Hunting Farm Country Whitetails

Copyright © 2005 by Dragan Vujic

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be used or reproduced by any means, graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping or by any information storage retrieval system without the written permission of the publisher except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews.

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Printed in the United States of America

Dedicated to my friend, Edward Burlew, an outstanding firearms attorney, for passionately advocating and valiantly defending the vanishing rights of Canadian hunters and shooters.

Contents

Introduction

PART I Whitetail Basics

1 General Information

2 Predators and Competitors

3 Social Structure

4 Communication

5 Breeding Behaviour

6 Habitat

7 Anatomy

8 Shot Placement

PART II Influential Factors

9 Weather

10 Phases of the Moon

11 Hunting Pressure

12 Time of Year

13 Scents

14 Doe to Buck Ratio

15 Time of Day

16 Food Sources

PART III Hunting Strategies

17 Prelude

18 Bowhunting

19 Long Distance Hunting

20 Stalking and Still Hunting

21 Party Hunting

22 Rattling, Calling and Using

23 Recovering Wounded Whitetails

24 The Elusive Nocturnal Buck

25 Memorable Hunts

Conclusion

APPENDIX A Canadian Firearms Legislation

APPENDIX B A Note to American Readers

APPENDIX C A Strange Deer Hunting Tale

Introduction

Whitetail deer are the most magnificent animals that I have ever seen and have had the privilege of hunting. They are definitely the most popular big game animals in North America. There is nothing more majestic than a big buck leaping and bounding across an open field of clover, unless he is the one that you just shot at and missed. Then, the situation takes on a very different perspective. I am sure that all of us have been flagged by a whitetail on more occasions than we care to remember or admit to. The familiar tail goes up, the buck absconds at high speed and his tail waves good-bye to us. That is the last scenario that we see. Irrespective of our momentary frustration, hope remains that we will see this king of the wild at least one more time before the season draws to a conclusion.

Whitetail hunting is a passion. I absolutely love every aspect of every adventure. Each year when autumn rolls around, I look forward to stepping into the deer woods. My heart is happy. The wonderful smells, sounds and sights of the forest always entrance me. The crispy crackle of leaves underfoot lets me know that I am in the right place at this time of year. This is indeed an opportunity to participate in and commune with nature. I love to feel and breath the fresh country air. Hunting deer is a challenging endeavour and an exciting sport. The thrill of the chase and satisfaction of the kill is always a rewarding experience.

However, sometimes we all have to settle for merely the thrill of the chase. Everyone misses a deer now and then, but no one likes to admit this disappointment. I am notorious for trying to avoid these embarrassing moments in conversation. Anyone who has ever hunted whitetails can appreciate the adrenalin rush that we all feel when we merely spot a nice buck. Thereafter, the sensation escalates. And when we actually harvest the deer, we all experience overwhelming exhilaration and a sense of accomplishment. Our feelings are beyond description. Words can never capture the true essence of what we really feel.

Deer hunting is a perpetual learning experience. It constitutes one of the numerous schools of life. I often call it the University of Whitetail Hunting. Unfortunately, there is no graduation date. The education never ceases. No one receives a degree. My friend Ed often jokes that Buck U is the only educational institute that has no alumni. Knowledge, understanding and appreciation are the only acquisitions. This resembles running a race with no finish line. When you think that you know it all, a big buck eludes you and you realize that there is so much more to learn.

Personally, I have missed some monster bucks and I have also messed up some golden opportunities to harvest some first class deer. However, subsequent to my anger, frustration, disappointed and even mild depression, I have learned a valuable lesson in each and every one of these heart-breaking episodes. I have also enjoyed an abundance of successes, which have also taught me more favourable lessons. When you do it right, you drop the big buck. And that is always a gratifying feeling.

One early frosty autumn morning, almost forty years ago, I shot my first deer at short range with a shotgun slug. Initially, I thought that I had missed him because the buck ran away at high speed across an open clover field. Then, I watched him fall and my mind exploded with joy. It was the most exciting moment of my life. I had never felt so terrific in all of my life. At that very instant, I knew that I had found my true passion in life. After that fateful moment, everything else paled. Deer hunting became my favourite recreational activity. It has been the most stable element in my constantly changing life.

Since that first buck, I look forward to deer season every year. Although I shot my first whitetail buck with an old Cooey single shot twelve-gauge shotgun, I have shot many deer thereafter with a wide variety of firearms. In the mid eighties a friend introduced me to the fine art of archery. The popularity of bow hunting exploded and, having honed my shooting skills, I joined the legions of archers that take to the deer woods in October of every year. Several nice bucks have fallen under my compound bow and crossbow. However, the first kill is still the most memorable and the most precious moment.

