Alternative and Replacement Foods

Alternative and Replacement Foods

Handbook of Food Bioengineering, Volume 17

Edited by

Alina Maria Holban

Alexandru Mihai Grumezescu

Table of Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright

List of Contributors

Foreword

Series Preface

Preface for Volume 17: Alternative and Replacement Foods

Chapter 1: A New Approach: Replacement and Alternative Foods for Food Industry

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Definition of Replacement Foods

3. Alternative Foods

4. Conclusions

Chapter 2: Natural Antioxidants and Food Applications: Healthy Perspectives

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Free Radicals and Their Main Consequences

3. Lipids and Proteins: Oxidation

4. The Use of Antioxidants in Foods

5. Natural Antioxidants: An Alternative to Synthetic Additives

6. Main Applications in Products of Animal Origin

7. Use of Natural Antioxidants: Technological and Dietary Strategies Favoring the Migration of Bioactive Compounds

8. Prooxidant Effects

9. Final Considerations

Chapter 3: Trends and Possibilities of the Use of Probiotics in Food Production

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Technological Possibilities of Probiotic Application in Different Food Products

3. Food Matrices as Protection for Probiotics

4. Conclusions

Chapter 4: Nutraceutical Food: Composition, Biosynthesis, Therapeutic Properties, and Applications

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Antioxidants

3. Bioactive Peptides

4. Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids

5. Probiotics, Prebiotics, and Symbiotics

6. Hormones, Analogs, and Hormone Regulators

7. Thermogenic Foods

8. New Approach: Food Intolerance and Allergy

9. Future Perspectives

Chapter 5: Relevant Aspects of the Development of Extruded High-Protein Snacks: An Alternative to Reduce Global Undernourishment

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Malnutrition and its Causes

3. Definition of Snacks

4. Extrusion for the Development of Snacks

5. Process Conditions and Their Effect on the Nutritional Value of Food

6. Effect of Protein Content on the Extrusion Process

7. Effect of Protein Content on the Physicochemical and Functional Properties of Extrudates

8. Effect of Processing on In Vitro Protein Digestibility

9. Interactions of Proteins and Macromolecules of the Food Array During the Extrusion Process

10. Conclusions

Chapter 6: Use of Oxalis tuberosa in Gluten-free Baked Goods Manufacture

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Oxalis tuberosa in Gluten-Free Baked Goods Manufacture

3. Conclusions

Acknowledgments

Chapter 7: Fish Discards as Source of Health-Promoting Biopeptides

Abstract

1. Introduction: Discarding Practices in the Fishing Industry

2. Pretreatments to Process Fish Discards and By-Products

3. Upgrading Discarded Materials: Focus on the Protein Fraction

4. Application of FPH in the Food Industry

5. Conclusions

Chapter 8: Metabolites of Propionibacterium: Techno- and Biofunctional Ingredients

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Classification of PAB

3. PAB as Potential Cell Factories

4. Production and Application of PAB Metabolites

5. PAB Metabolites Produced In-Process

6. Conclusions

Chapter 9: Nutraceuticals in Alternative and Underutilized Fruits as Functional Food Ingredients: Ancient Species for New Health Needs

Abstract

1. Nutraceuticals, Functional Foods, and Food Supplements

2. Fresh Fruit and Derived Products: New Sources for Health-Promoting Agents

3. Genetic, Agronomic, and Environmental Factors

4. Identification and Quality Control of Phytochemical Biomarkers

5. Functional Food Supply Chain and Environmental Sustainability

6. Alternative and Underutilized Fruit Species and the Healthy-Product Industry

Chapter 10: Designer and Functional Food Lipids in Dietary Regimes: Current Trends and Future Prospects

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Fatty Acids and Their Importance

3. Production of Designer Lipids

4. Enzymatic Synthesis of Different Structured Lipids

5. Future Trends and Concluding Remarks

Chapter 11: Single-Cell Protein as a Source of Biologically Active Ingredients for the Formulation of Antiobesity Foods

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Weight Control Mechanism

3. SCP as an Alternative Source of Protein

4. What are Microalgae?

5. Microalgae SCP and Obesity Control

6. Nutritional Properties of Microalgae SCP

7. Criteria Development of Products from SCP

8. Technological Properties of the Use of SCP

9. The Use of Microalgae as Ingredients in Health-Food Formulations

10. Regulation of Novel Foods and Novel Food Ingredients

11. Final Considerations

Chapter 12: Annatto Carotenoids as Additives Replacers in Meat Products

Abstract

1. Food and Natural Additives

2. Annatto

3. Annatto Carotenoids Applicable in Foods

4. Conclusions

Chapter 13: Gluten-Free Bakery and Pasta Products

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Gluten-Free Breads

3. Gluten-Free Cakes

4. Gluten-Free Biscuits

5. Gluten-Free Pasta Products

6. Conclusions

Chapter 14: Potential of Novel Bioactive Peptides as Functional Food Ingredients in Preventing Cardiovascular Disease

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Bioactive Peptides and Cardiovascular Disease

3. Milk Protein and Hypertension

4. Cardiac Arrhythmia and Stem Cells

5. Multifunctional Activity of Bioactive Peptides

6. Conclusions

Chapter 15: Alternative Proteins and Pseudocereals in the Development of Gluten-Free Pasta

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Comparisons Between Wheat and Alternative Pasta Products

3. Conclusions

Index

Copyright

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List of Contributors

Gabriele Loris Beccaro,     University of Turin, Grugliasco, Turin, Italy

Vinícius J. Bolognesi,     Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil

Lara T.G.F. Brites,     University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Cidade Universitária Zeferino Vaz, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil

Alicia Califano,     Center for Research and Development in Food Cryotechnology (CIDCA), CICPBA, CONICET, National University of La Plata (UNLP), La Plata, Argentina

Bruna L. Capoville,     Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Institute of Biosciences, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil

Alessandro Kim Cerutti,     University of Turin, Grugliasco, Turin, Italy

Ömer U. Çopur,     University of Uludag, Bursa, Nilüfer, Turkey

Rubi Cuj-Laines,     National Technology of Mexico, Technological Institute of Tuxtepec, Tuxtepec, Oaxaca, Mexico

Mariza P. de Melo,     University of São Paulo (USP), Pirassununga, São Paulo, Brazil

Cristiano R. de Menezes,     Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM), Santa Maria, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

Rafaella de Paula Paseto Fernandes,     University of São Paulo (USP), Pirassununga, São Paulo, Brazil

Clarissa H.O. Delgado,     Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Institute of Biosciences, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil

Débora Z. do Prado,     Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Institute of Biosciences, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil

Larry Dolley,     Agrifood Technology Station, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Bellville, South Africa

Dario Donno,     University of Turin, Grugliasco, Turin, Italy

Francisco J. Espejo-Carpio,     University of Granada, Granada, Spain

Luciana F. Fleuri,     Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Institute of Biosciences, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil

Valesca C.B. Francisco,     Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Institute of Biosciences, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil

Pedro J. García-Moreno,     National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark

