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    Natural and Artificial Flavoring Agents and Food Dyes
    Natural and Artificial Flavoring Agents and Food Dyes
    Natural and Artificial Flavoring Agents and Food Dyes
    Ebook1,170 pages12 hours

    Natural and Artificial Flavoring Agents and Food Dyes

    By Alexandru Mihai Grumezescu and Alina Maria Holban

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    Natural and Artificial Flavoring Agents and Dyes, Volume 7 in the Handbook of Food Bioengineering series, examines the use of natural vs. artificial food dyes and flavors, highlighting some of the newest production and purification methods. This solid resource explores the most recent trends and benefits of using natural agents over artificial in the production of foods and beverages. Using the newest technologies and evidence-based research methods, the book demonstrates how natural flavoring agents and dyes can be produced by plants, microorganisms and animals to produce higher quality foods that are more economical and safe to the consumer.

    • Explores the most common natural compounds and how to utilize them with cutting edge technologies
    • Includes information on the purification and production processes under various conditions
    • Presents the latest research to show benefits of using natural additives
    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherAcademic Press
    Release dateSep 15, 2017
    ISBN9780128112694
    Natural and Artificial Flavoring Agents and Food Dyes

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      Book preview

      Natural and Artificial Flavoring Agents and Food Dyes - Alexandru Mihai Grumezescu

      Natural and Artificial Flavoring Agents and Food Dyes

      Handbook of Food Bioengineering, Volume 7

      Edited by

      Alexandru Mihai Grumezescu

      Alina Maria Holban

      Table of Contents

      Cover

      Title page

      Copyright

      List of Contributors

      Foreword

      Series Preface

      Preface for Volume 7: Natural and Artificial Flavoring Agents and Food Dyes

      Chapter 1: Flavoring and Coloring Agents: Health Risks and Potential Problems

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Implications of Flavoring and Coloring Agents

      3. Flavoring Agents

      4. Coloring Agents

      5. Regulatory Organizations for Food Flavors and Colors

      6. Common Health Effects of Flavoring and Coloring Agents

      7. Safety Precautions and Future Perspectives

      8. Conclusions

      Acknowledgments

      Chapter 2: Drying Process of Food: Fundamental Aspects and Mathematical Modeling

      Abstract

      1. Basis of Food Drying

      2. Mathematical Modeling and Simulation of Drying Process

      3. Concluding Remarks

      Chapter 3: Comparative Study of Natural and Artificial Flavoring Agents and Dyes

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Color and Colorants

      3. History of Colorants

      4. Types of Colors

      5. Legislation and Regulation for Natural Colorants and Food Additives

      6. Global Market for Food Colorants

      7. Natural Colorants Challenges

      8. Future Prospects

      Chapter 4: Microbial Pigments From Bacteria, Yeasts, Fungi, and Microalgae for the Food and Feed Industries

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Carotenoids

      3. Azaphilones

      4. Anthraquinones

      5. Phycobiliproteins

      6. Conclusions

      Chapter 5: Binding of Food Colorants to Functional Protein Hemoglobin

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Materials

      3. Methods

      Acknowledgments

      Chapter 6: Nonconventional Yeast-Promoted Biotransformation for the Production of Flavor Compounds

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Biocatalytic Production of Flavors by NCYs

      3. Conclusions

      Chapter 7: Fruits: A Source of Polyphenols and Health Benefits

      Abstract

      1. Oxidative Stress and Its Relation With Diseases

      2. Functional Products and Nutraceuticals

      3. Polyphenols

      4. Conclusions

      Chapter 8: LC–MS/MS Approach for the Identification of Unknown Degradation Products of Dyes in Beverages

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Food Safety and Legislation

      3. Main Processes of Dye Degradation in Beverages

      4. LC–MS/MS Approaches for the Identification of Knowns and Unknowns

      5. Strategy for the Identification of Dye Degradation Products in Beverages Subjected to Photoirradiation

      6. Conclusions

      Chapter 9: Computer-Aided Drug Design Studies in Food Chemistry

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. QSAR

      3. Molecular Docking

      4. Chemometrics in Food Science and Food Informatics

      5. Conclusions

      Acknowledgments

      Conflicts of Interest

      Chapter 10: Turmeric: A Review of Its Chemical Composition, Quality Control, Bioactivity, and Pharmaceutical Application

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Phytochemical Investigation

      3. Quality Control of Turmeric

      4. Pharmacological Activities

      5. Pharmaceutical Research

      6. Conclusions

      Acknowledgments

      Chapter 11: A Review of the Botany, Phytochemical, and Pharmacological Properties of Galangal

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Botanical Description

      3. Adulterant and Authentication

      4. Phytochemistry

      5. Biological Activities

      Acknowledgments

      Chapter 12: Coffee Beverages and Their Aroma Compounds

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Perception of Odors

      3. Identification of Coffee Aroma

      4. Impact Aromatic Compounds in Coffee and Influence of Drink Preparation Method

      5. Final Considerations

      Chapter 13: Lycopene: A Natural Red Pigment

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Lycopene

      3. Extraction of Natural Pigments

      4. Determination of Lycopene

      5. Purification Techniques

      6. Stability of Lycopene

      7. Health Benefits of Lycopene

      Chapter 14: Microencapsulation of Color and Flavor in Confectionery Products

      Abstract

      1. Introduction

      2. Sugar Confectionery Products

      3. Composition of Sugar Confectionery

      4. Microencapsulation Techniques

      5. Application of Microencapsulation in Confectionery Products

      6. Future Trends

      Chapter 15: Advanced Natural Food Colorant Encapsulation Methods: Anthocyanin Plant Pigment

      Abstract

      1. Colorants

      2. Anthocyanin and Its Chemical Structure

      3. Extraction and Encapsulation Methods of Anthocyanins

      4. Stability of Anthocyanins

      5. Anthocyanins Application in Food Systems

      6. Summary

      Index

      Copyright

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      This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

      Notices

      Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

      Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.

      To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

      Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

      A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

      British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

      A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

      ISBN: 978-0-12-811518-3

      For information on all Academic Press publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals

      Publisher: Andre Gerhard Wolff

      Acquisition Editor: Nina Bandeira

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      Production Project Manager: Punithavathy Govindaradjane

      Designer: Matthew Limbert

      Typeset by Thomson Digital

      List of Contributors

      Azni A. Aziz,     University of Technology Malaysia, Skudai, Johor, Malaysia

      Anirban Basu,     CSIR—Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, Kolkata, West Bengal, India

      Lyes Bennamoun,     University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, NB, Canada

      Maria V.Z. Boldrin,     Institute of Chemistry, State University of São Paulo (UNESP), Araraquara, São Paulo, Brazil

      Bianca Bolfi,     University of Piemonte Orientale, Alessandria, Italy

      Pietro Buzzini,     University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy

      Mariel Calderón-Oliver,     Metropolitan Autonomous University, México City, México

      Maria R. Cramarossa,     University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy

      Margareth de Fátima Formiga Melo Diniz,     Federal University of Paraíba, João Pessoa, Paraíba, Brazil

      Rashmi Dikshit,     Jain University, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India

      Marcelo C. Duarte,     Federal University of Sergipe, São Cristovao, Sergipe, Brazil

      Laurent Dufossé,     University of Reunion Island, Saint-Denis, France

      Sara Filippucci,     University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy

      Luca Forti,     University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy

      Fabio Gosetti,     University of Piemonte Orientale, Alessandria, Italy

      Mu-Xue He,     Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macau, China

      Hamilton M. Ishiki,     University of Western São Paulo (UNOESTE), Presidente Prudente, São Paulo, Brazil