In order to be proficient, every hunter must have a thorough knowledge of his or her prey. The more you know about your game animal, the greater the probability of your success. Whitetails behave differently depending on where they are hunted. Different environments dictate different tactics. An effective plan for harvesting a whitetail is essential. Predominantly, strategy follows your weapon of choice. The location where you intend to hunt is also important. Thus, you must vary your strategy according to the firearm that you choose to hunt with and where you decide to hunt. In most cases, good planning and preparation considerably increase your odds of success.

Whether you hunt white-tailed deer primarily for food, trophies or just to experience fond memories, you will never find a more admirable and challenging game animal. Resourcefulness and the uncanny ability to learn and adapt make whitetails one of the most difficult animals to hunt. Their heightened senses of sight, smell and hearing give them highly competitive and effective advantages on their home turf. Although they may not be the most intelligent beasts to outwit, deer are the most alert and the fastest. I have found coyotes to be the most intelligent and the most cunning animal to hunt, but deer are definitely the most evasive and elusive. They appear to have an innate sense that immediately alerts them of any potential threat. Their sixth sense is commonly called Metatarsal. Grace, beauty, speed and cleverness are just a portion of the multitude of gifts that nature has bestowed upon this beast of the wild. I still find it hard to believe that an animal as majestic as the whitetail deer is a direct descendant of the pig. Chew on that and share some thoughts.

Whitetails share an intimate relationship with their environment. Time after time, whitetails consistently prove to be animals that are in complete harmony with their surroundings. Behaviour patterns of timberland, mountain bred, prairie and farm country deer are substantially different. However, irrespective of where you hunt them, whitetails are always formidable game animals. Having hunted whitetails in the checkered agricultural belts of Ontario, Virginia and West Virginia for approximately forty years, I have noticed that deer patterns are relatively uniform throughout these farm country habitats. Essentially, whitetails are creatures of habit. They lack the imagination for change. Established routines become the norm in their daily activities. They dislike the unfamiliar.

But, beware of the one rebel that throws you a wild curve. After all, hunters do educate whitetails. Only the fast learners, the strong and the quick adapters live to enjoy the fruits of old age. Whitetails are the grey ghosts of the forest. They are indeed, swift, silent and virtually invisible within their chosen habitat. Even the heaviest buck can slip through the brush without making a sound. As the season progresses and the agricultural crops are harvested, whitetails will spend more time in the timber.

Often times, unsuccessful deer hunters will sooth their bruised egos by praising the intelligence of whitetails. These game animals are indeed evasive and secretive, defying and outwitting numerous potential deer slayers. Tales of almost had him are numerous and varied. Most disappointed hunters give excuses. But, those on the learning curve give reasons. An analysis of our mistakes makes us better hunters in the future. On the other hand, those hunters who do succeed in harvesting a buck will inevitably boast of their hunting prowess and skill.

Knowledge is relative. I know more than some and less than others. My purpose in writing this book is to share my knowledge, experiences and strategies with you. I am by no means an expert on deer hunting. From a legal perspective, everything that I am about to say may be classified as opinion evidence. However, according to my perception, anyone who has hunted in excess of thirty-five years is indeed a veteran hunter. I consider myself to be a veteran hunter. In most places, if you work for thirty-five years, you receive a pension.

Well, there are no pensions in the game of whitetail hunting, but you are rewarded with priceless experiences and valuable knowledge. Inevitably, this accumulated information makes you a more proficient hunter. It also increases your probability of harvesting whitetails on a consistent basis. Over the years, I have filled my heart with a multitude of cherished memories. The time spent hunting is always time well spent. I hope that you find the material contained herein useful and worth implementing and/or incorporating with your current strategies.

Before moving on, I wish to share this last thought with you. If you are reading this book, you are a hunter who loves to hunt. I have hunted for about forty years and I have savoured every moment that I spent hunting. As hunters, we are all wildlife stewards, conservationists and environmentalists. We respect, appreciate and enjoy nature and wildlife. Similar to farmers, we harvest what the land provides and take it directly to our kitchen tables. There are no intermediaries, no giant meat conglomerates and no huge supermarkets.

Hunters participate in the natural food chain. There are no hormone supplements, no steroid injections and no other meat enhancing additives. Styrofoam and plastic packaging is avoided entirely. There is no unnecessary pollution of our environment. Our venison and other wild game is fresh, drug free, healthy and extremely low in fat content. Every autumn I look forward to eating venison and sharing it with family, friends and the less fortunate. Deer hunting is something that we all value immensely. It is a rich heritage that is worth protecting and passing on to our children.

PART I

Whitetail Basics

1

General Information

Whitetail deer are native to North America. Despite their shy and retiring nature, they have managed to adapt exceptionally well to human encroachment. The success of their geographic expansion is a combination of evolution, wary attitude, genetic superiority, ability to adapt and improved range. By means of opening up dense woodlands, fragmenting forests and creating new food sources, government forestry and agricultural practices and procedures have actually assisted in increasing our deer populations, which have become relatively widespread.