Carlos E.R. Garcia,     Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil

Antonio Guadix-Escobar,     University of Granada, Granada, Spain

Emilia Guadix-Escobar,     University of Granada, Granada, Spain

Julia C.A. Heliodoro,     Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Institute of Biosciences, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil

Erasmo Herman-Lara,     National Technology of Mexico, Technological Institute of Tuxtepec, Tuxtepec, Oaxaca, Mexico

Betsabé Hernández-Santos,     National Technology of Mexico, Technological Institute of Tuxtepec, Tuxtepec, Oaxaca, Mexico

Hector M. Hernandez Hernandez,     Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Autonomous University of the State of Hidalgo, Hidalgo, México

Eduardo Jacob-Lopes,     Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM), Santa Maria, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

Ram Chandra Reddy Jala,     Centre for Lipid Research, Hyderabad, Telangana, India

José M. Juárez-Barrientos,     National Technology of Mexico, Technological Institute of Tuxtepec, Tuxtepec, Oaxaca, Mexico

Danuta Kołożyn-Krajewska,     Warsaw University of Life Sciences (WULS), Warsaw, Poland

C. Ganesh Kumar,     CSIR Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, Telangana, India

Gabriel Lorenzo

Center for Research and Development in Food Cryotechnology (CIDCA), CICPBA, CONICET, National University of La Plata (UNLP)

National University of La Plata, La Plata, Argentina

Salvador Omara Espino Manzano,     Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Autonomous University of the State of Hidalgo, Hidalgo, México

Mariana M. Maroneze,     Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM), Santa Maria, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

Cecilia E. Martínez-Sánchez,     National Technology of Mexico, Technological Institute of Tuxtepec, Tuxtepec, Oaxaca, Mexico

Maria Gabriella Mellano,     University of Turin, Grugliasco, Turin, Italy

Rocío Morales-Medina,     University of Granada, Granada, Spain

Ryan A. Morkel,     Department of Food Science & Technology; Agrifood Technology Station, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Bellville, South Africa

Katarzyna Neffe-Skocińska,     Warsaw University of Life Sciences (WULS), Warsaw, Poland

Paula K. Novelli,     Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Institute of Biosciences, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil

Naresh Pal Singh,     Uttar Pradesh University of Medical Sciences, Saifai, Etawah, Uttar Pradesh, India

Luciana D. Patias,     Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM), Santa Maria, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

Milene S. Pereira,     Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Institute of Biosciences, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil

Raúl Pérez-Gálvez,     University of Granada, Granada, Spain

Mayara R. Pivetta,     Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Institute of Biosciences, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil

Chand Ram,     National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana, India

Jesús Rodríguez-Miranda,     National Technology of Mexico, Technological Institute of Tuxtepec, Tuxtepec, Oaxaca, Mexico

Anna Rzepkowska,     Warsaw University of Life Sciences (WULS), Warsaw, Poland

Marcio Schmiele,     Institute of Science and Technology, Federal University of Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys (UFVJM), Diamantina, Minas Gerais, Brazil

Anamika Singh,     Uttar Pradesh University of Medical Sciences, Saifai, Etawah, Uttar Pradesh, India

Bhagat Singh,     Uttar Pradesh University of Medical Sciences, Saifai, Etawah, Uttar Pradesh, India

Dheer Singh,     Uttar Pradesh University of Medical Sciences, Saifai, Etawah, Uttar Pradesh, India

Renu Singh,     SCPM College of Nursing and Paramedical Sciences, Gonda, Uttar Pradesh, India

Stefania F. Siqueira,     Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM), Santa Maria, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

Meli Sosa,     Center for Research and Development in Food Cryotechnology (CIDCA), CICPBA, CONICET, National University of La Plata (UNLP), La Plata, Argentina

Caroline J. Steel,     University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Cidade Universitária Zeferino Vaz, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil

Senem Suna,     University of Uludag, Bursa, Nilüfer, Turkey

Aleksandra Szydłowska,     Warsaw University of Life Sciences (WULS), Warsaw, Poland

Juan G. Torruco-Uco,     National Technology of Mexico, Technological Institute of Tuxtepec, Tuxtepec, Oaxaca, Mexico

Marco A. Trindade,     University of São Paulo (USP), Pirassununga, São Paulo, Brazil

Jessy Van Wyk,     Department of Food Science & Technology, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, Bellville, South Africa

Norma Guemes Vera,     Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Autonomous University of the State of Hidalgo, Hidalgo, México

Reena R. Verma,     Uttar Pradesh University of Medical Sciences, Saifai, Etawah, Uttar Pradesh, India

Mirella R. Zanutto,     Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Institute of Biosciences, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Botucatu, São Paulo, Brazil

Leila Q. Zepka,     Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM), Santa Maria, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

Foreword

In the last 50 years an increasing number of modified and alternative foods have been developed using various tools of science, engineering, and biotechnology. The result is that today most of the available commercial food is somehow modified and improved, and made to look better, taste different, and be commercially attractive. These food products have entered in the domestic first and then the international markets, currently representing a great industry in most countries. Sometimes these products are considered as life-supporting alternatives, neither good nor bad, and sometimes they are just seen as luxury foods. In the context of a permanently growing population, changing climate, and strong anthropological influence, food resources became limited in large parts of the Earth. Obtaining a better and more resistant crop quickly and with improved nutritional value would represent the Holy Grail for the food industry. However, such a crop could pose negative effects on the environment and consumer health, as most of the current approaches involve the use of powerful and broad-spectrum pesticides, genetic engineered plants and animals, or bioelements with unknown and difficult-to-predict effects. Numerous questions have emerged with the introduction of engineered foods, many of them pertaining to their safe use for human consumption and ecosystems, long-term expectations, benefits, challenges associated with their use, and most important, their economic impact.

The progress made in the food industry by the development of applicative engineering and biotechnologies is impressive and many of the advances are oriented to solve the world food crisis in a constantly increasing population: from genetic engineering to improved preservatives and advanced materials for innovative food quality control and packaging. In the present era, innovative technologies and state-of-the-art research progress has allowed the development of a new and rapidly changing food industry, able to bottom-up all known and accepted facts in the traditional food management. The huge amount of available information, many times is difficult to validate, and the variety of approaches, which could seem overwhelming and lead to misunderstandings, is yet a valuable resource of manipulation for the population as a whole.

The series entitled Handbook of Food Bioengineering brings together a comprehensive collection of volumes to reveal the most current progress and perspectives in the field of food engineering. The editors have selected the most interesting and intriguing topics, and have dissected them in 20 thematic volumes, allowing readers to find the description of basic processes and also the up-to-date innovations in the field. Although the series is mainly dedicated to the engineering, research, and biotechnological sectors, a wide audience could benefit from this impressive and updated information on the food industry. This is because of the overall style of the book, outstanding authors of the chapters, numerous illustrations, images, and well-structured chapters, which are easy to understand. Nonetheless, the most novel approaches and technologies could be of a great relevance for researchers and engineers working in the field of bioengineering.

