Artemis and the Ritual Process

Artemis and the Ritual Process

Volume 2 of the Series

'Life, Death and Artemis'

Copyright 2017 Mary G. Galvin PhD

Published by Mary G. Galvin PhD at Smashwords

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Table of Contents

Start of document

Series Abstract

Introduction to Volume 2

Volume 2

Religious Framework

Artemis and the Ritual Process

Encoding

Formality

Invariance

Performance

Psychological Efficacy

Summary: Artemis and Ritual

Linking the Ritual Process and the Visual Image

Conclusion: The Ritual Process

Notes

Author

About the Author

Other books by this Author

Series Abstract

ΒΙΟΣ

as written by the classical Greeks

an ambiguous word when read alone

is it βíος the way of life ?

or is it βιóς the instrument of death ?

unaccentuated it embodies both

– a pair of opposites?

ARTEMIS

a goddess of ambiguous and liminal zones

nurturer of life, of birth and the young

bringer of death in the hunt and the home

- a contradiction ?

Yet life has no meaning unless death exists and

death is only meaningful if once there was life

- co-dependent concepts.

ΒΙΟΣ one word symbolic of two interdependent concepts

ARTEMIS one goddess powerful in two inter-related realms.

NOTE: Karl Kerényi gives a comprehensive explanation of the Greek understanding of βίος where he makes the distinction between the finite property of βίος which exists between birth and death compared to the infinite properties of ζωή which means the opposite of death.¹ This distinction is then used by him to characterise Dionysos as ζωή, the indestructible thread of continuous life. His dissertation on the meaning and use of these words is equally applicable to this assessment of Artemis, where her role is that of βίος, each discrete and individual life, a finite entity bounded by the milestones of birth and death. These two concepts of life co-existed in the Greek world. It is this concept of βίος, the finite span of life² with which both Artemis and this series are concerned.

Introduction to Volume 2

Background

Volume one of this series provided a comprehensive background to this series, the research behind it and the methodological approach used. The reader is referred to volume one for this information rather than repeat it here.

Layout of the Series

The series 'Life, Death and Artemis' consists of several volumes; the first addresses the diverse imagery of Artemis in art and artefact; the second addresses the cult practices of Artemis; and the third addresses the perceived, active role of Artemis, in the lives of her followers; followed by conclusions drawn from the evidence presented.

This second volume addresses the Ritual Practice (the active role of mankind):

The assessment of the cult practice commences with a methodology for assessing ritual which is based upon the theory of religion proposed by religious anthropologist Roy Rappaport. This defines the religious framework within which data will be assessed and facilitates the thorough analysis of Artemis’ worship that follows.

Supporting evidence and references are published separately in a final volume containing all appendices.³

Religious Framework

Artemis and the Ritual Process

Ritual is the collective expression by a society of its ideas, sentiments and beliefs, which determines its character and re-enforces its unity.⁴ Artemisian ritual is societies’ expression of feelings and beliefs in relation to the deity Artemis and through a study of the ritual it should be possible to identify those ideas, sentiments and beliefs which society held in relation to Artemis.

In this section the analysis of ritual Artemisian activity draws upon a large selection of material, mainly ancient texts and inscriptions, which have been supplemented with archaeological findings. Archaeological and textual evidence should be mutually supportive, and consideration of both aspects helps to ensure that neither body of evidence is misinterpreted.

Texts containing both mythical and historical narrative are considered, although they are assessed slightly differently. Mythical narrative does not provide evidence of actual practices, but it does reflect the underlying culture, albeit often in an exaggerated state, projecting a ‘larger than life’ image which was part of the oral tradition. This inevitably results in differences between the coloured images of the mythical narrative and the reality of the historical narrative. However, the underlying themes of Artemis’ worship expressed in myth should match those themes expressed in history; a mismatch would be evidence of some confusion between belief and practice in relation to the cult of Artemis. It is in the underlying themes that we find the common threads which continued to exist over time and across locations and consequently define and distinguish Artemis worship from that of other deities. E. Cantarella made the comment that, when these tales are recounted often it does not matter whether it is real or imaginary – what is important is that it is retold for didactic purposes.⁵ It is not the superficial details but the underlying theme that is important; it is the theme for which the story was retold.

The difference between passages from myth and history will not be continually pointed out in this section, although the two are generally dealt with separately and explicit reference will be made where relevant.