      Francisco J.B.M. Júnior,     Paraíba State University, João Pessoa, Paraíba, Brazil

      Yanti M.M. Jusoh,     University of Technology Malaysia, Skudai, Johor, Malaysia

      Roungdao Klinjapo,     Assumption University, Bangkok, Thailand

      Wunwisa Krasaekoopt,     Assumption University, Bangkok, Thailand

      Gopinatha S. Kumar,     CSIR—Indian Institute of Chemical Biology, Kolkata, West Bengal, India

      Jie Li,     Wuhan University of Technology, Wuhan, China

      Hong L. Lian,     University of Technology Malaysia, Skudai, Johor, Malaysia

      Li-Gen Lin,     Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macau, China

      Hui Liu

      Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macau

      Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine and Natural Products, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China

      Marcello Manfredi,     University of Piemonte Orientale, Alessandria, Italy

      Emilio Marengo,     University of Piemonte Orientale, Alessandria, Italy

      Eleonora Mazzucco,     University of Piemonte Orientale, Alessandria, Italy

      Fan-Cheng Meng,     Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macau, China

      Ida I. Muhamad

      University of Technology Malaysia

      IJN-UTM Cardiovascular Engineering Centre, University of Technology Malaysia, Skudai, Johor, Malaysia

      Arunachalam Muthuraman

      Akal College of Pharmacy and Technical Education, Sangrur, Punjab, India

      JSS University, Mysore, Karnataka, India

      Norazlina M. Nawi,     University of Technology Malaysia, Skudai, Johor, Malaysia

      Tiago B. Oliveira,     Federal University of Sergipe, São Cristovao, Sergipe, Brazil

      Alyani M. Padzil,     University of Technology Malaysia, Skudai, Johor, Malaysia

      Edith Ponce-Alquicira,     Metropolitan Autonomous University, México City, México

      Lucindo J. Quintans-Júnior,     Federal University of Sergipe, São Cristovao, Sergipe, Brazil

      Muthusamy Ramesh

      University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville, Durban, South Africa

      Akal College of Pharmacy and Technical Education, Sangrur, Punjab, India

      Rahul C. Ranveer,     Post Graduate Institute of Post Harvest Management, Killa - Roha, Maharashtra, India

      Dai Ren,     Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macau, China

      Frederico F. Ribeiro,     Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil

      Elisa Robotti,     University of Piemonte Orientale, Alessandria, Italy

      Gracielle S. Santana,     Federal University of Sergipe, São Cristovao, Sergipe, Brazil

      Luciana Scotti,     Federal University of Paraíba, João Pessoa, Paraíba, Brazil

      Marcus T. Scotti,     Federal University of Paraíba, João Pessoa, Paraíba, Brazil

      Padmavathi Tallapragada,     Jain University, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India

      Giorgia Tasselli,     University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy

      Aline T. Toci,     Latin American Institute of Science of Life and Nature, Federal University of Latin American Integration (UNILA), Foz do Iguaçú, Paraná, Brazil

      Benedetta Turchetti,     University of Perugia, Perugia, Italy

      Chunming Wang,     Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macau, China

      Ruibing Wang,     Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macau, China

      Ying Wang,     Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine and Natural Products, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China

      Wen-Cai Ye,     Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine and Natural Products, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China

      Qing-Qian Zeng,     Guangdong Research Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China

      Qing-Wen Zhang,     Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macau, China

      Xiao-Qi Zhang,     Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine and Natural Products, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China

      Yan-Qing Zhou,     Institute of Chinese Medical Sciences, University of Macau, Macau, China

      Foreword

      In the last 50 years an increasing number of modified and alternative foods have been developed using various tools of science, engineering, and biotechnology. The result is that today most of the available commercial food is somehow modified and improved, and made to look better, taste different, and be commercially attractive. These food products have entered in the domestic first and then the international markets, currently representing a great industry in most countries. Sometimes these products are considered as life-supporting alternatives, neither good nor bad, and sometimes they are just seen as luxury foods. In the context of a permanently growing population, changing climate, and strong anthropological influence, food resources became limited in large parts of the Earth. Obtaining a better and more resistant crop quickly and with improved nutritional value would represent the Holy Grail for the food industry. However, such a crop could pose negative effects on the environment and consumer health, as most of the current approaches involve the use of powerful and broad-spectrum pesticides, genetic engineered plants and animals, or bioelements with unknown and difficult-to-predict effects. Numerous questions have emerged with the introduction of engineered foods, many of them pertaining to their safe use for human consumption and ecosystems, long-term expectations, benefits, challenges associated with their use, and most important, their economic impact.

      The progress made in the food industry by the development of applicative engineering and biotechnologies is impressive and many of the advances are oriented to solve the world food crisis in a constantly increasing population: from genetic engineering to improved preservatives and advanced materials for innovative food quality control and packaging. In the present era, innovative technologies and state-of-the-art research progress has allowed the development of a new and rapidly changing food industry, able to bottom-up all known and accepted facts in the traditional food management. The huge amount of available information, many times is difficult to validate, and the variety of approaches, which could seem overwhelming and lead to misunderstandings, is yet a valuable resource of manipulation for the population as a whole.

      The series entitled Handbook of Food Bioengineering brings together a comprehensive collection of volumes to reveal the most current progress and perspectives in the field of food engineering. The editors have selected the most interesting and intriguing topics, and have dissected them in 20 thematic volumes, allowing readers to find the description of basic processes and also the up-to-date innovations in the field. Although the series is mainly dedicated to the engineering, research, and biotechnological sectors, a wide audience could benefit from this impressive and updated information on the food industry. This is because of the overall style of the book, outstanding authors of the chapters, numerous illustrations, images, and well-structured chapters, which are easy to understand. Nonetheless, the most novel approaches and technologies could be of a great relevance for researchers and engineers working in the field of bioengineering.

      Current approaches, regulations, safety issues, and the perspective of innovative applications are highlighted and thoroughly dissected in this series. This work comes as a useful tool to understand where we are and where we are heading to in the food industry, while being amazed by the great variety of approaches and innovations, which constantly changes the idea of the food of the future.

      Anton Ficai, PhD (Eng)

      Department Science and Engineering of Oxide Materials and Nanomaterials, Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science, Politehnica University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

      Series Preface

      The food sector represents one of the most important industries in terms of extent, investment, and diversity. In a permanently changing society, dietary needs and preferences are widely variable. Along with offering a great technological support for innovative and appreciated products, the current food industry should also cover the basic needs of an ever-increasing population. In this context, engineering, research, and technology have been combined to offer sustainable solutions in the food industry for a healthy and satisfied population.

      Massive progress is constantly being made in this dynamic field, but most of the recent information remains poorly revealed to the large population. This series emerged out of our need, and that of many others, to bring together the most relevant and innovative available approaches in the intriguing field of food bioengineering. In this work we present relevant aspects in a pertinent and easy-to-understand sequence, beginning with the basic aspects of food production and concluding with the most novel technologies and approaches for processing, preservation, and packaging. Hot topics, such as genetically modified foods, food additives, and foodborne diseases, are thoroughly dissected in dedicated volumes, which reveal the newest trends, current products, and applicable regulations.