Current approaches, regulations, safety issues, and the perspective of innovative applications are highlighted and thoroughly dissected in this series. This work comes as a useful tool to understand where we are and where we are heading to in the food industry, while being amazed by the great variety of approaches and innovations, which constantly changes the idea of the food of the future.

Anton Ficai PhD (Eng)

Department Science and Engineering of Oxide Materials and Nanomaterials, Faculty of Applied Chemistry and Materials Science, Politehnica University of Bucharest,

Bucharest, Romania

Series Preface

The food sector represents one of the most important industries in terms of extent, investment, and diversity. In a permanently changing society, dietary needs and preferences are widely variable. Along with offering a great technological support for innovative and appreciated products, the current food industry should also cover the basic needs of an ever-increasing population. In this context, engineering, research, and technology have been combined to offer sustainable solutions in the food industry for a healthy and satisfied population.

Massive progress is constantly being made in this dynamic field, but most of the recent information remains poorly revealed to the large population. This series emerged out of our need, and that of many others, to bring together the most relevant and innovative available approaches in the intriguing field of food bioengineering. In this work we present relevant aspects in a pertinent and easy-to-understand sequence, beginning with the basic aspects of food production and concluding with the most novel technologies and approaches for processing, preservation, and packaging. Hot topics, such as genetically modified foods, food additives, and foodborne diseases, are thoroughly dissected in dedicated volumes, which reveal the newest trends, current products, and applicable regulations.

While health and well-being are key drivers of the food industry, market forces strive for innovation throughout the complete food chain, including raw material/ingredient sourcing, food processing, quality control of finished products, and packaging. Scientists and industry stakeholders have already identified potential uses of new and highly investigated concepts, such as nanotechnology, in virtually every segment of the food industry, from agriculture (i.e., pesticide production and processing, fertilizer or vaccine delivery, animal and plant pathogen detection, and targeted genetic engineering) to food production and processing (i.e., encapsulation of flavor or odor enhancers, food textural or quality improvement, and new gelation- or viscosity-enhancing agents), food packaging (i.e., pathogen, physicochemical, and mechanical agents sensors; anticounterfeiting devices; UV protection; and the design of stronger, more impermeable polymer films), and nutrient supplements (i.e., nutraceuticals, higher stability and bioavailability of food bioactives, etc.).

The series entitled Handbook of Food Bioengineering comprises 20 thematic volumes; each volume presenting focused information on a particular topic discussed in 15 chapters each. The volumes and approached topics of this multivolume series are:

Volume 1: Food Biosynthesis

Volume 2: Food Bioconversion

Volume 3: Soft Chemistry and Food Fermentation

Volume 4: Ingredients Extraction by Physicochemical Methods in Food

Volume 5: Microbial Production of Food Ingredients and Additives

Volume 6: Genetically Engineered Foods

Volume 7: Natural and Artificial Flavoring Agents and Food Dyes

Volume 8: Therapeutic Foods

Volume 9: Food Packaging and Preservation

Volume 10: Microbial Contamination and Food Degradation

Volume 11: Diet, Microbiome and Health

Volume 12: Impact of Nanoscience in the Food Industry

Volume 13: Food Quality: Balancing Health and Disease

Volume 14: Advances in Biotechnology for Food Industry

Volume 15: Foodborne Diseases

Volume 16: Food Control and Biosecurity

Volume 17: Alternative and Replacement Foods

Volume 18: Food Processing for Increased Quality and Consumption

Volume 19: Role of Materials Science in Food Bioengineering

Volume 20: Biopolymers for Food Design

The series begins with a volume on Food Biosynthesis, which reveals the concept of food production through biological processes and also the main bioelements that could be involved in food production and processing. The second volume, Food Bioconversion, highlights aspects related to food modification in a biological manner. A key aspect of this volume is represented by waste bioconversion as a supportive approach in the current waste crisis and massive pollution of the planet Earth. In the third volume, Soft Chemistry and Food Fermentation, we aim to discuss several aspects regarding not only to the varieties and impacts of fermentative processes, but also the range of chemical processes that mimic some biological processes in the context of the current and future biofood industry. Volume 4, Ingredients Extraction by Physicochemical Methods in Food, brings the readers into the world of ingredients and the methods that can be applied for their extraction and purification. Both traditional and most of the modern techniques can be found in dedicated chapters of this volume. On the other hand, in volume 5, Microbial Production of Food Ingredients and Additives, biological methods of ingredient production, emphasizing microbial processes, are revealed and discussed. In volume 6, Genetically Engineered Foods, the delicate subject of genetically engineered plants and animals to develop modified foods is thoroughly dissected. Further, in volume 7, Natural and Artificial Flavoring Agents and Food Dyes, another hot topic in food industry—flavoring and dyes—is scientifically commented and valuable examples of natural and artificial compounds are generously offered. Volume 8, Therapeutic Foods, reveals the most utilized and investigated foods with therapeutic values. Moreover, basic and future approaches for traditional and alternative medicine, utilizing medicinal foods, are presented here. In volume 9, Food Packaging and Preservation, the most recent, innovative, and interesting technologies and advances in food packaging, novel preservatives, and preservation methods are presented. On the other hand, important aspects in the field of Microbial Contamination and Food Degradation are shown in volume 10. Highly debated topics in modern society: Diet, Microbiome and Health are significantly discussed in volume 11. Volume 12 highlights the Impact of Nanoscience in the Food Industry, presenting the most recent advances in the field of applicative nanotechnology with great impacts on the food industry. Additionally, volume 13 entitled Food Quality: Balancing Health and Disease reveals the current knowledge and concerns regarding the influence of food quality on the overall health of population and potential food-related diseases. In volume 14, Advances in Biotechnology for Food Industry, up-to-date information regarding the progress of biotechnology in the construction of the future food industry is revealed. Improved technologies, new concepts, and perspectives are highlighted in this work. The topic of Foodborne Diseases is also well documented within this series in volume 15. Moreover, Food Control and Biosecurity aspects, as well as current regulations and food safety concerns are discussed in the volume 16. In volume 17, Alternative and Replacement Foods, another broad-interest concept is reviewed. The use and research of traditional food alternatives currently gain increasing terrain and this quick emerging trend has a significant impact on the food industry. Another related hot topic, Food Processing for Increased Quality and Consumption, is considered in volume 18. The final two volumes rely on the massive progress made in material science and the great applicative impacts of this progress on the food industry. Volume 19, Role of Materials Science in Food Bioengineering, offers a perspective and a scientific introduction in the science of engineered materials, with important applications in food research and technology. Finally, in volume 20, Biopolymers for Food Design, we discuss the advantages and challenges related to the development of improved and smart biopolymers for the food industry.

All 20 volumes of this comprehensive collection were carefully composed not only to offer basic knowledge for facilitating understanding of nonspecialist readers, but also to offer valuable information regarding the newest trends and advances in food engineering, which is useful for researchers and specialized readers. Each volume could be treated individually as a useful source of knowledge for a particular topic in the extensive field of food engineering or as a dedicated and explicit part of the whole series.