A similar approach has been taken with some of the sources considered to be less reliable; where this material confirms the opinions expressed by more reliable sources, then no comment will be made, but where it is substantially different and, in some cases, highly unbelievable, this will be noted. Regardless of the source, unlikely or seemingly unfounded statements will be acknowledged but discounted from further analysis. ⁶ This is not to say that certain oddities did not happen, or that societies did not institute extreme variants of a practice. If there is a common underlying thread these oddities and extremities of practice will be included. Any singularities that do not form part of the common thread that pervaded the practices and beliefs of Artemis worship, or have no substantiating evidence elsewhere, will be highlighted and ignored.⁷

This section contains a vast quantity of repetitive evidence and while it might induce torpor in the reader it is the very repetitiveness of the evidence across both geography and chronology which emphasises the consistency of the role of Artemis. Due to the vast number of supporting references, where this would render the text difficult to read a dagger (†) or double-dagger (‡) will replace the references tabled at the end of each sub-section.

In order to study the rituals associated with the cult practice of Artemis in the ancient world it is necessary to have a framework within which to work, a framework which defines the boundaries between ritual and secular activity. This problem had earlier been identified by Malinowski who commented that our historical survey of theories has left us somewhat bewildered with the chaos of opinions and the jumble of phenomena…⁸. As Jan Bremmer has eloquently pointed out, classical scholars have long been attempting to define ritual in the context of the ancient Greek and Roman worlds using the work of ethologists, sociologists, anthropologists and historians of ancient religion without coming to any universal conclusions.⁹ If the practices of the ancient Greeks and Romans constitute a genuine religion then it should be possible to apply a general theory of religion to those practices.¹⁰ I have therefore chosen to base my analysis on a general theory of religion, a more recent work than those cited by Bremmer, and one not specifically limited to the worlds of ancient Greece and Rome but based upon the study of societies of humankind in all eras and in many civilizations.

In defining the framework for this assessment, I have taken the guidelines for ritual activity from the work of the late Dr. Roy Rappaport as expressed in his book Ritual and Religion in the Making of Humanity. This choice was influenced primarily by the obvious parallels between the religious activity of the Greeks and Romans and the maxims of Rappaport’s theory. It was supported by the endorsements given to Rappaport’s work by scholars of varied disciplines, such as anthropology, archaeology, theology and classics,¹¹ providing verification that his work is applicable across a wide range of disciplines, which all interface with religion.¹²

Rappaport defines ritual as the performance of more or less invariant sequences of formal acts and utterances not entirely encoded by the performers.¹³ This definition could apply equally well to the mating rituals of birds in springtime as it does to a religious ritual or ceremony and herein lies the crux of its usefulness as a definition. It allows one to define WHAT is or is not ritual, separating it from any definition of why the ritual is carried out, when or where it occurs or of what relevance it may be to the participants. These latter questions can be comprehensively answered once the ritual itself has been isolated and identified.

Rappaport’s definition comprises five interrelated identifying features:

1) Encoding by other than the performers;

2) Formality of the acts and utterances (adherence to form);

3) Invariance of the acts;

4) Performance; and

5) Psychological efficacy.¹⁴

By expanding these definitions and examining their potential application in typical ritual situations in the ancient world of Artemis’ worshippers, one can elucidate boundaries for the ritual activity of Artemis.

Encoding

Encoding by other than the performers, the first facet of Rappaport’s model, means that those who participate in the cult or ritual activity, whether as active or passive participants, have not defined its nature in any way, shape or form – not its location, its timing, its actions nor words; all of which have been pre-determined.¹⁵ This feature is particularly noticeable in relation to Artemis where origins of the cult or ritual location, artefacts and rituals are defined and explained in myth, legend or history.¹⁶

These narratives gave the reason for the origins, or the aetiology of: the establishment of sacred space (sites, sanctuaries and temples); the origins of cult statues and notable votives; the establishment of the rite and/or festival; the origins or nature of the priesthood; and the participation of specific individuals in the rituals, often those to be sacrificed or their substitutes.

Some myths also provided a charter for the ongoing nature of a ritual or sacrifice. The encoding of Artemis’ rituals and resultant traditions were inspired either by divine authority or by historical/mythical convention and perpetrated by an ongoing desire to appease the goddess. Further details of the encoding follow.

