Biodiversity and Climate Change Adaptation in Tropical Islands

Biodiversity and Climate Change Adaptation in Tropical Islands

Edited by

Chandrakasan Sivaperuman

Zoological Survey of India, Andaman & Nicobar Regional Centre, Government of India, Ministry of Environment & Forests, Port Blair, India

Ayyam Velmurugan

ICAR-Central Island Agricultural Research Institute, Port Blair, India

Awnindra Kumar Singh

ICAR-Central Island Agricultural Research Institute, Port Blair, India

Iyyappan Jaisankar

ICAR-Central Island Agricultural Research Institute, Port Blair, India

Table of Contents

Cover

Title page

Table of Contents

Copyright

Contributors

Preface

Section I: Preamble

Chapter 1: The Nature and Characters of Tropical Islands

Abstract

1. The Background

2. Tropical Islands – An Introduction

3. Physical Features of Tropical Islands

4. Island Ecosystem and Biodiversity

5. Climate Change and Tropical Islands

6. Conclusions

Chapter 2: Tropical Islands: Ecosystem and Endemism

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Endemism

3. Distribution of Endemic Species

4. Endemism: A Case Example of Andaman and Nicobar Islands

5. Threat to Endemism and Endemic Species

6. Conservation

7. Conclusions

Section II: Biodiversity of Tropical Islands

Chapter 3: Diversity of Ethno-Medicinal Plants of Tropical Islands – With Special Reference to Andaman and Nicobar Islands

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Scope and Extent of Ethno-Medicinal Plant Use

3. Ethno-Medicinal Plants of Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India

4. Climate Change and Habitat Degradation

5. Conservation

6. Conclusions

Acknowledgements

Chapter 4: Biodiversity of Polynesian Islands: Distribution and Threat From Climate Change

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Physical Setting

3. Biodiversity of Polynesian Islands

4. Climate Change and Vulnerability

5. Biodiversity Loss

6. Threats to Biodiversity

7. Biodiversity Conservation

8. Conclusions

Chapter 5: Structure and Species Diversity of Mangrove Ecosystem

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Structure and Composition of Mangrove Communities

3. Habitat Adaptations

4. Global Pattern

5. Mangroves of Andaman and Nicobar Islands – A Case Study

6. Conclusion

Acknowledgements

Chapter 6: Coconut Biodiversity – Nature’s Gift to the Tropical Islands

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Botanical Description

3. Land Suitability and Establishment of Coconut

4. Area and Production

5. Distribution and Spread of Coconut

6. Coconut Biodiversity

7. Use of Biodiversity in Coconut Improvement

8. Climate Change and Its Impact on Coconut

9. Breeding for Drought Tolerance in Coconut

10. Biodiversity and Economic Benefit in Coconut

11. Conservation of Coconut Biodiversity

12. Conclusion – Gift of Nature’s Journey Into the Future

Chapter 7: Habitat Ecology and Diversity of Rocky Shore Fauna

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Description of the Rocky Shore Habitat

3. Species Diversity

4. Food Chain and Food Web

5. Rocky Shore Faunal Assessment – A Case Example of Andaman Islands

6. Rocky Shore Habitat and Species – An Analysis

7. Effect of Anthropogenic Activity

8. Conclusion

Acknowledgements

Chapter 8: Marine Ecosystems of Andaman and Nicobar Islands – Species Abundance and Distribution

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Andaman and Nicobar Island Geography

3. Coastal Ecosystems and Offshore Marine Ecosystems

4. Marine Faunal Resources of Andaman and Nicobar Islands

5. Fish Biodiversity and Their Distribution in the Ecosystems

6. Marine Protected Areas

7. Conclusion

Acknowledgements

Chapter 9: Invasive Species in Freshwater Ecosystems – Threats to Ecosystem Services

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Impact of Invasive Species on Native Ecosystem

3. Economic Significance of Non-Native Fishes

4. Climate Change and Non-Native Fishes

5. Some Case Examples From Tropical Islands

6. Impact of Invasions

7. Conservation

8. Conclusions

Chapter 10: Avian Diversity of Bay Island and Its Assessment Tools

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Avifaunal Studies in Andaman and Nicobar Islands

3. Avifaunal Diversity in Andaman and Nicobar Islands

4. Endemic Avifauna

5. Avian Diversity Assessment Tools – A Case Example of North Andaman

6. Conservation and Suggestions of Avifaunal of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands

7. Conclusion

Chapter 11: Marine Fishery Resources and Species Diversity of Tropical Waters

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Status of Global Marine Fishery

3. India and the IO Region

4. Tropical Islands of IO

5. Taxonomy of IO Marine Fish Diversity

6. Conservation and Management

Acknowledgements

Chapter 12: Rice Genetic Resources in Tropical Islands

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Rice – Area, Production and Productivity in the Tropical World

3. Importance of Rice in Human Diet

4. Nomenclature of Oryza Species Complex

5. Origin of Cultivated Rice

6. Domestication of Rice

7. Dispersal of Cultivated Rices

8. Diversity in Rice Cultivation

9. Collection, Conservation and Utilisation of Rice Germplasm

10. Rice Diversity and Cultivation in Andaman and Nicobar Islands

11. Conservation of Rice Genetic Diversity

12. Future Prospects

13. Conclusions

Section III: Climate Change and Its Impacts on Tropical Island

Chapter 13: Climate Change Projections and Addressing Intrinsic Uncertainties

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Climate Change

3. Future Climate Projections

4. Uncertainties in Projections

5. Nature and Origin of Uncertainty

6. Major Approaches in the Assessment of Uncertainty

7. Assessment for Agricultural Decisions

8. Treatment of Uncertainty for Adaptation Decisions: Case Study of Rice Over Thanjavur, India

9. Conclusion

Acknowledgement

Chapter 14: Climate Resilient and Livelihood Security – Perspectives for Mauritius Island

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Settlement and Economic History

3. Livelihood

4. Mauritius Island – Physical Features

5. Biodiversity of Mauritius

6. Climate Change and its Impact

7. Climate Resilient by Adaptive Management

8. Conclusions

Chapter 15: Livestock and People – The Intimate Relation Under Threat

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Livestock-based Farming Systems

3. Climate Change and Livestock Sector

4. Effect of Climate Change on Animal Production System

5. Adaptation to Climate Change

6. Climate Change and Livestock Sector – A Case Example of Andaman and Nicobar Islands

7. Conclusion

Chapter 16: Shifting Equilibrium of Pest and Diseases in Agriculture

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Changing Pest Outbreaks in Relation to Changing Climate