This series is primarily dedicated to scientists, academicians, engineers, industrial representatives, innovative technology representatives, medical doctors, and also to any nonspecialist reader willing to learn about the recent innovations and future perspectives in the dynamic field of food bioengineering.

Alina M. Holban

University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

Alexandru M. Grumezescu

Politehnica University of Bucharest,

Bucharest, Romania

Preface for Volume 17: Alternative and Replacement Foods

With the increasing human population and variability of nutrition demand, food industry trended for alternative sources for food production. To enhance food production, new food sources and alternative production approaches have been investigated. Also, numerous modern diseases involve a metabolic or nutritional component, which require a particular and strict diet for control or healing. Recent studies were performed in the field of replacement and alternative foods to obtain tailored food products. Alternative food industry relies on the utilization of replacement food ingredients, which could be the same or of similar attributes, in terms of nutritional, organoleptic, microbial, and functional performance. Several studies focus on the effects of replacers used to displace the physical functionality of the some considered as widely damaging food components, such as fats and sugar. Other researches highlight the great impact of alternative food industry to produce or modify highly nutritional and widely used foods (e.g., milk, bread), in order to allow their utilization for all individuals (including risk population, such as children, people with various intolerances and diseases). In the recent years, industrial companies have benefited by the progress made in the field of alternative and replacement food ingredients and additives, by increasing production and diversity of easy and cheap to obtain food products. Although alternative foods come as a sustainable solution for certain category of human population, numerous foods are constantly being transformed into artificial products, which may contain health-damaging ingredients.

This book has emerged following the need to learn about currently utilized and under development alternative and replacement foods and ingredients, as well as their impact on food industry, nutrition, and human health.

The volume contains 15 chapters prepared by outstanding authors from Turkey, Brazil, Poland, Mexico, Spain, Denmark, South Africa, Italy, India, and Argentina.

Selected manuscripts are clearly illustrated and contain accessible information for a wide audience, especially food scientists, microbiologists, biotechnologists, biochemists, engineers; and also for any reader interested in learning about the most interesting and recent advances in the field of alternative and replacement foods.

Chapter 1, entitled A New Approach: Replacement and Alternative Foods for Food Industry, is prepared by Suna and Çopur. The chapter reviews the utilization of globally used fat and sugar replacers and derived alternative foods, while giving special emphasis to their properties and novel applications in the food industry. Advantages of fat and sugar replacers, such as providing an opportunity for individuals to prevent intake of unnecessary calories or reducing high fat/calorie intake with an attempt to preserve sensorial characteristics, as well as the limitations about the manufacturing aspects like identifying the most appropriate one for a specific product were discussed. Moreover, the importance and health benefits of the alternatively used nutritional compounds in recent studies were also mentioned.

In Chapter 2, Natural Antioxidants and Food Applications: Healthy Perspectives, Fernandes et al. discuss about the health benefits of antioxidants, empathizing on novel and natural sources of antioxidants for improved food products. The addition of natural extracts with antioxidant properties is an ideal opportunity to promote the ingestion of healthy foods containing functional ingredients and appeasing the growing concern of consumers regarding their health, without causing drastic changes in the culinary habits of the population. In addition, possible benefits of the supplementation are being considered due to the probable migration of bioactive compounds derived from diet, offering a healthier alternative while maintaining oxidative stability and sensory acceptance

Chapter 3, Trends and Possibilities of the Use of Probiotics in Food Production, written by Neffe-Skocińska et al., introduces the possibility of the use of probiotics in food, and trends in modern food technology directed to healthy and safe products. Probiotics containing foods are functional products containing known biologically active elements, which have a great potential to promote health and improve food properties.

In Chapter 4, Nutraceutical Food: Composition, Biosynthesis, Therapeutic Properties, and Applications, do Prado et al. aim to address the major consumed and currently studied modified foods with nutraceutical potential, their compositions, biosynthesis, therapeutic properties, and applications, as well as discussions of their acceptance by the population, validation by the scientific community and regulatory directives.

In Chapter 5, Relevant Aspects of the Development of Extruded High-Protein Snacks: An Alternative to Reduce Global Undernourishment, Cuj-Laines et al. explore the most important parameters in the development of extruded snacks of divers protein sources to address the global issue of protein malnutrition.

Chapter 6, Use of Oxalis tuberosa in Gluten-Free Baked Goods Manufacture, prepared by Vera et al., aims to discuss the manufacturing of gluten-free bread utilizing Oxalis flour. The study of gluten-free products is a topic of current interest to the food industry, originally designed for people with celiac disease, that lead to the development of various highly appreciated food products, which are utilized by numerous people worldwide.

In Chapter 7, Fish Discards as Source of Health-Promoting Biopeptides, Pérez Gálvez et al. focus on the extraction methods to obtain valuable biopeptides from protein fractions from various fish species. Various approaches of compacting and separation stages designed to obtain lipid and protein fractions are discussed. The influence that enzymatic hydrolysis exerted on several bioactivities of such products, as antihypertensive, antioxidant, anticholesterolemic, or antimicrobial properties were also discussed in this chapter. These biopeptides can be employed in the formulation of functional food.

Chapter 8, Metabolites of Propionibacterium (PAB): Techno- and Biofunctional Ingredients, prepared by Van Wyk et al., illustrates the potential of Propionibacterium to efficiently produce a remarkable range of bio- and technofunctional biomolecules with great impact on the food industry, while having a positive environmental impact.

In chapter 9, Nutraceuticals in Alternative and Underutilized Fruits as Functional Food Ingredients: Ancient Species for New Health Needs, Donno et al. discuss about the importance of a diet rich in fruits to lower the risk of chronic diseases because, in addition to the vitamin and mineral composition, they contains various compounds with health-protective effects, in particular antioxidants and antiinflammatory compounds. The chapter highlights the importance of some underutilized fruits, which could represent a great opportunity to introduce valuable compounds with nutraceutical effect and nutritive elements into human diet in a natural manner.

Chapter 10, Designer and Functional Food Lipids in Dietary Regimes: Current Trends and Future Prospects, written by Jala and Kumar, reveals the latest developments, as well as the current industrial status of all the commercially important designer lipids that are enzymatically modified. The designer lipids derived by lipid modification play a significant role to enhance the functional properties, such as rheological and organoleptic attributes for application in food, nutrition, and health.

In Chapter 11, Single-Cell Protein as a Source of Biologically Active Ingredients for the Formulation of Antiobesity Foods, Patias et al. aim to elucidate the use of microalgae biomass as a food ingredient, emphasizing the ability of single-cell proteins as antiobesity factors, and evaluate the feasibility of their inclusion in foods for control of obesity and other metabolic disorders.

