction of the keys

    1.2.1.2 Encryption of the message

    1.2.1.3 Decryption of the message

    1.2.2 Elgamal encryption system

    1.2.2.1 Construction of the keys

    1.2.2.2 Encryption of the message

    1.2.2.3 Decryption of the message

    1.3 The symmetric group

    n

    n for n ≥ 5

    1.4 Exercises

    2 Rings and polynomials

    2.1 Rings and polynomials

    2.1.1 Integral domains and field of fractions

    2.1.2 Rings, characteristic, unique factorization domains

    2.1.3 Univariate polynomials and Euclidean division

    2.1.4 Extended Euclidean algorithm

    2.2 Content of a polynomial and irreducibility criteria

    2.2.1 Content of a polynomial over a unique factorization domain

    2.2.2 Irreducibility criteria

    2.3 Resultant of two polynomials

    2.4 Multivariate polynomials

    2.4.1 Definitions, lexicographic order

    2.4.2 Homogeneous polynomials

    2.5 Symmetric polynomials

    2.5.1 Definitions and elementary symmetric polynomials

    2.5.2 Algebraic independence of the elementary symmetric polynomials

    2.6 Irreducibility of certain general polynomials

    2.6.1 Irreducibility of the general determinant and permanent

    2.6.2 Irreducibility of the general resultant

    2.7 Exercises

    II Galois theory

    3 Algebraic extensions

    3.1 Algebraic extensions

    3.1.1 Algebraic elements

    3.1.2 Algebraic extensions: definition and first properties

    3.2 Algebraic closures

    3.3 Rupture fields, conjugated elements, splitting field

    3.4 Existence and uniqueness of finite fields

    3.5 Exercises

    4 Normal extensions and separable extensions

    4.1 Normal extensions

    4.2 Separable extensions

    4.2.1 Definitions and properties

    4.2.2 Primitive element theorem

    4.3 Perfect fields

    4.4 Exercises

    5 Galois theory

    5.1 Galois extensions

    5.2 Artin theorem

    5.3 Fundamental theorem of Galois theory

    5.4 Exercises

    6 Abelian, cyclic, cyclotomic, radical extensions

    6.1 Abelian, cyclic, cyclotomic, radical extensions

    6.1.1 Primitive roots of unity

    6.1.2 Definition and properties of various extensions and examples

    6.1.3 Link between cyclic extensions and radical extensions

    6.2 Cyclotomic polynomials

    6.2.1 Irreducibility of Φn over ℚ

    6.2.2 Factorization of Φnp q

    6.3 Exercises

    7 Galois group of a polynomial

    7.1 Reminder of group theory

    7.1.1 p-groups and Sylow theorem

    7.1.2 Solvable groups and nilpotent groups

    7.2 Galois group of a polynomial

    7.3 Discriminant of a polynomial

    7.4 Solvable equations

    p and applications

    7.6 Determining the Galois group of a polynomial

    7.6.1 Van der Waerden theorem

    7.6.2 Solving equations of degree 2, 3, 4 over ℂ

    7.6.2.1 Equations of degree 2

    7.6.2.2 Equations of degree 3 — Cardano’s formulas

    7.6.2.3 Equations of degree 4 — Ferrari’s formulas

    7.6.3 Determining the Galois group of a polynomial of degree less than or equal to 4

    7.6.3.1 Polynomial of degree 2

    7.6.3.2 Polynomial of degree 3

    7.6.3.3 Polynomial of degree 4

    7.6.4 Example: crossed ladders problem

    7.7 Realizing a group as a Galois group

    7.8 Exercises

    III Applications

    8 Ruler and compass constructions

    8.1 Constructible points and numbers

    8.2 The Wantzel theorem

    8.3 Historical problems

    8.4 The Galois correspondence and the regular polygons

    8.5 Exercises

    9 Finite fields and applications

    9.1 Quadratic residues modulo p

    9.2 Irreducible polynomials over finite fields

    9.2.1 Description of the irreducible polynomials

    9.2.2 Explicit construction of finite fields

    9.2.2.1 First construction

    9.2.2.2 Second construction

    9.2.2.3 Examples

    q

    q[X]