3. Effect of Climate Change

4. Climate Change on Plant Disease Occurrence

5. Climate Change on Weeds

6. Climate Change on Nematode

7. Conclusions

Chapter 17: Uncertainties in Measuring Climate Change Impact on Marine Biodiversity

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Climate Change and its Effect on the Marine Environment

3. Biodiversity and Climate Change

4. Sampling Methods

5. Management of Uncertainty

6. Conclusion

Acknowledgement

Chapter 18: Biodiversity and Climate Change Impacts on the Lakshadweep Islands

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Lakshadweep Islands

3. Biodiversity of the Lakshadweep Islands

4. Climate Change and Biodiversity

5. Challenges to Biodiversity Conservation

6. Lakshadweep Biodiversity and Strategy Action Plan

7. Conclusions

Section IV: Adaptive Management

Chapter 19: Biodiversity Conservation: Issues and Strategies for the Tropical Islands

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Biodiversity Types

3. Need for Biodiversity Conservation

4. Status of Biodiversity Distribution

5. Importance of Tropical Region Biodiversity

6. Threats to the Biodiversity

7. Biodiversity Conservation Objectives and Strategies

8. Biodiversity Conservation

9. Climate Change and Biodiversity Conservation

10. Conclusion

Chapter 20: Diversification of Island Agriculture – A Viable Strategy for Adaptation to Climate Change

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Status of Agriculture

3. Climate Change

4. Adaptation

5. Agricultural Diversification

6. Farm Diversification

7. Diversification Through Alternative Farming in Tropical Islands

8. Conclusion

Chapter 21: Land Shaping Methods for Climate Change Adaptation in Coastal and Island Region

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Shrinking Land and Water Resources

3. Production System Constraint

4. Technological Options

5. Effect of Land Shaping

6. Conclusions

Chapter 22: Harnessing Genetic Resources in Field Crops for Developing Resilience to Climate Change

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. World Food Production

3. Interdependence of Crop Diversity and Climate Change

4. Climate Change Impact on Food Grain Production

5. Utilisation of Genetic Diversity for Adaptation

6. Breeding and Modern Biotech Tools

7. Use of Physiological Parameters for Higher Selection Efficiency

8. Use of Biodiversity Through System Approach

9. Conservation of Biodiversity in Field Crops

10. Conclusion

Chapter 23: Coping with Climatic Uncertainties Through Improved Production Technologies in Tropical Island Conditions

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Crop Weather Relations

3. Importance of Horticultural Crops in Tropical Islands

4. A Comparative Study of Tropical Islands—Cuba, Samoa, Sri Lanka and Andaman and Nicobar islands

5. Management of Uncertainties Due to Abiotic Stresses

6. Management Options for Climatic Uncertainties

7. Urban Agriculture

8. Management of Climatic Uncertainty by System Approach

9. Plant Protection Under Uncertain Situations

10. Land Shaping/Modification Techniques

Chapter 24: Bioshield: An Answer to Climate Change Impact and Natural Calamities?

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Importance of Coastal and Island Ecosystem

3. Climate Change and Natural Calamities

4. Impacts

5. Adaptation Options

6. Bioshield

7. Effect of Bioshield—A Case Example of Little Andaman, India

8. Limitations of Bioshield

9. The Way Forward

10. Conclusions

Section V: Policy Decisions and Biodiversity Conservations in the Tropical Islands

Chapter 25: Coastal Area Management: Biodiversity and Ecological Sustainability in Sri Lankan Perspective

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Coastal Zones

3. Coastal Area Ecosystems – A Case Example of Sri Lanka

4. Significance of Coastal Habitats

5. Threats to Coastal Ecosystem

6. Coastal Area Conservation

7. Coastal Habitat Management in Sri Lanka

8. Sustainability

9. Restoration

10. Strategic Planning

11. Conclusion

Chapter 26: Conservation of Coral Reef Environment: Perspectives for Tropical Islands

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Coral Reef and its Environment

3. Species Distribution and Diversity

4. Economic Aspects of Coral Reef

5. Threat to the Coral Ecosystem

6. Conservation of Coral Reef Environment

7. Conclusions

Acknowledgement

Chapter 27: Marine Biodiversity – Strategies for Conservation, Management and Ecological Restoration

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Climate Change and Other Stresses

3. Management Strategy

4. Ecological Restoration

5. Conclusions

Acknowledgement

Chapter 28: Agro-Meteorological Advisory Services for Informed Decision Making in India

Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Agromet Advisories and Adaptation

3. Reaching Out to the Stakeholders – A Case Example of India

4. Organisational Set-Up for Dissemination of Information

5. National Meteorological Services

6. Network of Observatory

7. Use of Different Weather Forecasts in Indian Agriculture

8. Management of Extreme Events

9. The Way Forward

10 Conclusions

Index

Copyright

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Contributors

V.M. Abdul Gafoor,     Krishi Vigyan Kendra, ICARI-CIARI, Kavaratti, India

Joju P. Alappatt,     Andaman and Nicobar Administration, Port Blair, India

K.A. Albert Idu,     Blacklip Pearl Oyster Laboratory of CMFRI, Fisheries Training Centre, Marine Hill, Port Blair, India

S.K. Ambast,     ICAR-Indian Institute of Water Management, Bhubaneswar, India

J. Raymond Jani Angel,     ICAR-Central Island Agricultural Research Institute, Port Blair, India

Abhaya Balasuriya,     Rajarata University of Sri Lanka, Mihintale, Sri Lanka

Utpal Biswas,     ICAR-Central Island Agricultural Research Institute, Port Blair, India

D. Burman,     ICAR-Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Regional Research Station, Canning Town, Parganas, India

Guillén Carlos,     Instituto Nacional de Salud Agrícola Integral (INSAI), Mérida, Venezuela

Swati Chandras,     India Meteorological Department, Shivajinagar, India

N. Chattopadhyay,     India Meteorological Department, Shivajinagar, India

V. Damodaran,     ICAR-Central Island Agricultural Research Institute, Port Blair, India

Apurba Kumar Das,     Andaman and Nicobar Centre for Ocean Science and Technology, National Institute of Ocean Technology, Port Blair, India

A.K. De,     ICAR-Central Island Agricultural Research Institute, Port Blair, India

G. Dharani,     National Institute of Ocean Technology, Ministry of Earth Science, Government of India, Chennai, India

V. Geethalakshmi,     TNAU, Madurai, India

R. Gowtham,     Agro Climate Research Centre, TNAU, Coimbatore, India

I. Jaisankar,     ICAR-Central Island Agricultural Research Institute, Port Blair, India

B.A. Jerard,     Coconut specialist, Indian Technical and Economic cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of Fiji, Suva, Fiji