Chapter 12, Annatto Carotenoids as Additives Replacers in Meat Products, prepared by Bolognesi and Garcia, discusses about the possibility of annatto (Bixa orellana L.) seed extracts to be utilized as a possible nitrite replacer in meat products. The annatto extracts have significant concentrations of carotenoids bixin and norbixin. While the first has reddish color and a methyl ester group, which afford lipophilic characteristics, the latter, with two carboxylic acids, is yellowish and water-soluble. Both annatto compounds have in their carbonic chain conjugated dienes, allowing them to slow oxidative rancidity process. Up-to-date studies demonstrated the antioxidant properties and color capacity of annatto extracts, therefore acting as a possible nitrite replacer in meat products.

In Chapter 13, Gluten-Free Bakery and Pasta Products, Brites et al. review the scientific and technological literature to give examples of what has been developed recently around the world regarding gluten-free bakery and pasta products, giving researchers and food manufacturers a starting point for the development of such important alternative foods.

In Chapter 14, Potential of Novel Bioactive Peptides as Functional Food Ingredients in Preventing Cardiovascular Disease, Singh et al. dissect the health benefits of food products having bioactive peptides as an active ingredient, empathizing with the prevention of cardiovascular diseases. There is an increasing demand of the products in the market supplemented with specific bioactive peptides (especially milk derived), which fulfill the demand of alternative and replacement foods on global markets.

Chapter 15, entitled Alternative Proteins and Pseudocereals in the Development of Gluten-Free Pasta, prepared by Lorenzo et al., gives an overview of how to replace gluten functionality in gluten-free pasta by the inclusion of quinoa flour, zein, and other biopolymers. Partially replacing corn with quinoa flour increments dough protein content, which greatly influences both viscoelastic characteristics of the dough and drying process kinetics. Cooking quality of the final product could be explained in terms of the rheological characteristics and microstructural attributes using mathematical models that relate dough composition with structural parameters.

Alina M. Holban

University of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania

Alexandru M. Grumezescu

Politehnica University of Bucharest,

Bucharest, Romania

Chapter 1

A New Approach: Replacement and Alternative Foods for Food Industry

Senem Suna

Ömer U. Çopur    University of Uludag, Bursa, Nilüfer, Turkey

Abstract

The increasing human population and nutritional demands has meant that the food industry has tended to look for alternative sources of food production. To this end various studies have been performed in the field of replacement and alternative foods. Replacement foods are based on the substitution of one constituent with another, and these should have the same or similar attributes to ensure optimal organoleptic, microbial, and functional performance. Several studies evaluated the effects of replacement foods to displace the physical functionality of high-calorie ingredients, such as fats and sugar. For fats, the main work focused on fat intake and energy balance using nutritive or nonnutritive materials, while sugar replacers were used for partial sucrose replacement without compensating the loss in sweetness. Moreover, miscellaneous studies have been performed in the area of alternative foods, such as single cell protein, carotenoids, dietary fiber, biovanillin from agrowastes, and Echium oil as an alternative to marine oils. This chapter reviews the utilization of globally used fat and sugar replacers and alternative foods while giving special emphasis to their properties and novel applications in the food industry. Advantages of fat and sugar replacers including their ability to provide an opportunity to prevent unnecessary calorie intake and their ability to reduce high fat and calorie intake while preserving sensorial characteristics are discussed alongside their manufacturing limitations, such as identifying the most appropriate replacement for the specific product. Moreover, the importance and health benefits of the alternatively used nutritional compounds in current studies are discussed.

Keywords

nutrition

alternative food

high-calorie ingredients

carotenoids

dietary fiber

biovanillin

agrowastes

Echium oil

marine oils

1. Introduction

Improving living standards have led to a reduction of daily physical activity. This is related to the problems of increased weight gain and obesity across the world and these problems are rising in adults and children on a daily basis. Changing nutritional trends have also promoted the obesity increase due to the consumption of processed foods as well as excessive fat and calorie intake. As a consequence, balancing the daily diet, modifying food-intake habits, and cutting down calories has become a public health priority and the main objective of a healthy life (Qinna et al., 2013; Ross et al., 2016).

As a result of the growing awareness of weight-related problems, consumer demand for low-fat and low-calorie products has gained importance. To meet this demand, low-fat and low-calorie foods were improved especially for individuals with specific health problems. Furthermore, the negative effects of fat and sugar overconsumption on a number of diseases, such as cancer, type 2 diabetes, prediabetes, obesity, inflammation, and cardiovascular heart disease have been reported in several studies (Malik et al., 2010; Ng et al., 2015; Te Morenga et al., 2013; 2014; Welsh et al., 2011). Minimizing fatty food consumption has also been suggested by European governments and health organizations. It has been reported that the daily energy supplement from fat should not be more than 30% (USDA, 2010a); however, it is also known that calories obtained from fat have been too high in Europe in former years. For example, in 1995 fat intake was reported as 34% of calories and was approximated as 67 g and 96 g/day for women and men, respectively, compared with the recommended 65 g/day intake prescribed with a 2000 kcal diet for Americans (Hahn, 1997). In the 1980s dietary fat derived from added triglycerides (i.e., lard, butter, margarine, vegetable oils, and shortening) was stated as almost 50% with added fat amounting to 64 g/day (FDA, 2006). Utilizing low-fat and low-calorie foods, which includes fat and sugar replacers, has emerged as an alternative to reduce fat intake (Bennett, 1992; USDA, 2010b). In addition, the identification and development of new low-fat and low-calorie foods with acceptable sensorial properties and competitive prices has become a main target of the food industry. To this end, light products combining fat replacers and sweeteners, which have low and reduced caloric value, are anticipated to receive much more attention in the near future.

To replace fat and sugar in foods the organoleptic qualities of sweet and fat items should be provided by sugar substitutes and fat replacers without including unnecessary calories. However, it is important to ensure organoleptic acceptance when substituting full-fat to low-fat or changing the degree of sweetness. Fats are generally replaced with carbohydrates and fats containing high amounts of essential fatty acids, which help to decrease the prevalence of coronary heart disease, reduce saturated fatty acids, and reduce cholesterol levels (Giese, 1996; Sandrou and Arvanitoyannis, 2000). To this end animal fat is generally replaced with vegetative (i.e., sunflower, maize, soybean, walnut, and palm oils), modified (i.e., caprenin and salatrim), and synthetic fats (i.e., olestra). Carbohydrate- and protein-based fat replacers, such as inulin, modified corn, wheat, tapioca, potato starches, lupin-kernel fiber, β-glucan, gelatin, egg albumen, and soy protein are used to reduce the fat and energy value of foods. Sugar replacers are also used to provide partial sucrose replacement without a loss in sweetness. Nutritive or nonnutritive sweeteners thereby present a solution for reducing calories and enhancing the taste of foods and beverages. Sugar replacers used in sugar-restricted or fat-reduced diets include d-tagatose, sucralose, saccharin, aspartame, acesulfame K, neotame, cyclamate, erythritol, hydrogenated starch hydrolysates, lactitol, mannitol, sorbitol, xylitol, isomalt, high-fructose corn syrup, crystalline fructose, isomaltulose, and polydextrose. Furthermore, there are many new alternatives to sucrose (i.e., advantame and stevia), which have recently gained importance. Therefore fat and sugar replacers are recommended for the industry to successfully manufacture low-fat and low-calorie foods (O’Brien-Nabors, 2011).