Removing trees and enlarging a forest floor always generates more browse, which in turn increases whitetail activity. In this manner, a large number of eco-tones (overlapping vegetative communities) have been created. A classical edge is where a cornfield stretches along a forested area. Exceptionally few creatures have demonstrated the capability of adapting to perpetual habitat alterations as successfully as the deer. The white-tailed deer has continually met the challenges of an ever-changing world and has thrived in the face of adversity. Whitetails seem to prosper in highly fragmented agricultural zones. Crop fields consistently provide an abundance of seasonal food. Today, whitetails are the most popular big game animal on this continent.

Archeological evidence indicates that deer have been in existence in excess of twenty million years. However, whitetails have only retained the same physical form that we observe today for a mere one million years. Similar to other species, the white-tailed deer have evolved through the passing of time. The most significant features that have experienced the most change are the deer’s feet. Originally, deer were five toed mammals. As time marched forward, they became sleek, swift, two toed animals. Irrespective of this evolution, whitetails have retained two unusable dewclaws, which are located several inches above the main two toes. But, the once prominent fifth toe has been eliminated completely—probably due to non-use.

Man’s activities have increased the range of the white-tailed deer in the last few hundred years. Clearing forests in order to established workable farmland, building houses and creating communities, the early pioneers rolled back plant succession—eliminating the flora that was of little or no value to deer. Thereby, they opened up new areas where vegetation flourished that was beneficial to whitetails. Deer prefer a diverse menu that consists of agricultural crops, hardwood mast, woody browse and a variety of grasses. The settling of more territory led to the expansion of whitetail populations.

Although whitetails can and do adapt to a broad spectrum of environments, they easily thrive and flourish in farm country. These checkered agricultural belts provide an abundance of food grown in productive crop fields and plenty of adequate shelter in abutting woodlots. Flowing creeks, fallow fields and wetlands add variety to the mix. An abundance of whitetails dwell in farmlands. Irrespective of where you hunt farm country whitetails, you will readily notice predictable behaviour patterns and familiar routines. Farm country provides a rolling patchwork of woodlots, crop fields and forgotten corners grown wild. This type of edge habitat is ideal for whitetails. Whenever crop fields are involved, whitetails always feel safe if there is nearby cover.

Currently, on the outskirts of many towns and cities, large farms and forests are being carved up into smaller building lots. This present day reconfiguration of the landscape appears to be benefiting most whitetail populations. By chopping up the countryside, individuals create more food and more cover for deer. The resulting edge environments are ideal for these game animals. Whitetails tend to thrive in these cut up patchwork habitats, which consist of woodlots and crop fields. Within cover that seems almost too sparse to contain them, deer feed, bed, travel and reproduce. New growth on deciduous trees such as red oak, white oak, apple, maple and ash provide excellent entrees for whitetails.

An abundance of desirable nutritious forage enables a whitetail herd to unlock its full genetic potential. Typically, an average whitetail ingests three to three and a half kilograms of food per day, which equates to well over a thousand kilograms a year. Farm bred whitetails will utilize seasonal agricultural crops as primary food sources, not as supplements to their normal diet. The annual protein content in edibles must be around ten percent. However, during the fawning period and the antler growing time this requirement may escalate to fifteen percent. Corn-fed deer receive highly nutritious food.

Generally, a single whitetail needs about forty acres of feasible, natural habitat in order to survive and thrive in a region. If the population density exceeds the ratio of one deer per forty acres (1:40), then antler size and body weight will not achieve their optimum level. When whitetail herds are underfed, they do not receive a sufficient amount of nutrition. This deficiency negatively impacts body sizes and racks. Whitetail populations become stressed and stunted.

Due to their popularity and impact on our own development, whitetails have been extensively studied and categorized by scientists. All deer belong to the order Artiodactyla (even toed animals), the class Mammalia (warm blooded animals), the phylum Chordata (animals that have back bones), the suborder Ruminantia (ruminants or cud chewers with a four-chambered stomach), the family Cervidae. White-tailed Deer and Mule Deer belong to the genus Odocoileus. However, whitetails exclusively own the species Virginianus. Within this species there are sixteen subspecies—Borealis, Osceola, Seminolus, Clavium, Dacotensis, Couesi, Leucurus, Ochrourus, Texanus, Macrourus, Virginianus, Nigrib-aris, Taurinsulae, Hiltonensis, Venatorius, Mcilhennyi. Predominantly, the white-tailed deer are classified by genus, species and subspecies. The subspecies appellations are allotted to the whitetails according to their geographic location.