S. Jeyakumar,     ICAR-Central Island Agricultural Research Institute, Port Blair, India

Mayur Y. Kamble,     National Orchidarium and Experimental Garden, Yercaud, Salem, India

A. Kannan,     Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States

B. Kariyanna,     ICAR-National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India

R. Karthick,     SDS Biotech K.K, Tokyo, Japan

R. Karuna Kumari,     Pondicherry University, Port Blair, India

C.R. Kirubagaran,     National Institute of Ocean Technology, Ministry of Earth Science, Government of India, Chennai, India

R. Kiruba-Sankar,     ICAR-Central Island Agricultural Research Institute, Port Blair, India

V. Kripa,     Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Kochi, India

A. Kundu,     ICAR-Central Island Agricultural Research Institute, Port Blair, India

B. Lalljee,     Faculty of Agriculture, Agriculture University of Mauritius, Reduit, Mauritius

C. Linoy Libini

Blacklip Pearl Oyster Laboratory of CMFRI, Fisheries Training Centre, Marine Hill, Port Blair

Kerala University of Fisheries & Ocean Studies, Kochi, India

K. Lohith Kumar,     ICAR-Central Island Agricultural Research Institute, Port Blair, India

Subhasis Mandal,     ICAR-Central Soil Salinity Research Institute, Regional Research Station, Canning Town, Parganas, India

Santosh S. Mane,     Collaborative Research Centre for Veterinary Ayurveda, GADVASU, Ludhiana, India

C.C. Manjumol,     Blacklip Pearl Oyster Laboratory of CMFRI, Fisheries Training Centre, Marine Hill, Port Blair, India

John Mathai,     Government of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, India

K.S. Mohamed,     Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Kochi, India

M. Mohan,     ICAR-National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India

P.M. Mohan,     Pondicherry University, Port Blair, India

C. Murugan,     Botanical Survey of India, Southern Regional Centre, Coimbatore, India

J. Praveen Raj,     ICAR-Central Island Agricultural Research Institute, Port Blair, India

P.T. Rajan,     Zoological Survey of India-ANRC, Port Blair Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India

Chelladurai Raghunathan,     Zoological Survey of India, Andaman and Nicobar Regional Centre, Ministry of Environment and Forests and Climate Change, Port Blair, India

R. Rahul Kumar,     ICAR-Central Island Agricultural Research Institute, Port Blair, India

A.P. Ramaraj,     TNAU, Madurai, India

N. Ravisankar,     ICAR-Indian Institute of Farming Systems Research, Modipuram, India

S. Dam Roy,     ICAR-Central Island Agricultural Research Institute, Port Blair, India

K. Saravanan,     ICAR-Central Island Agricultural Research Institute, Port Blair, India

T. Sathish,     Andaman and Nicobar Centre for Ocean Science and Technology, National Institute of Ocean Technology, Port Blair, India

Kunal Satyam,     Pondicherry University, Port Blair, India

T.V.R.S. Sharma,     ICAR-Central Island Agricultural Research Institute, Port Blair, India

Awnindra K. Singh,     ICAR-Central Island Agricultural Research Institute, Port Blair, India

D.R. Singh,     ICAR-National Research Centre for Orchids, Pakyong, Sikkim, India

P.K. Singh,     ICAR-Central Island Agricultural Research Institute, Port Blair, India

R.M. Singh,     Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India

Shrawan Singh,     ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India

C. Sivaperuman,     Zoological Survey of India, Andaman and Nicobar Regional Centre, Ministry of Environment and Forests and Climate Change, Port Blair, India

T. Subramani,     ICAR-Central Island Agricultural Research Institute, Port Blair, India

T. Sujatha,     ICAR-Central Island Agricultural Research Institute, Port Blair, India

N.V. Sujathkumar,     Fisheries College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Fisheries University, Thoothukudi, India

J. Sunder,     ICAR-Central Island Agricultural Research Institute, Port Blair, India

T.P. Swarnam,     ICAR-Central Island Agricultural Research Institute, Port Blair, India

Ganesh Thiruchitrambalam,     Pondicherry University, Port Blair, India

A. Velmurugan,     ICAR-Central Island Agricultural Research Institute, Port Blair, India

K. Venkatesan,     ICAR-Central Island Agricultural Research Institute, Port Blair, India

N.V. Vinithkumar,     Andaman and Nicobar Centre for Ocean Science and Technology, National Institute of Ocean Technology, Port Blair, India

S.K. Zamir Ahmed,     ICAR-Central Island Agricultural Research Institute, Port Blair, India

Preface

Biodiversity, global climate change and food insecurity are the three major challenges before the humanity, with climate change appearing to escalate faster than the others. The issue is more pertinent to small islands than the larger countries located in different continents. In this context, tropical islands comprising small island developing states and small islands of continental countries located in four different tropical regions namely, Indian Ocean, Pacific Ocean, Atlantic and Caribbean are very unique in terms of their biodiversity, resource endowments, climate and socio-economic profile. The unique biodiversity of these islands and the limited resources, which sustain human population on these islands are under increasing threat from climate change and anthropogenic activities. The natural resources are over exploited in many of the tropical islands in spite of their fragile ecosystem to meet growing rural poverty and strive for economic growth. All these factors together with climate change are responsible for the extinction or threatened status of a number of species in these islands.

Observational data and model output predicting climate change with reference to tropical islands indicated that these islands are facing increasing threat from sea level rise besides increase in sea surface temperature, tropical cyclone and long dry spell which can alter ecosystems and habitability of island regions. However, the vulnerability of islands varies with their physical attributes and their adaptive capacity. Therefore it is imperative to force for regional and international cooperation to conserve the biodiversity of these islands and implement suitable and adequate adaptation measures. At the same time the impacts of changes in climate and climate variability on biodiversity and agricultural production system of tropical islands will be greater than other parts of the world due to their intrinsic nature. This will also seriously affect the livelihood security of the native population. On the other hand, most of the tropical island farmers practise rainfed farming and averting this challenge requires that farmers adapt by making changes in farming and land management decisions that reduce the negative consequences associated with change.

Although these islands are among the least responsible of all nations for climate change, they are likely to suffer strongly from its adverse effects and could in some cases even become uninhabitable. The issue of climate change and biodiversity loss in the tropical islands needs to be considered within the context of multiple stressors, which are factors other than climate change. This is what makes them such a special case requiring the help and attention of the international community. Therefore, the sustainable development path for these islands should essentially balance the economic development and natural resource conservation by suitable green technologies, innovation in service sector, shifting to climate resilient production system besides appropriate adaptation measures.