The current need to feed the fast-growing global population has focused attention on alternative sources. The food industry has therefore started to search these alternatives, which takes place in the production of foods and food components together with improving nutritional properties. Various studies have been performed using alternative foods, such as single-cell proteins (SCPs) (as an alternative to dairy and vegetable protein), carotenoids (pigments obtained from different herbs as an alternative to antioxidants), dietary fibers (as a functional food ingredient), Echium oil (as a marine oil alternative), pseudocereals (as an alternative to folate), and biovanillin from agrowastes (as an alternative to natural vanillin).

This chapter will briefly discuss the definition and properties of replacement and alternative foods, the most commonly replaced and alternatively used food constituents, the importance of their intended uses, and the novel applications of different formulations in the food industry.

2. Definition of Replacement Foods

Replacement foods are not defined globally but are based on the replacement of a constituent present in the product to a greater or lesser extent with an alternative, which should have the same or similar attributes to ensure optimal organoleptic, microbial, and functional performance. Replacement foods are used to enhance nutrition and quality, improve the stability of the food and its constituents, and lower costs. To date it has been a necessity for foods with altered caloric value to be identical in both quality and quantity and therefore several studies have evaluated the effects of replacements on the physical functionality of constituents, such as fats and sugars (Lucca and Tepper, 1994).

2.1. Aspects and Examples of Fat and Sugar Replacers

Fats are the macronutrient substitutes assumed as bioactive components. Dietary fat has a number of associated health benefits, which might aid in the prevention of a number of chronic disorders. However, it is known that excessive consumption of fats could raise the risk of obesity, cardiovascular disease, and different types of cancer. Thus reducing the quantity of fat in the diet could assist people to have healthier lives. Therefore replacing foods containing high levels of fats with a variety of low-fat foods has become the primary strategy.

Dietary suggestions to reduce fat intake include changing cooking strategies to diminish fats, consuming low-calorie and healthy foods (i.e., fruits and vegetables), removing or reducing fat from the diet, and replacing animal fat with vegetative fats (i.e., corn and soybean) that contain unsaturated essential fatty acids. To achieve this goal fat replacers and artificial sweeteners play a pivotal part in the accessibility of low-calorie or low-fat items to consumers. For fat replacement the main focus is on fat intake and energy balance using nutritive or nonnutritive materials. Fat replacers can resemble proteins, carbohydrates, or fats. They can be defined as bulking agents or ingredients that substitute triglycerides in food systems to lower their fat and calorie contents, as well as emulsifiers or material coated with fat (which improves fat efficiency). Additionally, they can be absorbed individually or not absorbed in the digestive system to provide less caloric density (Shortt, 2014). One of the fat replacer subgroups is fat substitutes, most commonly called fat-based replacers. They are defined as molecules that can replace the physicochemical properties of triglycerides on a one-to-one basis. Conversely, the other group called fat mimetics can emulate the organoleptic or physical features of triglycerides but cannot replace fats on the same basis. They are classified as carbohydrate- or protein-based fat replacers. However, chemical reactions between sugars and fatty acids or the alteration of triglycerides can aid their utilization (Giese, 1996; Jiménez-Colmenero, 2013). Many of these replacers are adjusted to maltodextrins or edible starches, which contribute to a fat-like mouthfeel. Additionally, one of the protein-based fat replacers, simplesse, which is produced from milk and whey proteins or egg whites, is utilized for fat substitution. Simplesse is a small round molecule, which makes it possible to frame homogeneous colloid medias besides imitating a fat-like sensation (Jiménez-Colmenero, 2013). Classification of fat replacers commonly used in the food industry is depicted in Fig. 1.1.

Figure 1.1   Classification of Fat Replacers Used in Food Industry.

Fat replacement is based on ingredient interactions to reduce fat and calories using conventional food ingredients (Deis, 2012). Each fat replacer has distinctive features providing both functional advantages and limitations. As a result it is not possible for a single fat replacer to provide sensorial and functional qualities to all products. Using two or more fat replacers, combined with formula and procedural changes, has been shown to be the best technique (Lucca and Tepper, 1994).

The World Health Organization (WHO) revealed that fat intake should be between 15% and 30% of total energy from the diet (WHO, 2003). Dietary suggestions for the consumption of specific fatty acids (as an percent of total dietary energy) propose that close to 10% of calorie consumption ought to be from saturated fatty acids, 6%–10% from polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), 10%–15% from monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs), while under 1% must be from trans fatty acids. In addition, cholesterol intake was approved at a maximum of 300 mg/day (Deis, 2012), with the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) (2016) reporting that the current cholesterol intake is 270 mg/day.

Labeling of fat- and calorie-reduced foods is another compelling issue for consumers and the food industry. The most commonly used term light can be defined as foods containing one-third less calories or half of the fat of the reference food (Bennett, 1992). Broadly used calorie claims include calorie free, which is less than 5 calories/reference quantity; low calorie, which is 40% or less calories/reference; and reduced or fewer calories, which is 25% or fewer calories/serving than regular food. Fat claims are classified as fat free, low fat, reduced or less fat, and percent fat free based on them containing less than 0.5 g fat/reference amount, 3 g or less fat/reference, 25% or less fat than full fat, and no added fat, respectively (FDA, 1994).

As a result of increasing consumer awareness of low-calorie products, additional fat- and calorie-reduced products combined with fat replacers and low-reduced calorie sweeteners have gained importance. Low-calorie sweeteners included in light foods and beverages have helped to diminish the sugar and calories and thus contribute to good tasting products that are fundamentally lower in calories than their full-calorie counterparts. Consequently a wide scope of good tasting light products have become accessible (Deis, 2012; O’Brien-Nabors, 2011). Several studies evaluated the effects of replacers that were used to displace the physical functionality of high-calorie ingredients, such as fats and sugar. To this end, sugar replacers are used for partial sucrose replacement without compensating the loss in sweetness. They are also called bulking agents and provide additional functions to several food products, therefore they are approved as macronutrients by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (FDA, 2015a).

Sugar replacement has emerged as an important issue and food-specific formulations and particular applications are needed. However, market sales can be accomplished when the sensorial evaluation results of consumers are found to be similar to sugar-sweetened products (Alonso and Setser, 1994). The number of sweetener options that are accessible for food manufacturing has recently extended to incorporate more high-power sweeteners, which are only involved with sweetening. However, replacing just the sweetening capacity is insufficient in nourishments, such as confectionary, frozen desserts, and bakery products, in which sugar plays an important role in functionality. In these instances sugar removal from the recipe requires substitution of several functions on top of sweetening and flavor changes, such as browning, crystallization, monitoring the thermal set temperatures of protein and starch, osmotic pressure control, fermentation, hygroscopicity, and viscosity (Bean and Setser, 1992; Sumnu and Sahin, 2008).