      While health and well-being are key drivers of the food industry, market forces strive for innovation throughout the complete food chain, including raw material/ingredient sourcing, food processing, quality control of finished products, and packaging. Scientists and industry stakeholders have already identified potential uses of new and highly investigated concepts, such as nanotechnology, in virtually every segment of the food industry, from agriculture (i.e., pesticide production and processing, fertilizer or vaccine delivery, animal and plant pathogen detection, and targeted genetic engineering) to food production and processing (i.e., encapsulation of flavor or odor enhancers, food textural or quality improvement, and new gelation- or viscosity-enhancing agents), food packaging (i.e., pathogen, physicochemical, and mechanical agents sensors; anticounterfeiting devices; UV protection; and the design of stronger, more impermeable polymer films), and nutrient supplements (i.e., nutraceuticals, higher stability and bioavailability of food bioactives, etc.).

      The series entitled Handbook of Food Bioengineering comprises 20 thematic volumes; each volume presenting focused information on a particular topic discussed in 15 chapters each. The volumes and approached topics of this multivolume series are:

      Volume 1: Food Biosynthesis

      Volume 2: Food Bioconversion

      Volume 3: Soft Chemistry and Food Fermentation

      Volume 4: Ingredient Extraction by Physicochemical Methods in Food

      Volume 5: Microbial Production of Food Ingredients and Additives

      Volume 6: Genetically Engineered Foods

      Volume 7: Natural and Artificial Flavoring Agents and Food Dyes

      Volume 8: Therapeutic Foods

      Volume 9: Food Packaging and Preservation

      Volume 10: Microbial Contamination and Food Degradation

      Volume 11: Diet, Microbiome, and Health

      Volume 12: Impacts of Nanoscience on the Food Industry

      Volume 13: Food Quality: Balancing Health and Disease

      Volume 14: Advances in Biotechnology in the Food Industry

      Volume 15: Foodborne Diseases

      Volume 16: Food Control and Biosecurity

      Volume 17: Alternative and Replacement Foods

      Volume 18: Food Processing for Increased Quality and Consumption

      Volume 19: Role of Material Science in Food Bioengineering

      Volume 20: Biopolymers for Food Design

      The series begins with a volume on Food Biosynthesis, which reveals the concept of food production through biological processes and also the main bioelements that could be involved in food production and processing. The second volume, Food Bioconversion, highlights aspects related to food modification in a biological manner. A key aspect of this volume is represented by waste bioconversion as a supportive approach in the current waste crisis and massive pollution of the planet Earth. In the third volume, Soft Chemistry and Food Fermentation, we aim to discuss several aspects regarding not only to the varieties and impacts of fermentative processes, but also the range of chemical processes that mimic some biological processes in the context of the current and future biofood industry. Volume 4, Ingredient Extraction by Physicochemical Methods in Food, brings the readers into the world of ingredients and the methods that can be applied for their extraction and purification. Both traditional and most of the modern techniques can be found in dedicated chapters of this volume. On the other hand, in volume 5, Microbial Production of Food Ingredients and Additives, biological methods of ingredient production, emphasizing microbial processes, are revealed and discussed. In volume 6, Genetically Engineered Foods, the delicate subject of genetically engineered plants and animals to develop modified foods is thoroughly dissected. Further, in volume 7, Natural and Artificial Flavoring Agents and Food Dyes, another hot topic in food industry—flavoring and dyes—is scientifically commented and valuable examples of natural and artificial compounds are generously offered. Volume 8, Therapeutic Foods, reveals the most utilized and investigated foods with therapeutic values. Moreover, basic and future approaches for traditional and alternative medicine, utilizing medicinal foods, are presented here. In volume 9, Food Packaging and Preservation, the most recent, innovative, and interesting technologies and advances in food packaging, novel preservatives, and preservation methods are presented. On the other hand, important aspects in the field of Microbial Contamination and Food Degradation are shown in volume 10. Highly debated topics in modern society: Diet, Microbiome, and Health are significantly discussed in volume 11. Volume 12 highlights the Impacts of Nanoscience on the Food Industry, presenting the most recent advances in the field of applicative nanotechnology with great impacts on the food industry. Additionally, volume 13 entitled Food Quality: Balancing Health and Disease reveals the current knowledge and concerns regarding the influence of food quality on the overall health of population and potential food-related diseases. In volume 14, Advances in Biotechnology in the Food Industry, up-to-date information regarding the progress of biotechnology in the construction of the future food industry is revealed. Improved technologies, new concepts, and perspectives are highlighted in this work. The topic of Foodborne Diseases is also well documented within this series in volume 15. Moreover, Food Control and Biosecurity aspects, as well as current regulations and food safety concerns are discussed in the volume 16. In volume 17, Alternative and Replacement Foods, another broad-interest concept is reviewed. The use and research of traditional food alternatives currently gain increasing terrain and this quick emerging trend has a significant impact on the food industry. Another related hot topic, Food Processing for Increased Quality and Consumption, is considered in volume 18. The final two volumes rely on the massive progress made in material science and the great applicative impacts of this progress on the food industry. Volume 19, Role of Material Science in Food Bioengineering, offers a perspective and a scientific introduction in the science of engineered materials, with important applications in food research and technology. Finally, in volume 20, Biopolymers for Food Design, we discuss the advantages and challenges related to the development of improved and smart biopolymers for the food industry.

      All 20 volumes of this comprehensive collection were carefully composed not only to offer basic knowledge for facilitating understanding of nonspecialist readers, but also to offer valuable information regarding the newest trends and advances in food engineering, which is useful for researchers and specialized readers. Each volume could be treated individually as a useful source of knowledge for a particular topic in the extensive field of food engineering or as a dedicated and explicit part of the whole series.

      This series is primarily dedicated to scientists, academicians, engineers, industrial representatives, innovative technology representatives, medical doctors, and also to any nonspecialist reader willing to learn about the recent innovations and future perspectives in the dynamic field of food bioengineering.

      Alexandru M. Grumezescu

      Politehnica University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

      Alina M. Holban

      University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

      Preface for Volume 7: Natural and Artificial Flavoring Agents and Food Dyes

      Many times food is related to numerous other aspects, along with its nutritional properties and life support value. Flavor and functional characteristics are among the most important aspects considered for consumers when choosing a food product. Numerous flavoring and coloring agents have been developed over time, their use being considered to add great value to the final product. In recent years the trend toward a green industry and a healthy society has had a significant impact on the design and production of such products that are added to improve foods. Natural flavoring agents and dyes were identified, and the current food industry is trying to implement their use widely in most food products, while facing challenges imposed by their processing. Also, numerous natural ingredients have weaker properties as compared to similar artificial compounds. Their efficiency, along with the production and processing efforts, which are usually superior as compared to the production of similar artificial ingredients, represents the principal challenges and current economic limitations of such products. However, due to technological progress, novel approaches offer innovative solutions so that efficient flavoring agents and dyes with minimum resources and targeted properties can be obtained to satisfy the needs of a constantly changing consumer profile. Computer-assisted approaches, chemical engineering, and innovative preservation approaches would assist food scientists in identifying, producing, and keeping valuable properties of foods.

      This book aims to bring together the most investigated and innovative approaches regarding the development of natural and artificial flavoring agents and food dyes to obtain valuable foods with improved quality, ensuring health promotion and environment protection in the context of a sustainable food industry.

      The volume contains 15 chapters prepared by outstanding authors from India, France, Italy, China, Mexico, Brazil, Thailand, and Malaysia.

      Selected manuscripts are clearly illustrated and contain accessible information not only for a wide audience, comprising food scientists, engineers, biotechnologists, biochemists, and industrial companies, but also any reader interested in learning about the most interesting and recent advances in the field of natural and artificial flavoring agents and food dyes.