In this publication on ‘Biodiversity and Climate Change Adaptation in Tropical Islands’ attempt has been made to extract all the afore mentioned key information and ideas from different sources and discuss the current state of knowledge on tropical islands, biodiversity and climate change in five different sections namely, Preamble, Biodiversity of Tropical Islands, Climate Change and Its Impacts on Tropical Island, Adaptive Management and Policy Decisions and Biodiversity Conservations in the Tropical Islands. We have largely derived the core content of this book from the ideas and research outputs of the editors and from various reputed scientists who have contributed immensely on various aspects of biodiversity and climate change. All this information and expertise of researchers with suitable illustrations are compiled in this book. Undoubtedly this book covers a huge range of biodiversity documentation, conservation measures, strategies which are useful to several stakeholders that can be applied to various sectors, from forests to agriculture. The editors are grateful to the authors for preparing excellent contributions and strongly supported our efforts to put up comprehensive information in this book. We also place on record our sincere gratitude to Ms. Gonzalez Pat and the entire publication team of Elsevier who ably guided and supported us to complete this task.

A. Velmurugan

C. Sivaperuman

Awnindra K. Singh

I. Jaisankar

Section I

Preamble

Chapter 1: The Nature and Characters of Tropical Islands

Chapter 2: Tropical Islands: Ecosystem and Endemism

Chapter 1

The Nature and Characters of Tropical Islands

Ayyam Velmurugan    ICAR-Central Island Agricultural Research Institute, Port Blair, India

Abstract

Tropical islands comprising small island developing states and small islands of continental countries located in the tropical region are very unique in terms of its biodiversity, resource endowments, climate and socio-economic profile. They are of four broad types namely, volcanic islands, atolls, near-atolls and reef islands, emergent limestone islands and continental fragments. In general they are smaller size, lie in isolation, face threat from climate change and sea-level rise and regularly affected by natural and environmental disasters. The rainfall varies from 1200 to 5000 mm and the elevation ranges from 1 m in the coastal areas up to 4500 m in mountain summit. More than 60% of the island territories are within 1 to 10 m above mean sea level and between 1990 and 2013 there were nearly 554 natural disasters that struck these islands. Island ecosystem is very unique in terms of its high endemism in biodiversity, physical environment and threat by various natural and anthropogenic factors. These islands are facing increasing threat from sea level rise besides increase in sea surface temperature, tropical cyclone and long dry spell, which can alter ecosystems and habitability of island regions. However, the vulnerability of islands varies with their physical attributes and their adaptive capacity. Therefore it is imperative to force for regional and international cooperation to conserve the biodiversity of these islands and implement suitable and adequate adaptation measures. In this chapter attempt has been made only to extract key information and ideas from different sources and discuss only the current state of knowledge on tropical islands, biodiversity and climate change aimed at providing comprehensive information.

Keywords

biodiversity

climate

location

origin

physiography

small islands

1. The Background

In 1992, the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development popularly known as the Earth Summit was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, marking the twentieth anniversary of the Stockholm Conference, which had placed environmental concerns firmly before the global community. With the increasing realisation of the direct link between economic development, poverty and natural resource degradation, the summit recognised that economic development should go along with environmental conservation. Therefore, the focus of the Earth Summit was on sustainable development, which means ‘development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’. The summit yielded five major instruments signed by world leaders which included Agenda 21 and the Convention on Biological Diversity both of them are very much pertinent to islands.

Agenda 21 can be considered a blueprint for sustainable development. Section 1.1 of the preamble states ‘No nation can achieve this on its own; but together we can – in a global partnership for sustainable development’. The more significant part of the agenda is it recognises the special challenges of Small Island Development States (SIDS) while trying to achieve sustainable development.

In continuation of these efforts, the United Nations General Assembly convened the Global Conference on the Sustainable Development of Small Island developing States in 1994 in Barbados (UN, 1994) and updated a decade later in the Mauritius Strategy (UN, 2005) to provide a comprehensive framework for the implementation of Agenda 21 in the specific context of these States. These documents consolidated the grouping of island countries and territories labelled SIDS. The SIDS group now comprises 52 small countries and territories in the tropics and low-latitude sub-tropics. At the same time it is observed that the same issues are very much relevant to the small islands of continental countries but these islands are largely left out of the purview of SIDS. In our opinion, islands should be viewed as a separate physical entity of the world as far as addressing the island specific issues are concerned. It should have specific agenda for sustainable development. For these reasons we discuss small islands of continental countries (SI) and SIDS together in this publication. Nevertheless, the focus of the UN Programme of Action is on sustainable development through sustainable use of oceans, coastal environments, biodiversity and human resources. It explicitly expressed the special characteristics of SIDS and the problems and challenges faced by these States in working towards sustainable utilisation of biodiversity and development. It also recognises that many of these problems are directly related to small size and climate change in recent times. In essence, sustainable use of island ecosystems is therefore critical for their sustained economic development in the light of global climate change and population explosion.

Although climate change and associated events are well studied and documented scientific subject, our understanding of the link between climate change-biodiversity-food securities to achieve sustainable development in the tropical island region is limited by the lack of comprehensive information. The threat emanating from climate change and associated events is really perceptible and has tangible impacts upon nature and life forms. Indeed, there are numerous compelling evidences that human alter the climate in ways that threaten biodiversity and livelihood security particularly millions of people living in the tropical islands. The tropical islands possess unique biodiversity in terrestrial and aquatic habitats, which are the main source of livelihood security for the people living in this region. They are vulnerable to climate change and other natural disasters whereas the problems of temperate islands included in the SIDS are different. If adequate and appropriate biodiversity conservation measures are not taken by the regional and global community, it will gradually disappear seriously jeopardising the food and environmental security of tropical islands which are mostly known to have low adaptive capacity. Efforts have been made to address the issue but it is realised that there is paucity of comprehensive information on biodiversity and its surrounding physical environment of tropical islands although climate change is a much debated and widely documented scientific topic in the present context. In addition, there is lack of information on the effect of the changing climate and associated events on these aspects, which are the matter of concern for researchers, academicians and policy makers. As a first step towards addressing these issues this chapter compiles information from diverse sources and highlights the nature and physical features of tropical islands, which are the basis for understanding the island biodiversity, climate change impact and to address the impact of projected climate change on various components of island ecosystem.

2. Tropical Islands – An Introduction

As discussed earlier, the tropical islands considered in this publication includes small islands, which are part of continental countries and the SIDS located in the tropical region. In other words Small Island located in the tropics and the subtropics are considered ignoring its political affiliations. These islands span the ocean regions of the Pacific, Indian and Atlantic as well as the Caribbean Sea. Because of the very nature of these islands the ocean exerts a major influence on their physical, natural and socio-economic profiles and activities.