Establishment of Sacred Space

A sacred space is a place where one expects to feel the presence of the divine (and many were established for this reason alone- the sense of a holy place)¹⁷ for it belongs to the deity and is subject to his influence.¹⁸ It remains the property of the deity and removal of its contents becomes theft. Sacred places, both sanctuaries and temples are designated as such by man either because of divine decree, as a means of celebrating the deity or in atonement for infringements against the deity. Ancient writers provide the supporting evidence with a variety of anecdotes relating to the aetiology of many of Artemis’ holy places such as Hypermnestra’s thanks offering at Argos (she was the only Danaid not to murder her husband):

The sanctuary of Artemis, surnamed Persuasion, is another offering of Hypermnestra after winning the trial to which she was brought by her father because of Lynceus

(Paus. II 21:1) Tr. W.H.S. Jones and H.A. Ormerod

While the sites were often real, many of the aetiologies were mythical such as the tales relating to the origins of Delos, which arose from the sea to become an island in the Aegean†. Subsequently Delos, the birthplace of Artemis and Apollo, became renowned in the ancient world as a holy place of the Apolline trinity (Apollo, Artemis and Leto), and although often regarded as a major site of worship for Apollo it also contained well frequented temples of Artemis and Leto.¹⁹

Aetiologies for other temples of Artemis abound: Agamemnon seems to have founded two during his efforts to take a fleet to Troy, one at Megara to secure the services of the seer Kalchas† and one at Pygela where he abandoned his soldiers afflicted with a disease of the buttocks.† His son Orestes founded at least five, one in Attika at the behest of Athena; one in Syria; and three in Anatolia as a consequence of his efforts to purify himself from matricide: one in Kappadokia, one in Cilicia and one in Pontus.† Another mythic founder, Saron, a king fond of hunting, founded one in the Saronic Gulf which became known for its link with his myth (he drowned because he was so engrossed in the hunt), thereby giving his name to the Saronic Gulf.† Odysseus founded one at Karyai in thanksgiving for finding his horses;† and Hippolytos, who died because of his devotion to Artemis, founded two, one at Troizen and one at Aricia.† The Amazons, female warriors much likened to Artemis, were reputed to have founded the shrine at Ephesos according to both Kallimachos and Pliny,† although Tacitus would have us believe that it was consecrated by Latona/Leto† and Pausanias claims it was founded by Koresos and Ephesos, a tale corresponding with that of the oracle in Athenaeus,† providing a variety of alternate aetiologies for the one sacred space. Another of Artemis’ female devotees, Kallisto, had a grave that was the site of a sanctuary of Artemis in the Peloponnese† and Medea founded one on an island during her travels with Jason. † There was an altar at Zoster, in Attika where Leto loosened her girdle† and Alcathous founded the temple of Artemis Agrotera and Apollo Agraeus at Megara after killing the Cithaeronian lion.†

Even legendary heroes left their mark; Theseus dedicated a temple to Artemis Saviour at Troizen and Herakles one at Pellene to Pythian Apollo where sacrifices were made to both Apollo and Artemis. † The propensity to dedicate sacred spaces to Artemis was thus firmly established in myth across the Greek world, from the mainland, through the Aegean islands and into Anatolia, the links with the mythical past lending status and prestige to the sacred space in question.

This trend continued into historical times where the religious-minded continued to found, dedicate or consecrate sacred areas to Artemis, giving kudos to the sacred space as well as gaining favour with the goddess for themselves.²⁰ In the wake of his success at Salamis, Themistokles set up his controversial temple of Artemis Aristoboulé.²¹

… he [Themistocles] counselled the Greeks to fight for Salamis and subsequently set up a temple of Artemis of Good Counsel at Melité, after the barbarians were defeated…

(Plu. Mor. 869d) Tr. Frank Cole Babbitt, et al.

On mainland Greece the legendary Mounychos founded the sanctuary of Artemis at the Piraeus† and further south, in the Peloponnese, Aristodemos founded a temple at Megalopolis and a sanctuary at Skias,† Epopeus founded a temple at Sikyon† and the Hyperesians founded a sanctuary at Aegeira in thanksgiving for the successful trick against the Sikyonians.† A sanctuary was founded in Tegea by Chronius either in compensation for the death of the Tegean parthenos who killed herself rather than submit to Aristomelidas, or as atonement for Chromius’ killing of Aristomelidas.† A final Peloponnesian example was that of Xenophon, who, after returning from his arduous campaigns in Asia, dedicated a sanctuary to Artemis.† Although the above examples are all in Greece, this concept of a founding history being associated with sacred spaces of Artemis was not confined to Greece itself.