      In Chapter 1, Flavoring and Coloring Agents: Health Risks and Potential Problems, Ramesh and Muthuraman aim to increase awareness regarding the properties and health risks of flavoring agents and dyes in foods and food-related products. Sufficient awareness regarding the properties of these food additives may help the manufacturing industries to develop standard foods, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetic preparations.

      Bennamoun and Li, in Chapter 2, Drying Process of Food: Fundamental Aspects and Mathematical Modeling, discuss the impact of mathematical modeling and recent approaches in food drying for a high-quality food product, with preserved properties, such as flavor and other aspects.

      Chapter 3, prepared by Dikshit and Tallapragada, Comparative Study of Natural and Artificial Flavoring Agents and Dyes, summarizes the advantages of naturally obtained colors over synthetic dyes, highlighting their main sources. With modern health-conscious consumers providing negative feedback for synthetic food dyes, interest in natural coloring substitutes has increased significantly.

      Chapter 4, prepared by Dufossé, is entitled Microbial Pigments From Bacteria, Yeasts, Fungi, and Microalgae for the Food and Feed Industries. In this work, the author presents novel trends and progress made in the field of microbial pigments, emphasizing recent techniques, such as combinatorial engineering and gene knockout, and the production of niche pigments not found in other biological systems, such as plants.

      In Chapter 5, Binding of Food Colorants to Functional Protein Hemoglobin, Basu and Kumar describe the methods for determining the modes, mechanisms, and energetics of binding of some common food colorants, such as amaranth, carmoisine, and tartrazine to hemoglobin, by using advanced techniques, such as absorption spectroscopy, steady-state, synchronous and time-dependent fluorescence spectroscopy, circular dichroism spectroscopy, isothermal titration calorimetry, and differential scanning calorimetry. These experiments provide details on the binding affinity, binding stoichiometry, conformational changes, thermodynamics, and stability of food colorant binding to hemoglobin.

      Chapter 6, Nonconventional Yeast-Promoted Biotransformation for the Production of Flavor Compounds, written by Forti et al., discusses the potential of nonconventional yeast whole cells for the production of food flavors by biotransformation, emphasizing the production of different classes of compounds, namely alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, lactones, terpenes, terpenoids, alkenes, phenols, and sulfur compounds.

      Chapter 7, prepared by Calderón-Oliver and Ponce-Alquicira, entitled Fruits: A Source of Polyphenols and Health Benefits, discusses the health benefits of fruit polyphenols, which in addition to their flavor-contributing activity, have impressive antioxidative and antimicrobial effects.

      Gosetti et al., in Chapter 8, LC–MS/MS Approach for the Identification of Unknown Degradation Products of Dyes in Beverages, offer an overview regarding the impact of modern separation techniques, especially liquid chromatography coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometry, in investigating the quality and the safety of beverages and in hypothesizing the functionality of previously unknown structures resulting from dye degradation.

      Chapter 9, Computer-Aided Drug Design Studies in Food Chemistry, written by Scotti et al., shows how computational chemistry can be used to predict important chemical structure information and how these techniques can be applied in food research. In silico methods or computer-aided drug design (CADD) studies facilitate our understanding of molecular interactions, chemical predictions, and so forth, and would significantly improve the food industry.

      Meng et al., in Chapter 10, Turmeric: A Review of Its Chemical Composition, Quality Control, Bioactivity, and Pharmaceutical Application, summarize the chemical composition of turmeric, quality control methods of the turmeric industry, and recent biological studies of curcuminoids and turmeric oil. The pharmaceutics studies and applications of this flavoring and dyeing food agent are also described.

      In Chapter 11, A Review of the Botany, Phytochemical, and Pharmacological Properties of Galangal, Zhou et al. give an exhaustive review of the botanical properties of A. galanga (L.) Willd. and A. officinarum Hance, commonly known as greater galangal and lesser galangal, respectively. In addition, the phytochemical and pharmacological properties and the identification procedures of these flavoring plants are also discussed.

      Toci and Boldrin, in Chapter 12, Coffee Beverages and Their Aroma Compounds, present a series of studies that relate the different parameters involved in coffee drink preparation and the relationship of odor compounds to coffee aroma. The relationship between the aromatics and their sensory characteristics is also revealed. Multivariate statistical analysis is employed to build models to differentiate coffee samples in terms of their flavoring parameters.

      Chapter 13, prepared by Ranveer, is entitled Lycopene: A Natural Red Pigment. This chapter reveals different methods of extraction for lycopene (such as solvent extraction, enzymatic extraction, supercritical extraction, etc.), determination techniques (i.e., spectrophotometric, HPLC, etc.), and purification methods (i.e., column chromatography technique, crystallization method, etc.). The chapter also gives insights on the stability of lycopene during processing at various temperatures and various storage conditions. Food-related and pharmaceutical importance of lycopene is also highlighted.

      Klinjapo and Krasaekoopt, in Chapter 14, Microencapsulation of Color and Flavor in Confectionery Products, discuss the impact of microencapsulation, a technique in which a physical barrier between the color or flavor and the environment is created. Food color and flavor compounds may be protected against deterioration by various coating films, the films also improve their stability and quality. Microencapsulation is currently considered as an emerging and very active field of research with numerous applications in confectionery products, such as preservation or delivery of the colorants, flavoring agents, or vitamins at/for the right time, quantity, and rate.

      Chapter 15, Advanced Natural Food Colorant Encapsulation Methods: Anthocyanin Plant Pigment, prepared by Muhamad et al., provides a brief overview on encapsulation methods that have been used for food anthocyanins, including spray-drying, freeze-drying, and most recently microwave-assisted encapsulation. The source, stability, color variation, and application of anthocyanins in food products are also briefly discussed in this chapter.

      Alexandru M. Grumezescu

      Politehnica University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

      Alina M. Holban

      University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

      Chapter 1

      Flavoring and Coloring Agents: Health Risks and Potential Problems

      Muthusamy Ramesh*,**

      Arunachalam Muthuraman**,†

      *    University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville, Durban, South Africa

      **    Akal College of Pharmacy and Technical Education, Sangrur, Punjab, India

      †    JSS University, Mysore, Karnataka, India

      Abstract

      Food safety is the major concern for human life. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved over 3000 ingredients as safe food additives to preserve, color, flavor, or thicken food items. Many of these ingredients are restricted due to the observation of unexpected adverse effects. In some cases, adulteration of food and additives causes potential health risks, such as learning disabilities, hyperkinesis, kidney damage, tumors, skin rashes, migraine, asthma, sleep disturbance, and gastric upset. Modern food products often include several flavoring and coloring agents from natural or artificial sources. The consumption of these agents is also increased in recent days due to lack of health awareness. The purpose of this chapter is to create awareness of the health risks due to the presence of flavoring agents and dyes in food-related products. Knowledge of these food additives may help manufacturing industries to develop standard foods, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetic preparations.

      Keywords

      dyes

      flavoring agents

      food safety

      health risks

      therapeutic application

      toxicity

      1. Introduction

      1.1. Flavor and Coloring Agents

      Flavoring and coloring agents originate from plant or animal or synthetic sources. These agents are additives and have been used in foods, drinks, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, home craft projects, educational settings, and so forth (Kapadia et al., 1998; Lindsay, 1996). These additives may promote the commercial production, as well as domestic preparations. Flavors may give a particular taste or smell to the products whereas colorants impart color to the final products. Advancements in the food agent technologies help manufacturing industries to formulate attractive food preparations (Zuidam and Nedovic, 2010). Flavoring and coloring agents provide external flavor and colors either alone or in combination with other ingredients through the process of chemical reactions. These agents are either derived directly from natural sources or created artificially through synthetic procedures. Sometimes, the ingredients found in nature can be synthesized artificially in the laboratory and produced more economically, with greater purity and better quality than their natural counterparts, for example, vitamin C or ascorbic acid (Delgado-Vargas and Paredes-Lopez, 2003).