The most common, abbreviated scientific name for all white-tailed deer is Odocoileus Virginianus. Briefly stated, the genus is Odocoileus and the species is Virginianus. In 1932, a scientist located a tooth of a whitetail in a cave in Virginia, USA. When he examined the tooth, the scientist found it to be hollow. Thus, Odocoileus means hollow tooth and Virginianus indicates the place (Virginia) where the tooth was found. Locally, the whitetails were named by the early settlers for the noticeably bright white underside of their tails. Outside of the scientific community, the whitetails are commonly known by everyone for this specific trait. When they are alarmed, deer raise or flag their tails. The flash of white signals danger to nearby members of the herd. A raised tail may also serve as a beacon for other whitetails to follow.

Prior to leaving the scientific world, I would like to reiterate two important biological theorems. Allen’s Law—The extremities of the whitetail (legs, tail, ears) tend to be shorter in the northern regions where the climate is likely to be colder. By inverse implication, the extremities of the whitetail (legs, tail, ears) tend to be larger in the southern regions where the climate is probably warmer. This is a common sense postulation. Anyone who has experienced frosty weather will know that the extremities (fingers, toes and ears) are the first parts of our bodies to feel the cold and eventually go numb. Shorter extremities allow a white-tail to expose less surface area to the elements and thus conserve more energy. Bergmann’s Law—The further the distance from the equator the larger the animal. An increase in the body mass of an animal is accompanied by a proportional decrease in the exposed surface area of that animal. Exposed surface area dictates the amount of body heat that will be lost. Thus, big-bodied whitetails of the northern regions of Ontario are better equipped to survive the harsh Canadian winters. On the other hand, the small-bodied whitetails of the Florida Keys are better equipped to survive in hot climates.

Deer are masters at avoiding detection. Thus, they are frustratingly difficult to observe in wilderness areas. If they are not pressured, deer often spend much of their time in and around edge habitat. During daylight hours, whitetails tend to be most secretive and usually remain hidden in thick shrubs or forest patches. However, once the sun commences its daily descent, this magnificent animal abandons its diurnal resting spot and moves gracefully, weaving an intricate path through dense forest and over fallen trees in order to reach a foraging site. Thick edge habitat allows deer to move from bedding to feeding areas and still watch for predators. Good edge can also provide shelter from the elements. Whitetails feel most comfortable moving around in low light conditions. In the daytime, the hardwood forest and its foliage shield out the sun and thereby create a shady environment for the deer.

The most effective defenses of the deer are speed and agility. Also, their acute sense of sight, hearing and smell usually alert them to any lurking dangers. When a whitetail detects an unwelcome intruder in its home range, it instinctively flees for the safest cover. Hunters are the deer’s most formidable adversaries with coyotes running a tight second. Cougars, timber wolves and black bears are other formidable predators that prey on deer. In the northern regions, harsh winters also have an adverse impact on whitetail populations. Deer experience a negative energy situation from the first heavy snowfall in late autumn until fresh green vegetation emerges in the early spring. Snow is the major cause for the scarcity of high-energy food. Despite their slowed metabolic rates in the cold winter months, many deer starve prior to the arrival of spring. This is a sad but a recurring, unavoidable situation.

Predominantly, environment determines a whitetail’s behaviour patterns, prevailing habits and predictable activities. These traits vary from region to region. The moon, the wind, the rain, the snow, and the temperature are additional factors that influence and impact deer movements. Although whitetails engage in a considerable amount of activity at night, they are not completely nocturnal. Whitetails are diurnal to some degree. Daytime mobility increases considerably in the autumn. This is indeed a blessing. If deer were totally nocturnal, we would never receive an opportunity to hunt them. And that would amount to a dire catastrophe.

In the summer time, the whitetails have a relatively thin, light coloured, reddish brown coat that tends to reflect sunlight. This feature allows the deer to remain cool by maintaining a lower body temperature. Given the fact that white-tails do not have sweat glands, this special trait allows them to combat the summer heat. All of this changes once the autumn season approaches. At this time of year, whitetails grow a thick, dark brown winter coat that absorbs sunlight, enabling the deer to stay warm in the cold months that follow.

This winter coat is several times thicker than the summer coat and is water repellent, preventing precipitation from penetrating the skin. The naturally grown garment consists of short, white underfur and hollow guard hairs. These two features combine and give the coat superb insulating qualities. This insulation is so effective that snow does not even melt when it accumulates of the deer’s body. In fact, a cover of snow may actually act as addition insulation, thereby giving this game animal extra protection from the cold. Whitetails shed their hair once a year. The winter coat is completely discarded with the coming of warmer weather.