    9.3.1 Definition of the Berlekamp subalgebra

    9.3.2 Irreducibility and Berlekamp subalgebra

    9.3.3 Factorization method

    9.3.4 Berlekamp’s algorithm

    9.3.5 Type of factorization modulo p

    9.4 Error-correcting codes

    9.4.1 Definition and properties of error-correcting codes

    9.4.2 Construction of BCH codes

    9.4.2.1 BCH codes

    9.4.2.2 Reed-Solomon codes

    9.4.3 Error detection and correction for the BCH codes

    9.4.3.1 Error detection

    9.4.3.2 Error correction

    9.4.4 Binary BCH codes

    9.4.4.1 Construction of the word to send

    9.4.4.2 Example

    9.4.5 Coding of the compact disks

    9.4.5.1 From sound to CD

    9.4.5.2 The CIRC coding

    9.4.5.3 Decoding

    9.5 Exercises

    10 Norm, trace and algebraic integers

    10.1 Norm and trace

    10.1.1 Properties of the norm and the trace

    10.1.2 Hilbert’s theorem 90 and Artin-Schreier theorem

    10.2 Algebraic integers

    10.2.1 Definition and properties

    10.2.2 Examples of algebraic integers

    10.2.3 Discriminant of a family

    10.2.4 Normal basis theorem

    10.3 Exercises

    Biography of quoted mathematicians

    Index

    References

    About the Author

    PART I

    Arithmetic, rings and polynomials

    CHAPTER 1

    Arithmetic and the symmetric group

    This chapter’s aim is to recall some results from arithmetic and to provide some of their applications in computer science. We shall also give a couple of reminders about the symmetric group that we constantly use in Galois theory.

    1.1 Reminder of arithmetic

    1.1.1 Ring ℤ / nℤ

    We recall here some results from arithmetic that are often used in the following chapters.

    First, let us quote Bézout’s identity, an easy but fundamental lemma: if a and b are two coprime integers, then there exist two integers u and v such that au + bv = 1.

    Given an integer n ∈ ℕ×, we recall that the set of congruence classes modulo n is the set {0, 1,..., n – 1}, denoted by ℤ / nℤ. This set is naturally endowed with a commutative ring structure. The generators of ℤ / nℤ (as an additive group) are the classes m such that m and n are coprime. The additive group ℤ / nℤ is isomorphic to the multiplicative group of nth complex roots of unity. Let us also recall that a class m is invertible if and only if m and n are coprime, and that, otherwise, m divides 0. Finally, ℤ / pℤ is a field if and only if p p = ℤ / pℤ.

    The Chinese remainder theorem asserts that if m and n are coprime, then the rings ℤ / mnℤ and ℤ / mℤ × ℤ / nℤ are isomorphic.

    1.1.2 Groups and Euler’s totient function

    Let G be a group whose identity element is denoted by e. We recall that an element g G has finite order if there exists an integer n ∈ ℕ× such that gn = e. The smallest integer n ∈ ℕ× such that gn = e is called the order of g and denoted by o(g). The cardinality of a finite group is also called the order of the group. This notion is the same as the previous definition of the order in the case of a finite cyclic group, i.e., a finite group that is generated by a single element.

    The basic (but fundamental) result about the order is Lagrange’s theorem, which states that the order of every element in a finite group divides the group’s order. Let us provide an application of this theorem that will be used later: if two elements ɡ1 and ɡ2 commute and have finite and coprime orders m1 and m2, then the order of ɡ1ɡ2 is the product of their orders. In fact, the identity (ɡ1ɡ2)m1m2 = e shows that the order of ɡ1ɡ2 divides m1m2. Conversely, if q ∈ ℕ× satisfies (ɡ1ɡ2)q = ebelongs to the group 〈ɡ1〉 ∩ 〈ɡ2〉. By Lagrange’s theorem, its order divides m1 and m. Therefore, m1 divides q; in the same way, m2 divides q, thus m1m2 divides q.

    Let us also quote another interesting result that we will use later: Cauchy’s theorem asserts that if a prime number p divides the order of a finite group G, then G contains an element of order p.

    Let now G be a finite group that acts on a finite set X. For every x X, we denote by G · x the orbit of x and Gx the stabilizer of x in G. The map ψ from G to G · x defined by ψ(g) = g · x induces a one-to-one correspondence from G/Gx onto G · x. The set of all orbits is a partition of X, thus if we denote by O1,..., Or the distinct orbits of X under the action of G, then we have |X| = |O1| + ··· + |Or|. This formula is called the class equation.

    For every g G, we define the stabilizer of g by fixg := {x X / g ·· x = x}. Then we have Burnside’s lemma:

    In fact, let us consider the set F := {(g, x) ∈ G × X / g · x = x, and

    and we get the result.

    For every n ∈ ℕ \ {0, 1}, we denote by φ(n) the number of invertible elements in ℤ / nℤ. We also set φ(1) = 1. The Euler’s totient function is the map φ from ℕ× to ℕ× such that the number φ(n) is the order of the group (ℤ / nℤ)×. It follows from the Chinese remainder theorem that if n1,..., nr are numbers that are pairwise coprime, then φ(n1 ... nr) = φ(n1)... (φ(nr). If p is a prime number, then ℤ / pℤ is a field, thus φ(p) = p – 1. If α ∈ ℕ, then φ() is the number of elements in the set 〚0, – 1〛 that are coprime to . These elements are the elements of the set 〚0, pα – 1〛 \ {0, p, 2p,..., pα–²p}, hence φ() = pα – pα–¹. Finally, if n , where the p1,..., pr are distinct prime numbers, then

    Let a be an integer that is coprime to n. Then a belongs to (ℤ / nℤ)×, thus by Lagrange’s theorem, αφ(n) = 1, i.e., (n) 1 mod n. This result is called Euler’s theorem. Fermat’s little theorem follows if we take a prime number p: in this case, we have φ(p) = p – 1, thus if a and p are coprime, then αp–1 1 mod p.