      Ascorbic acid is a water-soluble vitamin and is an important metabolite in all living organisms (Genevois et al., 2014). It is an ingredient of natural sources, abundant in citrus fruits, orange, berries, and so forth. However, ascorbic acid can be produced in a chemical laboratory through the synthetic method. In food products, ascorbic acid is used to add additional flavor and color to the final products. The red color of cured meat is retained by applying ascorbic acid. It also enhances the vitamin content and maintains the flavor, as well as color by reacting with unwanted oxygen. In addition, ascorbic acid prevents the formation of nitrosamines, a causative agent for cancer (White, 1975).

      1.2. Flavors and Colors: A Recent Consequence

      The use of flavoring and coloring in food products has been steadily increased in the past decade. In daily life, foods and related products are fascinated by the addition of external flavors and colors (Bonan et al., 2013). The addition of external flavor and colors in food products entice customers by pleasing the nose and eyes through their organoleptic properties. Consumers also seek delightful and appealing foodstuffs from markets because they provide unique eating satisfaction (Altisent et al., 2013). Flavor and colors are the vital organoleptic characteristics that may directly affect consumers’ selections, decisions, and acceptance. This further may lead to persuading customers to consume more and more. Many flavors (vanilla, strawberry, chocolate, etc.) and colors (carmine, indigo, titanium dioxide, etc.) are already available in the market to prepare delightful, tasty, nutritious, eye-catching, and healthy food products. However, consumer demands and expectations continue to increase. Consumers also rely on food preparation technologies, such as flavors, colors, and so forth. Therefore, new methods and technologies are urgently needed to satisfy consumer expectations and to overtake industrial competition. This may result in the preparation of fun foods rather than nutritional and healthy foodstuffs (Berzas et al., 1999; Campos et al., 2011; Cook, 2013; De’Nobili et al., 2013).

      Processed food is the recent one and it occupies about 30% of the diet of a US resident. The meaning of the term processed food is very broad and conveys a negative implication. The International Food Information Council Foundation (IFICF) defines food processing as a remarkable change in the food product that occurs before the availability of eating, for example, canned tuna, beans, tomatoes, frozen fruits, and vegetables. Manufacturers do not require any processing information on product labels. Food is considered to be processed even if it is chopped, frozen, or dried. Foods are processed to preserve, or to enhance nutrients, or to maintain freshness at its peak. In the United States, products for eating or drinking contain large amounts of chemicals in the form of artificial flavor and colors. In the United States, the consumption of colored food has increased drastically compared to the 1950s. People consume aspartame, fluoride, bisphenol A (BPA), genetically modified diets, insecticides, highly concentrated fructose corn syrup, pharmaceutical drugs, and toxic vaccines without knowing their hazardous effects. This makes consumers unhealthy and susceptible to life-threatening diseases, such as cancer and heart disease (Amchova et al., 2015). Toxicity due to the binding ability of colorants to human serum albumin is also emerging (Basu and Kumar, 2014; Kapadia et al., 1998).

      In ancient days natural flavors and colors were preferred in food products (Delgado-Vargas and Paredes-Lopez, 2003). At present, most modern food items contain artificial flavors and colors that are originally petroleum-based chemicals or synthesized from petroleum. Natural flavors and colors from sources, such as vegetable or minerals are almost completely removed from daily use, and consumption is directed toward the use of artificial flavoring and coloring agents in food preparations (Agocs and Deli, 2011). The use of flavors and colors is not limited only to food and extends to pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals, and cosmetics. However, the awareness on the adverse effects of flavors and color was not shaped. The use of artificial flavoring and coloring agents in routine life leads to increasing scrutiny due to their associated health risks that potentially harm the consumer (Amchova et al., 2015; Kapadia et al., 1998).

      1.3. Flavors and Colors: Natural Versus Artificial

      Flavoring and coloring agents are available in two major classes: (1) natural flavors and colors and (2) artificial flavors and colors. People have used natural food flavors and dyes for a many centuries. Artificial flavors and colors are recent additions to most current food items (Agocs and Deli, 2011; Amchova et al., 2015). Natural flavors and colors are healthier than artificial in many cases. The addition of natural flavors and colors may improve the quality of preparations. Natural sources had their own nutritional medicinal qualities, such as antioxidants and antiinflammatory, anticancer, and antiobesity properties (Ludwing et al., 2014). Recently, food industries have attempted to fulfill their consumers’ demands. Food industries have been encouraged to develop flavoring and coloring agents as major food product additives through artificial processing. These artificial food flavors and colors are readily available to be added to food products, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetic preparations (Amchova et al., 2015). Few of these additives are banned due to the observation of harmful effects. Though natural flavors and colors are mostly safe as compared to artificial ones, the production cost involved in the preparation of natural flavors and colors is higher and it is difficult for small-scale manufacturing industries to produce flavors and colors from natural sources. Further, it complicates the manufacturing to use natural flavors and colors in food-related products, and therefore industries have opted to instead use artificial flavors and colors. Artificial flavoring and coloring agents are (1) cheap, (2) sensory appealing, (3) stable for a long time, and (4) independent of the agricultural cycle of plant harvesting seasons. However, the awareness of potential health risks of those artificial additives continues to raise questions. Allergic reactions, attention deficit hyperactivity disease (ADHD), and carcinogenicities are the known and suspected health risks of artificial flavors and colors (Aljaff et al., 2013; Feingold, 1976). However, the study is inconclusive due to lack of research data on it. 4-aminobiphenyl, 4-aminoazobenzene, and benzidine (Fig. 1.1) are contaminants of petroleum-derived flavoring and coloring agents. These contaminants are also known to be carcinogenic and increase the chances of unwanted health risks of artificial flavoring and coloring agents (Lancaster and Lawrence, 1999).

      Figure 1.1   Carcinogens Found in Petroleum-Derived Flavoring and Coloring Agents.

      2. Implications of Flavoring and Coloring Agents

      Flavoring and coloring agents play a key role in the manufacturing of foods, pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals, cosmetics, and related products (Kapadia et al., 1998). Consider these points: (1) These additives increase the shelf life and stability of food products under different environmental factors. Moisture, air, and temperature are the environmental factors highly associated with the determination of shelf life of products (Lanciotti et al., 2004). (2) Flavors and colors may mask unpleasant organoleptic properties of the original products. It may correct the variation of organoleptic properties. (3) Flavoring and coloring agents serve as a code for particular foods or related products. They may also serve as an identity for specific manufactures. (4) These ingredients improve the nature, texture, and appearance of foods. (5) Further, it enhances nasal sensations and visual perceptions to stimulate the eating desire of consumer (FAO and IFIC, 2010).

      Flavoring and coloring additives are usually added at different stages of production, processing, treatment, packaging, transportation, or storage of food. At present, many scientific technologies and analytical methods (thin-layer chromatography, adsorptive voltammetry, flash chromatography, and differential pulse chromatography) are available to standardize food products, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics in industries (Bigliardi and Galati, 2013; Chang and Ho, 2014; Kapadia et al., 1998). The industries must focus customer satisfaction in the form of providing nutritive and healthy foods.