Powerful upper leg muscles in conjunction with long, slender legs endow the whitetail with speed and agility. Deer are capable of attaining speeds that exceed sixty-five kilometers an hour. They have been known to leap and bound distances of six meters. Also, they have been observed to clear two-meter high fences with a running jump. The natural gait of a whitetail is a smooth paced trot that varies from sixteen to thirty kilometers per hour. These fine animals walk, trot and gallop similar to the domestic horse, but much more gracefully. Also, similar to a horse, the front hooves of a deer are slightly larger than its hind hooves. In addition to all of their swift and nimble abilities on land, whitetails are excellent swimmers. They can easily swim for several kilometers at a time.

Midday is a good time to find whitetails bedded down, since they are most active during the night time. However, they do not sleep for lengthy periods of time. Instead, they dose off and on, attempting to stay alert most of the time. But, even when whitetails are sleeping, their ears swivel, monitoring the activity around them. Despite the fact that deer are classified as social animals with a strong tendency to herd, bucks and does generally stay separate and apart. Most of the time, a mature buck never mingles with a group of does and fawns. Bucks prefer to travel alone. They may associate with other bucks in what we have commonly labelled as Bachelor Groups. However, all buck behaviour, either reclusive or social, changes dramatically when the breeding season arrives in late autumn. When the uncontrollable urge to copulate kicks in, bucks take a renewed interest in all does that come into heat and grow intolerant of the presence of other bucks. The rut will be discussed in greater detail later on in this book.

Black cloven hooves (also known as split hoof and two toe) and dewclaws are characteristic of whitetails. Below the dewclaws and behind the cloven hoof, the Interdigital gland is centrally located. The Interdigital gland is one of four external sets of scent glands that whitetails possess. This gland secretes a waxy substance. A minute amount of this secretion is deposited on the ground with each step that a whitetail takes. Every deer has a unique Interdigital scent. This individuality enables whitetails to identify one another and empowers a doe to locate her own fawns.

There are also two Metatarsal glands. Each Metatarsal gland is found on the outside of the hind leg, approximately half way between the ankle and the knee (the first and second leg joint). The two Tarsal glands are sponge like and are located one on the inside of each hind leg, at approximately the knee level, but slightly above. A Preorbital gland is positioned at the lower front corner of each eye. More information will be elucidated about these glands and their significant roles in the section on scrapes and ruts.

Two biological urges are the primary drivers of all deer behaviour—the need to feed and the need to breed. The latter only comes into play for a few months in late fall, whereas the former is a year round desire. However, during the mating season, bucks temporarily abandon the need to feed and devout their entire focus on the need to breed. Does will also lose interest in feeding in favour of breeding, but they will still eat more often than bucks. Feeding information and breeding behaviour are covered in greater detail later in the book.

Essentially, there are only three situations in which a hunter sees a whitetail: (1) the hunter is stationary and the deer is moving; (2) the hunter is moving and the deer is stationary; (3) the hunter is moving and the deer is moving. These are the three main case scenarios. However, the golden opportunity to harvest arrives when both hunter and quarry remain stationary long enough for the hunter to set his sight on the whitetail and fire. I have come across the majority of my whiteta-ils when I was moving and the game animal was stationary. Upon spotting the game animal, I became very still. Slowly and cautiously, I drew by bow, set the sight and released the arrow. Although I have been known to miss on a few occasions (none of which I will admit), most of the time, my aim has been true. Thereafter, it became a matter of locating the fallen whitetail.

However, I have also observed deer in the other two situations. In addition, I have arrowed down many fine deer from several of my tree stands and ground setups, wherein I was stationary and the deer was moving. I have managed to stop a whitetail long enough to take a shot by either scattering bait (corn or apples) along the trail near my tree stand or by emitting a soft, slow whistle. A short bleat also does the trick. Calling whitetails is an art form, which will be discussed in considerable detail later on. The most important element in any of the above situations is to stay calm. This is easier said than done. I always feel a rush whenever I see a whitetail in the wild, irrespective of size.

There are four primary areas where you will shoot whitetails: (1) feeding area; (2) bedding area; (3) transition zone or travel route; (4) staging area. I have shot most of my deer in feeding areas located at the edges of open crop fields. But, I have killed my biggest bucks in the bush along travel routes. Monarch bucks, that have survived two or more hunting seasons, become very wary and extremely wise. Hunters educate deer. A four and a half year old buck, sporting an impressive rack has learned to suppress the exploding urge to breed. Seldom, will he venture into an open field, to breed or to feed, in the diurnal hours. He has learned through experience that he must be wary and travel only in the dark hours in order to survive. On the other hand, the young bucks freely allow their hormones to control them during the Rut. Thus, they commit an abundance of errors. Savvy hunters often capitalize on these mistakes.

Generally, an old, experienced buck will wait for the cover of darkness to descend before stepping into the meadow. These nocturnal preferences may present the illusion that he is unhuntable. But, this is only a misperception. Almost any buck can be patterned, hunted and harvested. Time and patience are the key ingredients that lead to success. Typically, in these circumstances, a hunter has to kill this cautious big buck in the bush either along a well-traveled deer trail (transition zone) or in the staging area. A third option is to find his bed and shoot him there or close to that area. Locating and harvesting the nocturnal buck is dealt with in Chapter Twenty-Three.