2.1. Geographical Distribution

An explanation about the distribution of tropical islands should begin with the definition of ‘islands’ and ‘tropics’ to remove any ambiguity surrounding what we mean ‘tropical islands’ throughout this publication. In common parlance it is widely agreed that an island is a piece of land surrounded by water from all the sides. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA), for example, defines islands as ‘lands isolated by surrounding water and with a high proportion of coast to hinterland’; stipulates that they must be populated, separated from the mainland by a distance of at least 2 km, and measure between 0.15 km² and the size of Greenland (2.2 million km²). Islands located within seas can be categorized in many ways, including by their area; by their altitude into high and low-lying islands; by a combination of the size of the land area, and political and demographic criteria to identify small island developing States; by their distance from the nearest continent; whether there are inhabited or not; the number of inhabitants; or whether they are continental (land areas that used to be connected to the mainland) or oceanic (those that rose from the sea as a result of coral deposits, volcanic activity or tectonic forces) islands.

In this publication we indent to focus only on the islands located in the tropical region. The word ‘tropical’ specifically means places near the equator. This area includes all the areas of the earth where the sun reaches a point directly overhead at least once a year. The word ‘tropics’ comes from Greek word, tropos meaning ‘turn’, because the apparent position of the sun moves between the two tropics within a year. The tropics are a region of the earth surrounding the Equator and are delimited in latitude by the Tropic of Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere at 23°26’13.2 (or 23.437°) N and the Tropic of Capricorn in the Southern Hemisphere at 23°26’13.2 (or 23.437°) S (Fig. 1.1). These latitudes correspond to the axial tilt of the earth. This region is also referred to as the ‘tropical zone’ and the ‘torrid zone’.

Figure 1.1   Extent of tropical region.

Although majority of the islands are located in the tropical region, their physical characters, distribution and climatic vulnerability vary with island. Even if they are located in close proximity with each other, the climatic conditions may be different based on the elevation, mountain ranges and size. In general there are four oceanic regions in which these tropical islands are located namely, Indian Ocean Islands, Pacific Islands, Caribbean Islands and Atlantic Islands. Fig. 1.2A, B and C depicts the location and distribution of Tropical Island in each of this region. In the Indian Ocean region Madagascar and Sri Lanka are two larger islands located in the South West and Northern part of the Indian Ocean, respectively. Other islands lie dotted in the Indian Ocean. Pacific Islands are mostly concentrated within a triangle formed by connecting Hawaii, New Guinea and New Zealand. Caribbean region has large group of islands surrounded by Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic Ocean. All these three regions are separated by large continental mass.

Figure 1.2   Location of small islands and small island developing states.

(A) Indian Ocean islands. (B) Pacific islands. (C) Caribbean islands.

2.2. Small Islands and Their Regional Groups

Small islands, whether located in the tropics or higher latitudes, have their own peculiar problems due to geographical isolation, smaller size, resource constraint and other characteristics which make them especially vulnerable to the effects of climate change, sea-level rise and extreme events. The Barbados Programme of Action (BPOA) adopted by the UN in 1994 further complemented by The Mauritius Strategy of Implementation (MSI) of 2005 and MSI + 5 Outcome document, recognised the peculiar problems of SIDS in their march towards sustainable development. SIDS are troubled by economic difficulties and confronted by development imperatives similar to those of developing countries. In general, SIDS have their own peculiar vulnerabilities and characteristics, so that the difficulties they face in the pursuit of sustainable development needs to be addressed by international community as it has global ramifications. To effectively address these issues, islands are grouped by their geographical locations and political alignment. Table 1.1 gives the list of small islands of larger countries and SIDS (SI) grouped by their region. This is based on their location, proximity to the continents but not on political alignments. The size of these tropical islands vary from large to small, similarly the problems and socio-economic conditions vary with islands. For example, Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshadweep islands are part of Indian territories. Similarly there are several islands in the Indian Ocean region, which are part of the territories of United Kingdom.

Table 1.1

On the other hand these islands (SI & SIDS) are different in terms of size, resource endowment, ethnic groups and settlement history. This has a consequential effect on the agricultural history and scientific advancement resulting in different forming systems and other livelihood activities. Farming in each island is very unique and as of now largely conditioned by the tropical climate and marine environment. In general farmers of tropical islands typically view their farms, whether small subsistence units or large land holding, as systems in their own right. It illustrates the structural complexity and interrelationships between various components of a smallholding (World Bank, 2001). It also shows the variety of natural resources available to them and the confronting conditions against productivity enhancement. More details on these aspects are given in a separate chapter agricultural diversification in this publication. Here we try to impress upon the reason for different farming practices and economic activity. Based on these differences besides geographical locations tropical islands are grouped into different developing regions namely, Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, East Asia and Pacific, Latin America and Caribbean (Table 1.2) to organise the analysis of farming types, constraints, climate change, diversification and adaption options for the SIDS and islands located in the tropical region.

Table 1.2

The grouping is largely based on the regional interests as defined in the World Development Report (WDR), issued annually by the World Bank, but excludes high-income countries and minor dependencies (large dependent territories are, however, included). The WDR identifies six regions compared to five regions in the FAO AT2015/30 Interim Report (the latter excludes ECA). Also note that as defined in this publication, South Africa is included in AFR, Turkey is included in ECA and Afghanistan is included in SAS.

Further, these tropical islands are part of several regional groups based on their socio-economic and other regional interests namely, CARICOM (Caribbean Community), CARIFTA (Caribbean Free Trade Association), SAARC (South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation), ASEAN (some of the tropical islands are member countries), and Polynesia, Micronesia and Melanesia in the Pacific region.

2.3. General Features

Small islands and SIDS have their own peculiar vulnerabilities and characteristics, so the difficulties they face in the pursuit of sustainable development are particularly severe and complex. Each region (Fig. 1.2A, B and C) has its own peculiar problems with respect to physical features, natural resources, population and its sustainable use. In general they are smaller size, lie in isolation, face threat from climate change and sea-level rise and regularly affected by natural and environmental disasters. Sometimes smaller size can actually be a blessing, and several SI & SIDS, including the Maldives, Tuvalu and several Caribbean island states, are working to achieve ‘climate neutrality’ through the use of renewable energy and other approaches. SI & SIDS are also leading the way in ocean conservation efforts, and some of the largest marine protected areas in the world are being established in the Pacific region.