      2.1. Food Industry

      Food industries aim to satisfy the consumer expectations by providing constant and attractive foodstuffs (Martinsa et al., 2016). To achieve their goal, flavors are added into food products to make them fresh and nutritive. But there is a high level of marketing pressure on food industries to provide attractive food preparations instead of preparing quality foods. Artificial flavors are added to denatured food products. After the addition of flavors, the products look like fresh as the customer expected. Sometimes, flavor additives may increase or modify the taste of food. Fake lemon flavor, fake butter flavor, and fake berry flavor are the most commonly used artificial flavors. Butyl alcohol and phenylacetaldehyde, dimethyl acetals are the chemicals allowed to maintain flavors. Artificial flavors are used to imitate the natural flavor of specific fruits, butter, spices, cereals, beverages, cookies, juices, candies, and so forth. Most artificial flavors are banned in the European Union (Martinsa et al., 2016).

      The purpose of the coloring agent is to attract customers through visual perception. Further, the loss of color of the food products due to environmental factors (moisture, sunlight, air) is prevented by the incorporation of coloring agents. It enhances the natural color in attractive form. Coloring agents are recognized as one of the important additives in processed food products. The identification of selective product becomes easy when colorants are applied. The green color of mint ice cream and the brown color of cola are due to the addition of coloring agents. In certain products, the presence of artificial coloring agents cannot be judged from appearance. For example, Snapple ice tea and Dorito Chips have artificial red color although the products appear to be yellow (FAO and IFIC, 2010).

      2.2. Pharmaceutical and Cosmetic Industries

      Many drugs/pharmaceuticals have disagreeable odors or tastes. Addition of flavoring agents in pharmaceuticals is to mask the unpleasant odor and taste of actual drugs, for example, cetirizine hydrochloride (lemon flavor) and famotidine (menthol flavor) (Mishra and Amin, 2011; Sugiura et al., 2012). In many cases, the addition of sweeteners is not enough to mask the taste of pharmaceuticals and the flavoring agents are merged in pharmaceutical preparation. The addition of coloring agents aids to decrease the degradation of parent drug on storage. Flavoring and coloring agents are also added in formulation to add to the patient’s pleasure. The tastes of salt, bitter, sweet, and sour are preferred and easily found in pharmaceutical products (Kapadia et al., 1998). Cardamom, coriander oil, honey, lemon oil, orange oil, peppermint, rose oil, spearmint, and vanilla are the flavors commonly found in pharmaceutical formulations. In pharmaceutical preparations, the flavors and colors that match each other are preferred, for example, pink with rose flavor, green color with mint flavor, and red color with strawberry flavor. The colorants from plant sources are mainly used for orally administered suspensions. The colorants from minerals are mostly used for lotions and external preparations. The synthetic colorants are used within the range of 0.0005%–0.001% in pharmaceutical formulations (Kapadia et al., 1998).

      Flavoring and coloring additives in the form of either natural or artificial agents may also be added to cosmetics. Sometimes, food colorants are used to paint the part/whole human body to appear attractive. Natural food-coloring agents are safe compared to artists’ dyes or pigments (DOCP, 2000). The colorants used in the pharmaceutical and cosmetics industries are summarized in Table 1.1.

      Table 1.1

      Commonly used colorants in pharmaceuticals/cosmetics.

      3. Flavoring Agents

      Natural or artificial flavoring agents are one of the additives added into the food and related products to enhance the flavor, taste, and freshness of products. Flavoring agents maintain the original flavor for a long period of time during storage. However, the associated health risks of flavoring agents cannot be ignored (Table 1.2).

      Table 1.2

      Flavoring agents and their health effects.

      3.1. Natural Flavoring Agents

      The US Code of Federal Regulations has defined natural flavors or flavorings as derived from the essential oil, oleoresin, essence, extract, distillate, protein hydrolysate, or roasted product from the source of spices, fruits, vegetables, edible yeasts, herbs, barks, buds, roots, leaves, meat, seafood, eggs dairy products, fermented products. The significant function of these products may be the addition of flavoring profiles to foods or related products instead of nutritive properties (CFR, 2015).

      3.1.1. Chlorogenic acids

      Chlorogenic acids (CGAs) is a type of polyphenol and can be found in green coffee beans and coffee brews (Ayseli and Ayseli, 2016). It is responsible for oily flavor in green coffee bean. The potential medicinal values of chlorogenic acid include antidiabetic, antiobesity, and antiinflammatory activities. Phenol, gamma-butyrolactone, and 2-methoxyphenol (guaiacol) are the degradation products of CGAs. Smoked burnt flavor in green coffee beans is due to guaiacol. CGA raises the total homocysteine concentrations in plasma and may influence the cardiovascular risk (Buffo and Cardelli-Freire, 2004; Fisk et al., 2012; Olthof et al., 2001).

      3.1.2. Paprika

      Paprika is usually obtained by grinding dried fruits of Capsicum annuum (bell or chili peppers). It is used in many cuisines to add flavor to dishes. The taste of paprika varies from sweet to spicy hot and the flavors differ from region to region. Paprika is employed in the preparation of colored rice, stews, soups, goulash, and sausages as an ingredient. It has a rich amount of β-carotene and the potential health effects of paprika include antiaging, antiinflammation, and anticancer (Attokaran, 2011).

      3.1.3. Vanilla extract

      Vanillin is one of the major constituents of vanilla extract. 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde, vanillin acid, and 4-hydroxybenzoic acid are the other constituents of vanilla extract. Vanilla extract is mostly used as flavoring agent in foods, beverages, and pharmaceuticals. Natural vanilla flavoring agents are expensive due to the cost involved in the production of vanilla beans. Allergic reactions are the unwanted adverse effects of vanilla (Anuradha et al., 2013).

      3.1.4. Butter flavor

      Diacetyl is a characteristic of butter flavor and is present in unsalted butter. The flavor is added in popcorn, margarine, and butter-flavored cooking oils and sprays. Though the low-level consumption of diacetyl is safe, the long-term exposure causes obstructive lung diseases (Clark and Winter, 2015).

      3.2. Artificial Flavoring Agents

      Artificial flavoring agents are defined as substances that are not derived from the natural sources, such as spices, fruits, vegetables, edible yeasts, herbs, barks, buds, roots, leaves, meat, seafood, eggs dairy products, or fermented products. Instead, it is obtained from chemical synthesis to reproduce the flavor of natural sources. Most of the artificial flavoring agents are obtained from petroleum and contain many chemicals that are volatile (CFR, 2015).

      3.2.1. Sodium nitrate

      Sodium nitrate can be found in bacon, ham, corned beef, hot dogs, sausages, luncheon meats, smoked meats, and smoked fish as a flavor and preservative. With high temperatures, sodium nitrate produces nitrosamines, which is a cancer-causing substance (White, 1975).

      3.2.2. Artificial vanilla

      The source of artificial vanilla includes the waste products of paper mills and petroleum industries. Artificial vanilla is a cheap flavoring agent and is obtained from guaiacol, eugenol, or lignin, and so forth. Vanillin is one of the constituents of vanilla extract. The recommended daily intake of vanillin is 10 mg/kg. Toxic effects are observed when the intake exceeds 75 g. It causes allergic reactions and limits the liver enzyme dopamine sulfotransferase by 50% (Jagerdeo et al., 2000).

      3.3. Flavor-Enhancing Agents

      Flavor enhancers do not provide any separate flavors. However, they enhance natural flavors that are already present in food products. Some examples are monosodium glutamate (MSG), hydrolyzed soy protein, highly concentrated fructose corn syrup, hydrolyzed proteins, artificial sweeteners, and disodium guanylate or inosinate.