A staging area is a resting place. It is simply a spot where deer may wait inside the forest, under the security of adequate cover, before entering a meadow to feed. What are they waiting for? The wise, old bucks usually wait for the cloak of darkness to cover the land. Other whitetails may only wait long enough to satisfy themselves that the coast is clear and that there are no perils lurking in the near vicinity. An ideal staging area consists of a mixture of cover and small openings where lush vegetation grows. In this situation, the whitetail can browse on forbs and still feel safe before the advent of darkness. A grove of mast producing trees in the close proximity of an open field may also constitute a favourable staging area. Essentially, whitetails bide time in staging areas, waiting for the last rays of light to subside and for darkness to make its debut. They prefer to pass the time munching on the available plant species.

Not an end destination, a transition zone is a path that connects one area with another area. It is travel path that is commonly known as a deer trail. These trails usually connect bedding regions with food sources. An excellent place to ambush an unsuspecting large buck is anywhere along this transition zone. Active deer trails can be consistent producers of big game. In order to hunt effectively along these travel corridors, a hunter must never allow a deer to smell, see or hear him or her. Thus, the proper use of scents and camouflage clothing is an absolute requirement, along with the ability to sit still. Being conscious of the wind direction is indispensable.

Food sources, which will be elaborated later on in this book, can be divided into two categories—diurnal and nocturnal. Given its visual capabilities to see clearly in low light conditions, the safest place for a whitetail to be at night is in the open pastures. Thus, deer will feed in the crop fields during the dark hours. In the daytime, when bright light handicaps their vision, whitetails will hide out in the forest and feed on the vegetation that grows there. A deer will go where it feels safe. Survival and procreation are the sole vocations of the whitetails.

For reasons similar for selecting nocturnal and diurnal food sources, whitetails will choose daytime and nighttime bedding areas. Again they will bed down where they feel most safe. Their acute sense of smell comes into the equation at this point. During the night, deer will rest in open meadows where they can see and detect predators from a distance. In the daytime, whitetails will seek cover and rely on their olfactory capabilities to warn them of any impending perils. They will go deep into the forest to bed down for the duration of the day. Early morning is often an excellent time to catch whitetails switching bedding areas. By waiting patiently a few meters inside the forest along well-traveled routes, I have ambushed some admirable bucks coming out of the fields into the woods in the morning.

In farm country, does and young bucks usually enter the open crop fields first. Thereafter, the mature bucks, having verified for themselves that there is no present danger, will step forth. Having survived several seasons, the older males use the females and younger males to test the territory for potential threats prior to entering into open spaces. During the rut, most bucks, even some of the lesser bucks, will follow does, waiting for the ladies to come into estrus. Chivalry has nothing to do with this type of behaviour. Bucks adhere to this routine either out of caution or out of their desire to copulate. In any event, a mature buck will seldom be the first to expose himself in the open.

Although whitetails are known to fully extend their necks along the forest floor and completely close their eyes when they bed, I have only come across bedded bucks with their heads in an upright position and their eyelids only partially closed. Some hunters, including my friend John, have told me that they have found deer totally asleep with their noses tucked into their groin regions. Bedded whitetails that seem to be sleeping must experience a significant reduction in alertness. They do not appear to be purposefully or consciously alert. I believe that whitetails, in sleep mode, depend exclusively on the involuntary (autonomous) function of their acute senses for information gathering and interpretation. Although the eyes may be closed and thereby momentarily not monitoring the immediate vicinity, the nose and ears are fully functional at all times.

Beds offer shelter, seclusion and security. If they are not disturbed, whitetails often bed down near their food sources. In addition to resting and/or sleeping deer may bed down to masticate their cud or to simply conserve energy. In both of the latter situations, these game animals are fully alert. When they are lying down, deer tend to rely more on their auditory and olfactory capabilities and less on their visual abilities. Although whitetails do not typically employ the same beds, they do tend to bed down in the same vicinity. Where the deer bed down may differ with the changing seasons. Whitetail beds are egg shaped with the hips forming the widest part of the oval.

A bedded buck prefers to stay bedded. Therefore, he may hold tight and let hunters pass. On the other hand, he may attempt to sneak away without making any noise. When they are startled or disturbed, whitetails abandon their beds very quickly. All four legs come into play as the deer instantly becomes upright and dashes off at great speed. Even though I have never witnessed a buck actually bedding down, I have found many sleeping and I have jumped numerous deer out of their beds. Whitetails tend to bed either close to their food sources or along active trails—usually a little off to the side, but never directly on the trail. Both, bedding areas and feeding areas, are prime locations to hunt. However, it is usually easier to locate a food source than a bedding region.