2.3.1. Population

In 2014, the population of the SI & SIDS is estimated to be 67 million, which represents just 1% of the world’s population. Between 1995 and 2014, the total population increased by 14 million, or 26%. Population distribution shows that it varies greatly among countries or territories, from less than 10,000 persons (Montserrat, Niue and Tuvalu) to more than 10 million (Cuba, The Dominican Republic and Haiti). Annual population growth rates also vary over time and across countries, but, overall, the average annual population growth rate has declined from 1.6% in 1990–1995 to 1.1% in 2010–2015. In 2010–2015, 17 of the 52 SIDS have population growth rates higher than 1.2% per year, the world average population growth rate. At the other extreme, four countries or territories (American Samoa, Cuba, Niue and Puerto Rico) are currently experiencing negative growth rates. These differences in population growth rate stress the need to work out island specific optimal population to achieve sustainable development within its carrying capacity for the current level of technological adoption.

2.3.2. Resource Constraint due to Smaller Size

There are many disadvantages due to small size, including a narrow range of resources particularly geographically and politically isolated small islands, which forces undue specialization: excessive dependence on other countries for aid and international trade to earn foreign exchange and hence vulnerability to global developments. In recent times increase in population density, which increases the pressure on already constrained resources; overuse of resources and premature depletion; relatively small watersheds and threatened supplies of fresh water; costly public administration and infrastructure, including transportation and communication; and limited institutional capacities and domestic markets and limited export volumes, which are too small to achieve economies of scale. Except very few islands and tourism sector these islands need to improve technological adoption. It is also vital to improve the human resources and adaptive capacity to climate change so as to pave the way for efficient resource use to provide livelihood to the native population.

2.3.3. Isolation

The geographic dispersion and isolation from markets and remote locations place many SI & SIDS at economically disadvantaged position resulting in high freight costs and reduced competitiveness. Further they are not able to fully utilise their potential to exploit the global market. Isolation gives cascading problems for these islands.

2.3.4. Natural and Environmental Disasters

SI & SIDS are located among the most vulnerable regions of the world in relation to the intensity and frequency of natural and environmental disasters, their increasing impacts and face disproportionately high economic, social and environmental consequences. Due to the coastal zone concentration in a limited land area, the adverse effects of climate change and sea-level rise besides periodical tropical cyclones present significant risks to the sustainable development of SI & SIDS, and the long-term effects of climate change may threaten the very existence and viability of some smaller islands like Maldives and Lakshadweep in the Indian Ocean region.

2.3.5. Renewable Internal Freshwater Resources Per Capita (Cubic Meters)

The availability and distribution of freshwater is a major limiting factor for socio-economic development of SI & SIDS. Many of these islands rely entirely on a single source of water supply, making them highly vulnerable to climatic and other environmental changes. According to the Falkenmark Water Stress Indicator, a country or region is said to experience ‘water stress’ when annual water supplies drop below 1700 cubic metres per person per year. Eight out of 24 islands (33%) are assessed to be water stressed. When water supplies drop below 1000 cubic metres per person per year, the country is said to experience ‘water scarcity’. Eight out of 24 islands (30%) have chronically limited fresh water resources (absolute water scarcity).

2.3.6. Other Issues

Further these islands are heavily dependent on coastal and marine resources for their livelihood including food security; heavy dependence on tourism which can be easily impacted by climate change and natural disasters; energy dependence and access issue; the limited fresh water resources; limited land resulting in land degradation, which affects waste management, and vulnerable biodiversity resources.

3. Physical Features of Tropical Islands

3.1. Types of Islands Based on Origin

Tropical and sub-tropical small islands can be classified into several broad categories on the basis of geology, bathymetry, topography and geomorphic evolution. Here tropical islands are grouped under four broad categories (Donald et al., 2013).

• Volcanic islands (active or inactive)

• Atolls, near-atolls and reef islands

• Emergent limestone islands (including raised atolls)

• Continental fragments

3.1.1. Volcanic Islands

Most volcanic islands rise from abyssal depths in the ocean (Oehler et al., 2008) and have rugged or mountainous interiors with a wide range of summit elevations (Fig. 1.3). It is often observed that steep slopes and dense tropical forest cover limit the use of interior lands for settlement on many islands. As a result, community development, roads, and other infrastructure are concentrated largely along the coastal margin, increasing exposure to coastal hazards. High volcanic islands are often surrounded by protective fringing or barrier reefs, which may enclose lagoons of varying size (Darwin,  1842; Nunn,  1994). Larger islands may also have major rivers, creating flood hazards and delivering large quantities of sediment, which can dominate coastal morphology. Sometimes in the vicinity of their outlets extreme rainfall can trigger high runoff, landslides and debris flows (Mimura and Nunn, 1998). For example Barren Island, Andaman, India is the only active volcano located in Indian territory (Fig. 1.4). The volcano vent is located in the northern part, and the southern part is rugged and several endemic plants (Macaranga sp., Ficus sp.,) are found here. Taveuni is a volcanic island located in Fiji and it is a shield volcano which rises from the floor of the Pacific Ocean.

Figure 1.3   Major types of volcanic islands (horizontal line indicate the present day sea level).

Figure 1.4   Volcanic islands.

3.1.2. Atolls, Near-Atolls and Reef Islands

Atolls are more or less annular reef and reef-island systems found mostly in oceanic mid-plate settings, where they rest on the peaks of submarine volcanic edifices. Darwin (1842) referred to barrier reefs surrounding volcanic islands as an intermediate stage in the development of atolls through long-term subsidence and reef growth. The atolls and atoll reef islands observed today are geologically young features, having formed on older foundations since global sea level stabilized about 6000 years ago (Bard et al., 1996). In general, atolls lack an emergent volcanic core and are characterised by very low maximum elevations, limited land area, and thin freshwater lenses (Singh et al., 2009). A typical example of this kind is Kaafu Atoll, Maldives and Agatti Island, Lakshadweep, India (Fig. 1.5). However, during the geological period the sea level has changed. But depending on rates of sea level rise (SLR) and coral productivity, reefs may keep up with sea level, fall behind (becoming submerged), or catch up if the rate of SLR diminishes or productivity increases (Neumann and Macintyre, 1985). For these reasons, they have developed some degree of dynamic equilibrium with current climate and oceanographic environment, but are continually subject to readjustment, erosion and sedimentation, in response to varying sea levels, wind patterns and storms. It is often observed that the dominant constituents of reef-island sediments vary from atoll to atoll, across the globe ranging from coral or crustose coralline algae to calcareous green algae called Halimeda (Caribbean Islands) and foraminifera (dominate on Pacific atolls) (Yamano et al., 2005).