      3.3.1. Monosodium glutamate

      MSG is a sodium salt of commonly known amino acid, that is, glutamic acid. MSG has only a bit of flavor and is mainly used to enhance the flavor of savory foods. It is also used in meats, condiments, pickles, soups, candy, and baked goods to increase flavor. Formerly, the flavor-enhancing property of MSG was achieved by using seaweed broth. In a more recent approach, MSG is produced by fermentation process using starch, sugar beets, sugar cane, or molasses. The adverse effects of MSG include headaches, serious allergic reactions, nausea, chest pains with heart attack–like symptoms, brain edema, weakness, and so forth. Use of MSG increases the chances of reproductive dysfunction in both females and males. The mechanism of the flavor-enhancing property of MSG is unknown (Reif-Jxhrer, 1976; Scopp, 1991).

      3.3.2. Hydrolyzed vegetable protein

      Hydrolyzed vegetable protein (HVP) is one of the flavor-enhancing agents that provides strong flavor from a small quantity of ingredient. Canned soups and chili, frozen dinners, beef- and chicken-flavored products usually contain HVP as a flavor-enhancing agent. Headache is the major cause due to ingestion of HVP (Scopp, 1991).

      3.3.3. Highly concentrated fructose corn syrup

      The composition of highly concentrated fructose corn syrup includes 55% fructose and 45% sucrose. It can be easily found in soft drinks, baked goods, jelly, syrups, condiments (like ketchup), fruits, desserts, and so forth. The increased intake of highly concentrated fructose corn syrup may lead to weight gain, diabetes, heart disease, and bone loss. However, the present research data is not enough to confirm these adverse effects (Ganio and Tucker, 2014).

      3.3.4. Hydrolyzed proteins

      Hydrolyzed proteins is used as a flavor enhancer in food industries. It is a precursor to produce MSG. The chemical breakdown of hydrolyzed protein releases glutamic acid, which combines with sodium to form MSG. Since hydrolyzed protein is used in the preparation, the MSG is not listed in the ingredients on labels, even though these additives produce MSG. The adverse effects of hydrolyzed protein include anxiety, asthma, attention deficit syndrome, bloating, burning sensations, carpel tunnel syndrome, chest pains, depression, diarrhea, confusion, dizziness, drowsiness, infertility, insomnia, and heart diseases (Scopp, 1991).

      3.3.5. Artificial sweeteners

      Aspartame, acesulfame K, and saccharin are the artificial sweeteners used to enhance flavors. Behavioral changes, hyperactivity, allergies, and carcinogenicity are the unwanted health effects of artificial sweeteners (Mallikarjun and Sieburth, 2015).

      3.3.6. GMP and INP

      Guanosine 5′-monophosphate (GMP) in combination with inosine monophosphate (IMP) is used to enhance the meaty flavor of soups and other foods. It is generally used with monosodium glutamate (MSG), which usually enhances GMP and IMP flavor (Lin and Kinnamon, 1998).

      4. Coloring Agents

      Coloring agents are dyes or pigments (water-insoluble dyes) used to produce attractive colors in products. Though colors do not produce any taste, they can enhance taste or may alter the organoleptic properties (Agocs and Deli, 2011). A recent study recommended the addition of beetroot juice in the preparation of strawberry-flavored ice creams to alter the organoleptic scores (Manoharan et al., 2012). Addition of colorants to the products can be traced back to 1500 BC in Egyptian cities, for example, Tyrian purple dye (extract of small snails). The color of Tyrian purple dye did not fade. To obtain 1.5 g of dye, 12,000 snails were shattered. Coloring agents are divided into different types: straight colorants, lakes, mixtures, and color additives. Straight colorants produce a color independently without the addition of any of other ingredients, for example, FD&C Blue No. 1 (Blue 1). Lake is produced from straight colors by mixing with precipitants or substratum, for example, Blue 1 Lake. Aluminum cation and aluminum hydroxide are commonly used as a precipitant and substratum, respectively. However, carmine is a lake that is obtained from cochineal extract. Lakes are water-insoluble forms of colorants and are used to color oils and fats. Mixtures are a combination of color additives and are produced by mixing color additives together without any chemical reactions. Color additives are the chemicals that produce color when it reacts with another substance, for example, dihydroxy acetone (DHA). DHA is a colorless substance and when it reacts with proteins of skin, it imparts color. Food coloring molecules usually have alternative single and double or conjugative bonds that allow electrons to be excited at relatively low energy (Agocs and Deli, 2011; Berzas et al., 1999).

      4.1. Natural Dyes

      Natural color is defined as any dye, pigment, or any other substance obtained from vegetables, animals, or minerals. The colors may come from variety of sources, such as seeds, fruits, vegetables, algae, and insects (Delgado-Vargas and Paredes-Lopez, 2003). Pigments extracted directly from plants, minerals, and animals are considered to be natural dyes/colorants or naturally derived dyes. Natural materials contain no petroleum-based products. However, they should not be confused with naturally identical colorants that do not meet any of the aforementioned criteria. The process of chemical synthesis reproduces the chemical structure to become identical to the naturally derived coloring agents. Natural identical colors do not originate from natural sources (Carocho et al., 2015; Delgado-Vargas and Paredes-Lopez, 2003).

      Saffron, paprika, turmeric, beet extract, and petals are natural coloring agents. Natural coloring agents were used intact in olden days. Beet juice, beta-carotene, blueberry juice concentrate, carrot juice, grape skin extract, paprika, purple sweet potato or corn, red cabbage, and turmeric can be used to produce a wide range of colors. Natural dyes are generally provided with high quality standards and the natural dyes do not have concentrated coloring agents, which are often found in artificial dyes. The colorants of natural sources have medicinal value in addition to the coloring properties. Red beetroot contains large concentration of betanin and a low concentration of iso-betanin, betanidin, and betaxanthins, and serve as an antioxidant and cardiovascular protectant (Delgado-Vargas and Paredes-Lopez, 2003).

      The natural color ranges from red–violet to yellow. Hexane and acetone are the common solvents used to extract natural dyes. Carotenes (E160a), riboflavin (E101), anthocyans (E163), betalain (E162), and chlorophylls (E140) are the dyes of natural sources. The natural coloring agents were claimed as safe, but not always. Carmine and cochineal are colorings from bright red insects that can cause severe anaphylactic shock. Achiote seeds are the replacement for yellow color and can also cause anaphylactic shock. The major class of naturally produced coloring agents are listed in Table 1.3 and the widely used colorants are described in the following text (Agocs and Deli, 2011; Carocho et al., 2015; Delgado-Vargas and Paredes-Lopez, 2003).

      Table 1.3

      Commercially produced natural dyes.

      4.1.1. Carotenoids

      Carotenoids are a large class of pigments that can be extracted from plants, algae, and photosynthetic bacteria. Carotenoids are the naturally appealing colorants and their antioxidative and anticancer potentials are well known. Carotenoids are also used as a natural preservative in the food industry (Linnewiel-Hermoni et al., 2015). Vitamin A is synthesized from carotenoids of natural fruits and vegetables. It is essential for vision, immune system, and growth (Arathi et al., 2015).