A replacer that provides functionality to the same degree as sugars has not been developed to date; however, combining two or more replacers for a specific application has been performed in several studies (Tamer et al., 2010; Uylaser et al., 2005). Alternative sweeteners used as sugar replacers in sugar-restricted or fat-reduced diets are summarized in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1

Saccharin was the first artificial sweetener used to replace sugar in the diet of diabetics and obese people. It permitted the utilization of sweet foods with diminished calories and in addition lowered costs (Newsome, 1993). The consumption of low amounts of high-intensity sweeteners (also have known as low-caloric sugar substitutes) is regarded as harmless; however, the consumption of surplus quantities of synthetic sweeteners is regarded as dangerous to human health and has not been clarified entirely (García-Almeida et al., 2013; Giacaman et al., 2013; Murray et al., 2016). Moreover, synthetic sweeteners, such as saccharin and aspartame have a metallic taste, that is, distinct from their sugar taste, which has led to increasing interest in natural sugar alternatives. In this point of view, the use of stevia as a sugar replacer has become a current topic. Stevioside, obtained from the leaves of Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni, has a sweetness value, that is, 300 times higher than sucrose and it contains significant levels of proteins, potassium, and essential nutrients. Stevioside is widely used in candies and chocolates; soft drinks, fruit drinks, coffee, and herbal tea; baked foods, such as puddings, biscuits, and cakes; and other foods, such as ice-creams, sauces, sweet corn, delicacies, pickles, yoghurt, soju, soy sauce, and sea foods (Goyal and Goyal, 2010; Hossain et al., 2010). However, its bitter aftertaste narrows down its use in food products. Using stevioside as a sugar replacer could be an attractive opportunity to the food industry as it provides the advantages of heat-stability, acid-stability, and is nonfermentable (Gasmalla et al., 2014). However, the FDA has not permitted the use of stevia leaves or crude extracts as they have not been approved as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) in the literature (FDA, 2016). Nevertheless, in countries, such as Japan and China there are many international food companies using stevia in their products. In Turkey the use of steviol glycosides is permitted by Turkish legislation in products including energy-reduced or sugar-free aromatized fermented milk products (maximum of 100 mg/kg or mg/L), soft drinks (150 mg/L), energy-reduced jams and marmalades (200 mg/kg), sugar-free pastels (670 mg/kg), and sugar-free microcandies (2000 mg/kg) (Turkish Food Codex Regulation on Food Additives, 2013).

Another term added sugar is used to define the sugars added in the production processes, natural sugars obtained from a whole food, concentrated foods in which sugar is the major compound, and caloric sweeteners. Sugar alcohols are not listed as added sugars by the FDA for nutrient labeling regulations (FDA, 2014; Ng et al., 2015). Decreasing the intake of calories from added sugar is also recommended by USDA (2016) as it they should total less than 10% of calories/day. However, it might not be simple for consumers to comply with this advice because the quantity of added sugars cannot be determined from the nutritional facts labelled on goods which are packaged by consumers, as there is a progressing interest on their consumption.

2.2. Applications and the Development of Fat and Sugar Replacers in the Food Industry

As a result of the growing consumer interest in low-fat and low-calorie foods, several studies have focused on the applications of specific fat and sugar replacers. Current examples and the novel approaches of fat replacers are shown in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2

PUFAs, Polyunsaturated fatty acids.

To reduce the fat content of foods and develop healthier fatty acid profiles, multiple emulsions (MEs) could be used to alter the qualitative and quantitative features of the lipids. MEs (W/O/W or O/W/O) are formed from the combination of both oil-in-water and water-in-oil emulsions. Their benefits include their ability to act as delivery systems for bioactive lipids and their encapsulation, protection, and release of hydrophilic constituents. Using O/W emulsions means that MEs can be utilized since the section of the lipid is displaced by water, which was diffused inner the emulsion. Like a typical O/W emulsion, together with the same overall diffused phase volume and droplet size circulation, a double emulsion could be set up to reduce the fat content. This has been reported as an appropriate way for the manufacturing of fat-reduced products that have analogous physicochemical and sensory characteristics to full-fat products (Jiménez-Colmenero, 2013; McClements et al., 2009; Ritzoulis et al., 2010). Nevertheless, the uses of MEs as fat replacers in the production of low-fat (low-calorie) foods are very limited. Some studies have focused on the replacement of milk fat with MEs (canola oil) in cottage cheeses and yogurts, for the reduction of fat (15%–26%) content in cheese-based products developed with W/O/W emulsion (stabilized with hydrocolloids), and for the decrement of calories in whipped dairy cream using nondigestible lipid phase (e.g., mineral oils) containing MEs (Lobato-Calleros et al., 2006; 2009; Márquez and Wagner, 2010; McClements and Li, 2010). Besides improving the fatty acid profile, O (from plant and marine origins)/W emulsions can be used in meat-based foods to replace animal fat (Jiménez-Colmenero, 2007). Likewise, researchers looking to establish and specify MEs have used mineral oils, hydrocarbon solvents, and vegetable oils (i.e., canola, olive, sunflower, and chia) as a lipid phase (Bonnet et al., 2010).

Fats play a substantial role in meat products as they provide sensorial (e.g., juiciness, texture, and flavor) and technological (e.g., cooking loss, emulsion stability, and water-holding capacity) characteristics. Thus lowering the fat content could result in technological problems and less accepted products. For the manufacture of fat-reduced meat products, fiber and vegetable oil are the most common nonmeat ingredients as they maintain quality and provide health benefits. Selani et al. (2016) investigated the impacts of pineapple byproducts and canola oil usage as fat replacers on physicochemical and sensorial properties of low-fat burgers. Pineapple byproduct was used as a fat replacer based on its high fiber content (75.8%) while canola oil was used due to its high ratios of MUFAs (63.27%) and average levels of PUFAs (28.14%) (USDA, 2015). In the study samples containing 20% fat were labelled as conventional (CN), while other samples, such as control (A), pineapple byproduct (B), canola oil (C), pineapple byproduct, and canola oil (D) all included 10% fat and were designated as low-fat formulations. Byproduct added burgers demonstrated higher water and fat retention along with decreased cooking losses. Full-fat burgers were less cohesive than low-fat burgers (i.e., A, B, C, and D) and showed lower hardness and chewiness values. Among the low-fat formulations, B and D showed the same tenderness as the CN burgers. Sensorial properties, such as taste and odor were not different between CN and D. Consequently, pineapple byproduct and canola oil were determined as practicable fat replacers for beef burger production.

Fiber is one of the most important components used in the production of functional foods. Soluble fiber is considered to lower cholesterol and intestinal glucose absorption while insoluble dietary fiber acts as a bulking agent and an intestinal activity regulator (Selani et al., 2016). In addition, fiber could easily be used for the development of water- and oil-holding capacities. In products requiring hydration they could be used to prevent syneresis, develop the yield, stabilize emulsions, and alter the texture (Elleuch et al., 2011).