Even though you may still find the odd wooden rail snake fence on some of the older farms in the agricultural belt, most of the man-made barriers consist of barbed wire. In the past, fences served two primary purposes. They marked property lines and kept free-ranging livestock within a confined area. Currently, the existing fences, most of which are in disarray, merely serve to indicate property boundaries. The majority of farmers have switched to a philosophy of bringing the feed to the cattle juxtaposed to the former methodology of free-ranging the herd in a specific food plot. Thus, most of the cattle are kept indoors and the fields are put to better use in an efficient crop rotation cycle.

It is a well-known fact that whitetails can easily leap over fences exceeding two meters in height. However, these game animals prefer to either pass through or crawl underneath a fence. When deer come up against a fence, they typically travel up or down the barrier searching for an opening sufficiently large to allow them to cross over to the other side. After they have located such a spot, whitetails will use the newfound hole on a relatively regular basis. A hunter that finds one or more of these apertures would be wise to set up nearby. Generally, a deer crossing through the fence will have tuffs of hair caught on the barbs and an abundance of tracks on both sides of the boundary indicating a well-worn path. Fences definitely influence deer movement.

An innovative hunter may also create an artificial opening by lifting the top strand of a barbed wire fence and pushing down on the middle strand. A couple of staples may have to be removed in the process. This procedure may be executed anywhere that a trail comes in contact with a man-made barrier. Also, if the fence is not being employed to confine livestock, you may consider asking the farmer if you can cut a few strands. By cutting the three strands and pulling them back, you will create an opening. Provided that you do this near a perpendicular deer trail, you are almost assured that your quarry will soon make use of this new ingress into the crop field. Traditionally, whitetails always follow the path of least resistance.

2

Predators and Competitors

Whitetails enjoy a close relationship with their environment. However, this is not an exclusive arrangement. Other creatures thrive in the same habitat. Those who share similar requirements, compete with the whitetails for the available food, water, shelter and escape cover. The larger carnivores or omnivores consider the whitetails to be a source of nutrition. Thus, in order to survive in any suitable environment, the deer must be adept at competing with a variety of herbivores and successfully avoiding detection by potential predators.

Nature appears to always be in harmony. Although hunting may be a partial solution to maintaining a healthy whitetail herd in an area, one must be careful not to serious upset the balance. Harvesting whitetails reduces the number of deer within a region. Therefore, there are less whitetails and, theoretically, more food for the survivors. Shooting predators may reduce the risk to fawn predation, but may also allow other competitor populations to expand. By killing off the competitors, a hunter reduces the availability of feasible substitutes to venison for the existing predators. Thereby, an over harvest of competitors may intensify the pressure on whitetails. These are just some of the factors that one needs to consider when attempting to maintain a desirable herd composition within a hunting territory. As always, moderation is the key.

2.1 Predators

Predators definitely have an adverse effect on whitetail populations. Some areas experience higher rates ofpredation than others. Fawns are easier to find in places where cover proves to be inadequate. Predators can hunt more effectively in sparse vegetation. High concentrations of deer in a particular locale offer easier hunting than the same number of animals spread over a larger range. When they catch and devour the weak, the sick and the wounded, predators perform a utilitarian function.

Some of the most common animals that prey on farm country whitetails are coyotes, timber wolves, black bears, cougars and lynx. By trimming down the predator population, a hunter may increase the size of the whitetail herd within that area. If more fawns survive, there may be more bucks to hunt in future years. Personally, I have always found predators interesting and challenging creatures to hunt. This is a situation where the predator becomes the prey. However, be mindful of the competitor compositions in your area. Starvation and/or malnutrition may prove to have more adverse effects on a herd than a few fawns being eaten annually.

Coyotes

Of all the predators, coyotes are the most adaptable. They feast when they can on what they can. In farm country, coyotes (also known as brush wolves) are the most predominant predators of the whitetails. Omnivorous by nature, the coyote ranks venison as one of its favourite foods. True to canine tradition, coyotes sniff out their prey. They are smell, juxtaposed to sight, hunters by nature. Most of their future meals are detected by olfactory means.

An average brush wolf weighs approximately fifteen kilograms and is considered too small, in most cases, to take down a mature buck or adult doe by itself. Healthy adult deer have little to fear from a solitary brush wolf. Fawns, especially new borns, are the primary targets of coyotes. Most of the fawns are eaten during the summer months, especially in June. However, fawns have excellent camouflage, are scent free and can lay absolutely motionless. Thus, they are exceptionally difficult to detect by these predators. The presence of adequate cover or excellent hiding places further reduces the impact of coyotes.