      Lutein (E161b) and astaxanthin (E161j) are the carotenoids used in nutraceuticals and pharmaceuticals. Carotenoids offer yellow, orange, and red color to the products. Plants, aquatic animals, algae, and fungus are the sources of carotenoids. Carotenes are present in plant in different forms (α-carotene, β-carotene, o-carotene, δ-carotene, ɛ-carotene, and ζ-carotene). α and β-carotene differ only in the position of double bond at the ring system. β-carotene (E160a) is a natural yellow pigment present in yellow, orange, and green leafy fruits and vegetables. The greater the intensity of orange color in fruits and vegetables indicates the higher content of β-carotene. It protects the plant cells against ultraviolet light. β-carotene is fat soluble and dissolves in fatty dairy products like butter to give color. It is also frequently applied to produce color on the skin. The roots of Daucus carota (plant source) and Blakeslea trispora (fungus) are the sources for the extraction of β-carotene. β-carotene is also used to deepen the naturally white color of margarine and impart a creamy yellow butter color. Carotenosis is the major problem with carotenoids (Agocs and Deli, 2011; Arathi et al., 2015; Dias et al., 2009; Rymbai et al., 2011).

      Annatto (E160b) is obtained from achiote trees and is also called Roucou. Annatto is the approved natural colorant for food preparations. It is extracted from the reddish pulp seed of the tree Bixa orellana. The color ranges from yellow to orange. The carotenoids bixin and norbixin are the main phytochemical constituents of Annatto. The fat-soluble part of the extract is bixin and the water-soluble part is norbixin. It is used in biscuits, rice, flour, fish, snacks, soft drinks, meat, and so forth. The scent of Annatto is slightly peppery with a hint of nutmeg and a flavor that is slightly sweet and peppery (Agner et al., 2004;  2005; Rymbai et al., 2011). Paprika (E160c) is another approved natural colorant that constitutes the carotenoids capsanthin and capsorubin. It is also used for the products to obtain yellow to orange color. Violaxanthin, neoxanthin, β-cryptoxanthin, fucoxanthin, lycopene, and astaxanthin are the carotenoids of naturally derived dyes (Inoue et al., 2008; Rymbai et al., 2011).

      4.1.2. Carthamin

      Carthamin or carthamine or natural red 26 is a red color pigment of the safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) plant (Rymbai et al., 2011). Carthamin is composed of two chalcone units and the conjugated double bond that is responsible for intensive red color. It is derived from precarthamine by the action of β-glucose oxidase and is insoluble in water. It is used as a coloring agent in the processed food and textile industries (Ghorbani et al., 2015).

      4.1.3. Strawberry

      Strawberry is obtained from hybrid species of the genus Fragaria. It is cultivated for fruits. Three types of colors are produced from strawberry: (1) Red 40, (2) Yellow 6, and (3) Blue 1. The colorants contain carcinogens and cause carcinogenicity, genotoxicity, and neurotoxicity (Potera, 2010). Red 40 showed the symptoms of cancer in test animals.

      4.1.4. Anthocyanins

      Anthocyanins are water-soluble, vacuolar natural pigments (anthos = flower and kyanos = blue in Greek), which are obtained from the sources of red cabbage, beets, blueberries, and radishes. Anthocyanins belong to the class of flavonoids. The polar nature of OH functional group makes them water soluble. Anthocyanins are flavorless and odorless in organoleptic properties. The core structure of anthocyanin is flavylium cation. However, the structure varies with respect to the condition of pH of soil and leads to the color change from red to purple to blue. Over 500 different anthocyanins were identified from several plant sources. Anthocyanins (E163) colorants include 3-deoxyanthocyanidins, cyanidin 3-glucoside, cyanidin 3-rutinoside, delphinidin 3-rutinoside, malvidin 3-glucoside, methyl pyrano-anthocyanidins, pelargonidin 3-glucoside, peonidin 3-glucoside, and petunidin 3-glucoside. Anthocyanins impart four different colors: (1) red, (2) purple, (3) violet, and (4) blue. pH is a major factor that differentiates the appearance of colors of anthocyanins. In acidic conditions, it produces a red color and the blue color is obtained under neutral conditions. Further, temperature, humidity, and salinity also alter the color of anthocyanins. Anthocyanins are extracted from plant sources of leaves, flowers (Canna indica), fruits (Euterpe oleracea Mart), husks (Coffea arabica), and root (Daucus carota). Anthocyanins are used in soft drinks, confectionary products, and fruit preparations. The beneficial effects of anthocyanins include protection against inflammation, heart disease, and cancer. The existing toxicological data on anthocyanins is inadequate (Bridle and Timberlake, 1997; Chandrasekhar et al., 2012; European Food Safety Authority, 2013; Rymbai et al., 2011).

      4.1.5. Betalains

      Betalains are a red and yellow color pigment of indole derivatives. It can be easily found in plants of the Caryophyllales. Betalains are related to anthocyanins and are replacements for anthocyanin pigments. Both (betalains and anthocyanin) are water soluble and are present in vacuoles of plant cells. However, these are structurally different. Betalain is a glycoside, and consists of a sugar and a colored portion. Betalains are classified into two different classes: (1) betacyanins and (2) betaxanthins. Their color ranges from red–violet for the former and yellow to orange for the latter. The strength of these colorants is three times higher than anthocyanins. The fungicidal properties of betalains have also been ascertained. The most extensively studied betalain is Betanin (E162). It is a red food glycosidic dye derived from beetroot and is allowable for frozen dairy products, meat products, and ice creams since it degrades in the presence of light, heat, or oxygen. It also acts as an antioxidant. The other sources of betanins include opuntia cactus, swiss chard, and amaranth. The aglycone part obtained after hydrolysis is betanidin and the glycone part is betanin. The other betalains occur in beets are isobetanin, probetanin, and neobetanin. Betanidin and betanin found in beetroot have the lack of metabolism in human body and color the urine bright red (Buchweitz et al., 2013; Cai et al., 2005; Gengatharan et al., 2015; Rymbai et al., 2011).

      4.1.6. Phenolic compounds

      Flavones (apigenin), flavanones (naringin), flavonols (fisetin, myricetin) are the major phenolic class of natural colorants. Phenolic compounds include antioxidative properties in addition to their coloring properties (Rymbai et al., 2011). Myricetin and myricitrin are obtained from the root of Myrica cerifera. Carthamin, Safflomin A and B are the other phenolic colorants. The safety and stability profiles of most of the phenolic compounds remain under investigation (Kammerer et al., 2014; Manach et al., 2004).

      4.1.7. Chlorophylls

      Chlorophylls (chloros = green and phyllon = leaf in Greek) (E140) are natural pigments from vegetable sources, extracted from alfalfa. This is stable chlorophyll that was extracted from spinach leaves. Chlorophyll absorbs blue light, followed by red light and is sensitive to heat and light. There are five chlorophylls and two are mostly used as colorants in the food industry for the preparation of dairy products, soups, drinks, and sugar confections. It is insoluble in water due to its nonpolar nature, in which porphyrin ring is complexed with magnesium ion. Hence, it is mixed with vegetable oils during food preparations. The synthetic chlorophyll is sodium copper chlorophyllin and is water soluble. Chlorophyll-A and chlorophyll-B are photoreceptors (involved in photosynthesis) present in plant leaves. Chlorophyll-A (CH3-methyl in side chain) is the reaction left for photosynthesis and is blue-green in color. Chlorophyll-B (CHO-aldehyde in side chain) is an accessory pigment that absorbs at wavelengths where chlorophyll-A is less effective and transfers this energy to chlorophyll-A (yellow-green in color). When leaves degrade green color, a colorless tetrapyrroles known as nonfluorescent chlorophyll catabolites (NCCs) is formed. These compounds were identified in fruit ripening. The toxicological implications of chlorophylls have been ruled out in 2015 (Fernandez et al., 2009; Gandul-Rojas et al., 2012; Rymbai et al., 2011).

      4.1.8. Curcumin

      Curcumin (E100) is a natural pigment of turmeric and is extracted

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