β-Glucan enriched preparations are also used to partially or totally replace fats in different lower fat and energy food formulations. Additionally, β-glucan supplementation into both cereals and dairy-based foods acts as an important functional ingredient for improving the food structure and texture. Cereal β-glucans demonstrate all the physiological benefits that have been assigned to dietary fiber (Hallfrisch and Behall, 1997), such as lowering the risks of type 2 diabetes, obesity, cardiovascular disease, and ischemic stroke through metabolic pathways, such as a reduced blood lipids and blood pressure, enhanced insulin sensitivity, and improved blood glucose control (Liu, 2002; McKeown and Meigs, 2002; Steffen et al., 2003a,b). β-Glucan is also involved in the generation of short-chain fatty acids and the development of beneficial gut microflora, such as prebiotics. The (1,3, 1,4)-β-d-glucan, named β-glucan, can be obtained from wheat, barley, oats, and other cereals with wheat grain containing 1% β-glucan and oats and barley containing 3%–7% and 5%–11%, respectively (Brennan and Cleary, 2005). β-Glucan is acquired by treating oat flour (containing around 5% β-glucan soluble fibers) with food grade enzymes before water-soluble and insoluble components are physically separated from each other and dried. β-Glucan is the dried water-soluble part and is unique as it is the only fat replacer that naturally contains both a carbohydrate and a gum. As a result of the removal of oat flavor, β-glucan can be used in a variety of flavored food systems. It also confers a smoothness, which does not exist in other carbohydrate fat replacers. Consequently, cereal β-glucans combined into different foods appear to be an appropriate constituent in palatability at doses that show physiological responses (Jenkins et al., 2002). The structure of β-glucan is depicted in Fig. 1.2 (National Center for Biotechnology Information, 2016).

Figure 1.2   Structure of β-Glucan.

In relation to this knowledge, it has been reported that adding oatrim substantially lowered the fat and energy content besides benefical health effects. Oatrim (oat β-glucan-amylodextrin) is produced by hydrolyzing starch in oat flour or wheat α-amylase. It is a soluble material containing 5% β-glucan, and it has the ability to form gels with water to substitute fat in several foods (i.e., fat-free and cholesterol-free milks) (O’Brien-Nabors, 2011). According to the 11-week controlled crossover study, oatrim containing low (1%) and high (10%) levels of soluble β-glucan (30% fat, 55% carbohydrate, and 15 % protein) was used to replace fat and carbohydrate in a variety of foods instead of the traditional menu (35% fat, 50% carbohydrate, and 15% protein). Consumption of these menus by male and female subjects demonstrated that menus containing high levels of β-glucan were successful at reducing risk factors. Gastrointestinal symptoms and a longer adaptation period (5 vs. 13 days) were also reported for this menu. However foods, such as baked goods (i.e., muffins, waffles, and cakes) and meat-containing foods, in which the fat content was reduced through the addition of oatrim, were accepted as part of their diets by all of the subjects (Hallfrisch and Behall, 1997).

Inulin, a nondigestible carbohydrate-based fat replacer, has commercial applications in the food industry. It is a fructose polymer derived from plants that remains undigested in the human upper gastrointestinal system. However, it can be fermented in the colon leading to an increase of bifidobacteria and the management of short-chain fatty acids while promoting calcium absorption and retention together with benefits, such as diminishing colon cancer risk (Izzo and Franck, 1998; Niness, 1999). For the production of inulin as a white unscented powder with almost no sweetness, chicory roots are generally utilized. Moreover, inulin is used in nonmeat foods, such as cakes and chocolates due to its ability to improve sensorial properties and its low-caloric value (1.0 kcal/g). Inulin’s technofunctional fat-like properties means that it does not show any negative effects on taste and texture (Devereux et al., 2003; Franck, 2002).

O’Brien et al. (2003) studied the effects of different levels of fat replacers, such as inulin gel, inulin powder, and simplesse on the rheological aspects of dough and the quality of wheat bread. Inulin gel (containing less inulin than the powder form) is produced by the gel-forming ability of inulin when combined with water. Margarine was used as control fat. Based on flour weight, flour (100%), water (59%), salt (2%), and yeast (1.5%) constituted the main ingredients of control dough without fat. Other loaves included the same ingredients but with added fat (margarine), inulin gel, inulin powder, or simplesse (at both 2.5% and 5% for each sample). The results showed that the highest loaf volume yields were obtained using inulin gel (both 2.5 and 5%) and control fat (2.5 and 5%). Inulin gel was found to be more effective than the powder form and the most useful concentration for fat replacement was determined as 2.5%. Whereas simplesse at both levels were not resulted satisfying as it weakened the gluten network and revealed a more porous structure.

In another study inulin was used to replace fat in low-fat, dry fermented sausages (LFDS) to determine the effects of fat replacement on bulk texture and sensory attributes on LFDS against to commercially available average fat content sausages. High-fat (HF) sausages were prepared with conventional pork fat whereas medium-fat (MF) and low-fat (LF) sausages were manufactured with inulin to reduce the fat content to 50%–25%, respectively. HF and LF groups were used as controls and 6, 7, 10, and 11.5% concentrations of aqueous inulin solutions were applied. The results demonstrated that LF sausages containing 25% fat were less tender, less springy, and gummier than HF sausages. Sausages containing inulin had lowered fat ratios of 40%–50% and counted 30% less calories as they were regarded as acceptable and producible. In conclusion, replacing fat with inulin, specifically 10% enrichment, has been reported as an excellent way of reducing calories and developing nutritional characteristics (Mendoza et al., 2001).

Archer et al. (2004) replaced fat in sausage patties (around 50%) with lupin-kernel fiber and inulin. They investigated the effects on daily consumed fat and energy, sensorial characteristics, and satiety in 33 healthy male subjects (average age of 52 years and BMI of 27.4 kg/m²). Lupin-kernel fiber, obtained from the dehulled seeds of Australian sweet lupin (Lupinus angustifolius), was used as a novel insoluble nondigestible carbohydrate-based fat replacer (Johnson and Gray, 1993). Full-fat sausage patty (A) was used as the control group while inulin-containing patty (B) and lupin-kernel fiber-containing patty (C) were used as reduced fat samples. One day apart, participants consumed either a meal consisting mainly of sausage patties A, or B or C. Meals containing patties B and C resulted in a reduction of 36 and 37% of fats and 15 and 17% of energy content, respectively, when compared with meal A. Subjects rated their satiety immediately after the meal and meal B was reported to have lower overall acceptability than meal A and C had lower flavor features than A. Additionally, meal C was produced greater satiety than the other patties. In conclusion inulin and lupin-kernel fiber could be used as fat replacements due to their satiety characteristics.

There is also a growing trend about finding natural alternatives to cocoa butter fat (CBF), which is obtained from cocoa seeds (Theobroma cacao), due to its high price, lack of supply, decreased global cultivation, and restricted technological reasons. For this aim, recent studies has been focused on the production of natural matrices, such as cocoa butter replacers (CBRs), cocoa butter equivalents (CBEs), and cocoa butter substitutes (CBSs). CBRs are defined as nonlauric fats, which could partially or wholly