Figure 1.5   Atoll and reef islands.

(A) Kaafu Atoll, Maldives. (B) Agatti Is. Lakshadweep, India.

3.1.3. High Carbonate Islands Including Raised Atolls

High carbonate capped islands occur in forearc belts adjacent to subduction zones such as the Tonga Trench (Clift et  al.,  1998; Dickinson et  al.,  1999), the Cayman Trench (Jones  et  al.,  1997; Perfit and Heezen,  1978). It is reported that structural segmentation of the Tonga Ridge has led to varying rates of uplift, subsidence or tilting affecting individual blocks and islands (Dickinson et al., 1999;Fig. 1.6). Barbados is also another carbonate-capped high island, formed on the Lesser Antilles accretionary prism at the leading (eastern) edge of the Caribbean plate (Bouysse et al., 1990).

Figure 1.6   Island formation adjacent to the subduction zones.

(A) Tonga trench. (B) Cayman Trench. (C) Barbados.

3.1.4. Continental Islands

A number of the world’s tropical small to medium-sized islands are of continental origin, including Trinidad (detached from South America) and Andaman Islands (continuation of Arakan Yoma mountain range (Fig. 1.7) and New Caledonia (detached from Australia). In the western Indian Ocean, the northern islands of the Seychelles archipelago are composed predominantly of Precambrian granitic rocks, the subaerial parts of a micro-continent rifted from Madagascar (Collier et al., 2004).

Figure 1.7   Continental islands.

The nature of the hazards, exposure and vulnerabilities varies with islands. Consequently most relevant adaptation measures not only vary between island types in relation to elevation, but also with size, topography, bathymetry, lithology, reef morphology and ecological integrity, as well as human factors such as shore protection, or location and design of critical infrastructure and other properties. The geographic location of the islands is very important as it determines ocean climate (temperature and coral growth rate), storm climatology (including wind and wave patterns) and the regional trend of sea-level rise. In addition geophysical hazards such as volcanic eruptions, landslides, earthquakes and tsunami require attention and may pose equal or greater risks to island communities. Removal of mangroves can often be identified as a source of erosion problems in coastal communities (Mimura and Nunn,  1998; Solomon and Forbes,  1999).

3.2. Physiography

In general the islands are either volcanic origin or continental remains but both of them bear the dominant influence of the ocean. In the case of coral islands, it is surrounded by shallow seas and coral reefs while the continental islands are surrounded by sea but the depth and continental shelf varies with location. Some of the physiographical and other natural features of different islands are given in Table 1.3. It is observed that the elevation of the tropical islands greatly varies: it ranged from 1 m to 4500 m above mean sea level. The highest point is the summit elevation and the lowest is the coastal area. In the Indian Ocean region the highest peak (2877 m) is located in Madagascar while in the Caribbean region highest peak (4500 m) is located in Belize. Among the Pacific Island countries the highest peak (4509 m) is located in Papua New Guinea followed by Solomon Islands (2335 m). Some of the coral islands are surrounded by shallow lagoon or protected by barrier reefs. It is seen that some of the continental islands with larger heights are having terrain mostly undulating with the main ridges running lengthwise. In between the main ridges deep inlets and creeks are formed by submerged valleys. For example Kiltan island, Lakshadweep, India is a coral island having large and barrier reef lagoon in its western side (Fig. 1.8). Great Nicobar is a relatively larger island having perennial river R. Galethea and Mt. Thuillier in the northern part of the island.

Table 1.3

Figure 1.8   Special features of island physiography.

In most of the islands perennial streams are non-existent except in larger islands namely Madagascar, Sri Lanka, Papua New Guinea and Great Nicobar. In most of the coralline islands the topography is flat with some undulation. The physiography is either flat with small cliff in one side of the island with small hill in either of the side. It is bordered by a flat ground consisting of coralline diluvium. In larger island groups, having hilly terrain are covered with grass, forming undulating meadows.

The physiography of each island has profound influence on the distribution of crops and type of farming. Due to the presence of large proportion of coastal lowlands as a percentage of cultivated area and high rainfall many of the islands are facing the perennial problem of water logging of the coastal areas. On an average 10 to 20% of the cultivated and lowlands are waterlogged (Fig. 1.9) due to physiographical limitations. This indicates the vulnerability of islands and island agriculture to the sea level rise and long dry spell or intensive rainfall. In the Indian Ocean region the values vary from 9 to 20% with Maldives having the highest value due to its low elevation. Similarly in the Caribbean region, Haiti has larger proportion of waterlogged area (15%) while Solomon Island (22%) in the Pacific region has more area vulnerable to waterlogging. Further, most of the tropical islands experience several natural hazards. Caribbean region experience tropical cyclone sometime it is so violent affecting the entire region. This also triggers heavy rainfall, erosion and waterlogging besides sea surges. The Pacific Islands are located in the ring of fire therefore, these islands are challenged with earthquake, tsunami and typhoons. Similarly there is no respite for Indian Ocean Islands as well; majority of the island rises from the coral base with low elevation. Consequently it is highly vulnerable to natural hazards. For example the Indian Ocean tsunami of December 2004 has devastated this region with heavy loss of life and property.

Figure 1.9   Physical vulnerability of tropical islands (inferred from % of waterlogged area to cultivated area).

3.3. Indian Ocean Islands – A Detailed Analysis of Physical Nature

3.3.1. Andaman and Nicobar Islands

The Andaman and Nicobar group of islands in the Bay of Bengal perhaps form the largest reef formations of Indian continent. The Andaman and Nicobar Archipelago consists of over 345 islands, islets and rocky outcrops, with land area extending up to 8249 km² and a coastline stretch of 1962 km; the Andaman Islands constitute 6408 km² and the Nicobars 1841 km². The Andaman Islands are the extension of the submerged Arakan Yoma Mountain range of Myanmar and the Nicobars are the continuation of the Mentawai Islands to the south and southeast of Sumatra. Typically Nicobar Islands as it is seen today are built on the coralline base.

The geology of both island groups has been described in detail (Mahadevan and Easterson,  1983; Oldham,  1885). The topography of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands is hilly and undulating, the elevation in the Andamans is from 0 to 732 m, Saddle Peak being the highest in North Andaman Island. In the Nicobars the elevation rises from 0 to 568 m, Mt Thuillier being the highest peak on Great Nicobar Island.