Coyotes, in order to survive, must be conscious of energy conservation. Long, unsuccessful chases substantially deplete energy reserves. This situation leaves little energy for the next encounter. Brush wolves are intelligent animals and readily realize that long chases cause rapid energy dissipation. Therefore, these predators generally keep their chases reasonably short. They abandon the pursuit if the prey is not caught and killed in a short time.

As already stated, mature bucks and adult does are not the prime targets of the brush wolf. Coyotes prefer to take down fawns. But, they will take down larger animals that are in poor physical condition or bleeding deer that have been wounded by hunters. Coyotes may catch and kill whitetails that may be already predisposed to malnutrition, starvation or some other disease. One could argue that the animals within these latter categories would have died anyway. Coyotes will also consume dead deer. The impact of coyotes in any specific region may vary anywhere from mild to substantial. Coyote predation is a true and natural fact that must be considered in farm country.

A whitetail hunter is often confronted with a dilemma when a game animal is not recovered within a short distance of the shot impact site. He or she often has to choose whether to commence tracking too soon or losing the deer to coyotes. Waiting overnight to pick up the blood trail in the morning may be too late. On the other hand, following too soon on a gut shot game animal or one that has not been critically injured may cause the wounded whitetail to run for miles. This decision is heavily influenced by the rate of predation in a specific area. Any coyote in an area can easily and quickly locate a mortally wounded whitetail. A few coyotes in a pack can strip an entire deer carcass within several hours.

Even though I usually make a clean shot and adhere to the hot pursuit theory (pickup and follow the blood trail right away), there have been few occasions where I have had to wait overnight. Due to a healthy predator population in the regions where I hunt, I have found my bucks on the following morning, partially eaten by coyotes. Judging by the available evidence, I assume that the coyotes wait until the wounded whitetail beds down and then attack it. In some of these instances I have found several beds that were soaked with blood. This had led me to believe that a bedded buck may be jumped by coyotes and run for a short distance.

If the coyotes do not give chase, the buck will lie down again. Crafty and wise by nature, these predators may purposefully wait for a deer to bleed out before commencing another chase. Once the whitetail is exhausted or has suffered sufficient blood lose, the coyotes will kill and eat their prey. Perhaps, this is the reason that I have found most of my bucks only partially eaten and not completely reduced to a heap of bones and hide. Maybe, these predators could only get close enough to the buck in the early hours of the morning.

Although coyotes usually hunt alone, they will form a pack in order to hunt larger animals if there is a scarcity of easier prey. In these scenarios, one or two coyotes will chase a whitetail, while the balance of the pack waits. Later, other members give chase, allowing the former predators to rest. Thereby, working in relay teams, the brush wolves tire out a whitetail. An exhausted deer is easier to kill. In addition, when whitetails yard up due to harsh weather, they become confined with limited mobility. Extreme snow depth and extended periods of cold weather hinder deer movement. This situation gives the coyotes an upper hand. In most cases, the coyotes will start with the weakest members of the herd.

In summary, coyotes can and do kill whitetails. However, the rate of predation varies from region to region. Several factors come into play. The number of coyotes within an area is a critical consideration. Deer survival depends on the amount and availability of food and shelter in any given territory. Fawns can effectively conceal themselves in any thick undergrowth of a forest. The key to a young deer escaping detection by predators is its ability to hide. A whitetails herd’s overall health will determine their success in repelling predators. Also, weather plays a hand in this deadly game. Deep snow and long periods of cold temperatures impose disadvantages on whitetails.

Timber Wolves

Timber wolves are the larger relatives of the coyotes. The average wolf weighs anywhere from thirty to thirty-five kilograms. Given their size, a mature timber wolf can easily take down a whitetail in any age group. Although most wolves are opportunistic feeders that will consume a wide variety of food items, they do prefer big game animals—deer, caribou, and moose. Similar to a coyote, this animal is a smell hunter, preferring to sniff out its prey. A timber wolf may go several days without food and then devour eight to ten kilograms of meat in one session after a fresh kill. In the summer months, timber wolves will feed predominantly on beavers. But, they quickly switch to deer when the cold weather arrives. Moose and caribou replace whitetails to some degree as the winter progresses.

In the summer months, whitetails often escape from these predators by seeking refuge in water. Deer are much better swimmers than wolves. However, this situation changes in the winter when the waterways freeze over. Timber wolves are usually much more agile than whitetails on ice. In deciding to give chase, the wolf considers the surrounding cover, the snow conditions and when it ate last. Like the coyote, this larger related predator is also energy conscious. The timber wolf is well aware that long, unsuccessful chases substantially deplete energy reserves. This situation leaves little energy for the next encounter. Ranking high on the intelligent scale, these animals readily realize that long chases cause rapid energy dissipation. Therefore, similar to coyotes, timber wolves generally keep their chases reasonably short. They abandon the pursuit if the prey is not caught and killed within in a short span of time.

Most timber wolves live and hunt in