    Finally, let us provide an application of Fermat’s little theorem that will be useful later.

    Lemma 1.1.1

    Let a, l be two integers and p, q be two distinct prime numbers.

    Then a¹+l(p–1)(q–1) ≡ a mod pq.

    Proof:

    First, let us consider two cases.

    — If p does not divide a, then

    mod p according to Fermat’s little theorem.

    — If p divides a, then a¹+l(p–1)(q–1) ≡ 0 ≡ a mod p.

    Therefore, in both cases we have a¹+l(p–1)(q–1) ≡ a mod p. In the same way, we have the relation a¹+l(p–1)(q–1) ≡ a mod q. This shows that both p and q divide a¹+l(p–1)(q–1) – a. As p and q are distinct prime numbers, their product pq also divides the number a¹+l(p–1)(q–1) – a and we are done. ■

    , called Euler’s formula. In fact, for every positive divisor¹ d of n, let us set Fd := {k ∈ 〚0, n – 1] / k ∧ n = d} and

    is a one-to-one correspondence from Fd , whose inverse function is the map l dl. As the set {Fd / d|n} is a partition of 〚1, n〛, we have

    Let us recall a result about the structure of finite cyclic groups. Its proof makes use of the previously stated methods.

    Proposition 1.1.2

    If G is a finite cyclic group of order n, then for every divisor d of n,G possesses a unique subgroup of order d.

    Proof:

    Let G := 〈x〉 be a finite cyclic group of order n. For every j ∈ 〚0, n – . Then the number of elements of order d is the cardinality of the set

    ) between this set and the set {l ∈ 〚0, d – 1〛 / l d = 1}. Hence the number of elements of order d is φ(d. Let H := 〈y〉 be the subgroup of G generated by y. Then the number of elements of order d in H is the cardinality of the set {l ∈ 〚0, d – 1〛 / l ∧ = 1}, i.e., φ(d). Thus H contains all the elements of order d. ■

    The following theorem is a consequence of Euler’s formula.

    Theorem 1.1.3

    Every finite subgroup of the multiplicative group of a field K is cyclic.

    In particular, for n ∈ ℕ×; the set of roots of Xn – 1 in K is a finite cyclic subgroup of K× whose order divides n. This group is called the group of nth roots of unity of K.

    Proof:

    Let G be a subgroup of order n of K×. Let us denote by ψ(d) the number of elements of order d in G. Then either ψ(d) =0 or ψ(d) = φ(d). In fact, if there exists x G of order d, then 〈x〉 is included in the set of roots of Xd – 1 in K. As K is an integral domain, by proposition 2.1.5 Xd – 1 has at most d roots in K, hence 〈x〉 is the set of all roots of Xd – 1 in K. Therefore, according to the proof of proposition 1.1.2, we have φ(d) = ψ(d). In particular, for every d that divides n, we have ψ(d) ≤ φ(d). Since

    , we get φ(d) = ψ(d) for every d that divides n. Finally, as ψ(n) = φ(n) ≠ 0, there exists an element y in G of order n. Since the order of |G| is n, we have G = 〈y〉. ■

    For example, for every prime number pis a finite cyclic group of order p – 1. Let us also note that the order of the group of nth roots of unity depends on the field K: in fact, there are n nth roots of unity in ℂ, whereas there are only one or two nth roots of unity in ℝ (it depends on the parity of n).

    . However, the following result enables us to obtain such generators in some cases.

    Theorem 1.1.4 (Lucas)

    Let n ∈ ℕ× and a ∈ ℤ× such that an–1 1 mod n, and such that for every prime number p that divides n – is not congruent to 1 modulo n. Then n is a prime number and a is a generator of (ℤ/ nℤ)×.

    Proof:

    Let us denote by o(a) the order of a in ℤ / nℤ. As an–1 ≡ 1 mod n, o(a) divides n – 1. Let us prove by contradiction that o(a) = n – 1: if o(a) ≠ n – possesses a prime factor p. Consequently, there exists c . Then

    mod n. This is in contradiction to the hypothesis, so that o(a) = n – 1. Therefore, since | (ℤ / nℤ)× | ≤ n – 1, a generates (ℤ / nℤ)× and we have | (ℤ / nℤ)× | = n – 1. Finally, (ℤ/nℤ)× is a field, and n is necessarily prime. ■

    To find explicit generators a of (ℤ / nℤ)×, we try the positive integers a = 2,3,4, 5,...

    — If an–1 is not congruent to 1 modulo n,

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