The entire islands are covered by dense tropical forests while mangroves form extensive coverage along the shores. Due to their long isolation, these islands have evolved significant diversity of flora and fauna with a high level of endemism, including Andaman affinities to Indo-China and Nicobar affinities to the Indo-Malayan (Das, 1994). The Andaman Islands support one of the world’s most extensive mangrove ecosystems (Balakrishnan, 1989). The reef flats in general are dominated by massive porites and faviids that form the chief reef frame builders. The shoreward side is generally with luxuriant growth of arborescent genera alike Acropora, Pocillopora, Seriatopora and Stylophora.

Physiographically Andaman Islands can be divided into hills, upland, foot slope and lowland, which end in the sea (Fig. 1.10). The central part of the Island is elevated with longitudinal hill ranges that are densely covered with evergreen forest. The hilly upland and foot slopes are undulating where most of the plantation crops are grown. This is followed by the narrow coastal valley, which faces the seafront. Flat valleys are also found in between longitudinal hills where the washed-out materials from the surrounding hills are being deposited (Velmurugan et al., 2016). Consequently, rice is grown in the lowland and coastal valley while plantations of coconut and arecanut are grown in the foothills and uplands. The productivity of rice is low due to waterlogging and saline water intrusion during the high tide. In contrast, the productivity of plantations grown in the sloppy areas is limited by moisture stress experienced during the dry period (January to March). Therefore, prolonged dry spell or sea surges would adversely affect the agricultural performance.

Figure 1.10   Cross-sectional view of typical physiography of the Andaman Islands.

3.3.2. Lakshadweep Islands

Lakshadweep Islands are located between 8°-1230°N and 71-74°E along the Laccadive-Chagos Ridge. The submarine ridge that supports the islands rises from a depth ranging from 1500 to 4000 m. The Lakshadweep Archipelago consists of 12 atolls and a few (five) submerged reefs. The total geographical area of Lakshadweep Islands is 32 sq. km and the land use area is 28.5 sq. km. Length of coastline of UT of Lakshadweep is 132 km (Fig. 1.11). The lagoons cover 4200 sq. km. with 20,000 sq. km. of territorial waters and about 0.4 million sq. km. of Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). The Lakshadweep Ridge approximately 800 km long and 170 km wide is a fascinating and conspicuous feature of Arabian Sea. It is inclined southerly (1/715-gradient) with a narrow strip (10 km) near Goa and widened to 170 km west of Cape Comorin. This domain is distinct with scores of islands, banks, and shoals, topographic rises, and mounts, inter mount valleys and sea knolls. The western slope of Lakshadweep Ridge is restricted to 2500–4000 m depth and foot of the slope increases from around 4000–4600 m in the south. Topographic rises of significant height (500–1300 m) are recorded in the slope domain. At many sections, the slope has a faulted contact with abyssal plain. Continental rise is present but only distinctly developed throughout the area (MHA, 2005).

Figure 1.11   Indian Ocean Islands (Andaman & Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep).

The origin of Lakshadweep Islands is attributed to theory of Sir Charles Darwin, the renowned evolutionist according to whom the origin of these islands can be traced to gradual submergence of some of the volcanic ridge into the Indian Ocean followed by accumulation of coralline deposits on the peaks and craters of these mountains. These deposits grew into coral islands resting on submerged mountaintops over a period of time.

Each island is fringed by coral sands, and is marked by huge, shallow, calm lagoon on the western side which separates it from incoming swells of the outer sea by the wall of a reef made-up of massive coral boulders and live corals. A common feature of these islands is that a shallow lagoon exists invariably in their western side separating the outer reef rim from low-lying coral islands composed essentially of calcareous sand and soil. The lagoon reefs throughout Lakshadweep have a profusion of blue coral Heliopra coerulea. Elevation of the Lakshadweep islands range from 0.5–7.0 m above mean sea level. Considering the low elevation levels, it is imperative that the danger from storm tides is tremendous.

3.4. Climate and Extreme Events

Due to their geographic location in the tropical region and the patterns of oceanic circulation, tropical islands experience heavy rainfall with fairly good distribution. However, large variations in total annual rainfall are observed which ranges from 1200 to 5000 mm. This is attributed to the geomorphological features of individual islands besides climate divers. In Pacific region islands precipitation varies greatly from one year to the next, leading to various forms of extreme rainfall events, such as droughts and floods. In general, SIDS are affected by seasonal extreme weather events such as tropical storms, cyclones and hurricanes. Between 1990 and 2013, 554 natural disasters were registered in SIDS. Tropical storms are the most common natural disaster accounting for an estimated 47% of all natural disasters in this period, which affects about 17 million people. The second most common natural disaster is floods, affecting 3.3 million people. The top five countries for the number of people affected by natural disasters during this period were Cuba, Haiti, Dominican Republic, Papua New Guinea and Jamaica. More details on climate change and its impact on these islands are separately discussed.

4. Island Ecosystem and Biodiversity

4.1. Island Ecosystem and Endemism

Island ecosystem is very unique in terms of its biodiversity, physical environment and threat by various natural and anthropogenic factors. However the diversity is not uniformly distributed among the tropical islands, which are conditioned by the natural forces and the influence of human activity significantly altered it. Tropical islands are known to have uniquely naturally variable ecosystems, including tropical rainforests, open woodlands and grass savannahs, freshwater lakes and streams, salt marshes and mudflats, mangrove and coastal littoral forests, seagrass, fringing and offshore coral reefs, and deep sea trenches and abyssal plains (SPREP, 2012). Due to favourable climatic and edaphic conditions, the tropical region ecosystems have high species turnover and an unusual richness of endemic terrestrial and freshwater species. The Pacific Islands, within the Coral Triangle region, are broadly considered the centre of highest biodiversity on the planet (Veron et al., 2009). More details on biodiversity of different ecosystem, flora and fauna are given in respective chapters in this publication.

At the same time it is important to note that isolation of islands promotes high endemism and specialised flora and fauna (MacArthur and Wilson, 1967). Because the isolation of islands over a period of time exerts unique evolutionary forces that result in the development of a distinct genetic reservoir and the emergence of highly specialised species with entirely new characteristics and the occurrence of unusual adaptations, such as gigantism, dwarfism, flightlessness, and loss of dispersability and defence mechanisms. In the same context patterns of species diversity on islands have also yielded significant insights into evolutionary and ecological processes such as immigration, speciation and extinction (Witt and Maliakal-Witt, 2007).

4.2. Biodiversity Loss

However, low alpha diversity, small population sizes, genetic bottlenecks and gaps in functional groups make biodiversity of tropical islands highly vulnerable to anthropogenic and natural disturbances (Keppel et al., 2014). Although majority of the human population in tropical islands derive their livelihood directly or indirectly from the rich biodiversity, the loss of biodiversity