Pliny tells us how the Zakynthians took the worship of Artemis from the island of Zakynthos to their newly founded city of Saguntum in Spain:

At Saguntum, too, in Spain, there is a temple of Diana,²² which was brought thither by the original founders of the place, from the island of Zakynthus, in the year before the taking of Troy, Bocchus says-

(Plin. HN 16:79) Tr. D.E.Eichholz

Herodotus tells us the story of the Byzantines who removed the pillars set up by Dareius at the Bosporus and used them to build an altar of Orthosian Artemis;† Strabo tells the story of the founding of the temple of Ephesian Artemis at Massalia as the result of oracles;† Gaius Valerius Flaccus relates how the Tauric rites were taken from Skythia to Nemi near Aricia;† and Dionysius of Halikarnassos relates how Tatius, after his success, erected altars in Rome to Artemis and many other gods to whom he had previously made vows during battle.†

The trend for establishing sacred sites and endowing them with foundation stories persisted with ongoing text and inscriptional evidence testifying to the precedent set by myth. † The above examples provide a cross section of these stories from mythical through to historic times, and geographically from Europe across to Asia. It is apparent that every era had its quota of local foundation stories for sacred spaces established in the past but used by peoples of later times, their location and origins ‘encoded’ by the founder.

More importantly, the choice of Artemis as deity was neither random nor coincidental. She was either present at the founding incident (as in many of the myths) or deemed to have been active in the incident which led to the dedication. Her role was always related to life, whether as guardian of society in times of trouble or nurturer of the individual in the trials of life.²³

Table R1 - Encoding: Aetiology and sacred spaces of Artemis

The following ‘Encoding’ list provides the aetiology of the sacred site; listing the originator, the site and the supporting references:

Agamemnon

Megara: (Paus. I 43:1-2);

Pygela: (Str. XIV 1:20)

Alcathous

Megara: (Paus. I 41:3-6)

Amazons

Ephesos: (Call. Dian. 305-310; Plin. HN 5:31)

Aristodemos

Skias: (Paus. VIII 35:5),

Megalopolis Arkadia (Paus. VIII 32:1-4)

Asteria

Delos: (Hyg. Fab. 53, 140; Str. X 5:2)

Byzantines

Borporos: (Hdt. IV 87:10)

Chronius

Tegea: (Paus. VIII 47:6)

Citizens of Saron

Saronic Gulf: (Paus. II 30:7)

Ephesians

Ephesos: (Ath.Soph. VIII 361d-e)

Epopeus

Sikyon: (Paus. II 11:1)

Hippolytos

Troizen: (Paus. II 31:4-5),

Aricia: (Paus. II 27:4)

Hyperesians

Aegeira: (Paus. VII 26:1-3)

Hypermnestra

(Paus. II 21:1)

Kallisto

(Paus. VIII 35:8)

Koresos and Ephesos

Ephesos: (Paus. VII 2:7)

Leto

Ephesos: (Tac. Ann. 3:61);

Zoster: (Paus. I 31:1-2)

Lucius Cornificius

(Suet. Aug. 29.5)

Medea

(Arist. Mir. 839b.18-19)

Mounychos

Piraeus: (Suidas epsilon 937, mu 1289)

Odysseus

Karyai: (Paus. VIII 14:4-5)

Orestes

Attika: (E. IT 1445-1460),

SyriaL (SHA Ant.Elag. VII 4),

Kappadokia: (Procop. Hist. I 17:15-20),

Cilicia: (Str. XII 2:3-7),

Pontus: (Procop. Hist. I 17:11-15)

Phokaians

Massalia: (Str. IV 1:1-8)

Tatius

Rome: (D.H. Ant. II 50:3)

Themistokles

Athens, Aristoboulé: (Plu. Mor. 869d; Plu. Them. 22:1-2)

Theseus

Troizen: (Paus. II 31:1),

Pellene: (Paus. VIII 15:5-7)

Xenophon

(Paus. V 6:5-6; Str. VIII 7:5; X. An. V 3:7-8)

Zakynthians

Saguntum: (Plin. HN 16:79)

Subsequent Dedications

Delians: (Aeschin. Ctes. 3:108, 109-110)

Ephesians: (I.Eph. 260; Hdt. I 26:5.1-2; Polyaen. 6.50; Tac. Ann. 4:55)

Milesians: (Tac. Ann. 4:55)

People of Latium: (Plin. HN 16:91)

Xanthians: (TAM II 263)

Romans: (ROL D. 77; D.C. 24:12-18; Zonar. 7, 9)

Origins of Cult Statues and Notable Votives

A substantial number of aetiological tales provided by ancient authors in relation to Artemisian artefacts relate to her cult statue. The majority are mythical although one or two extend into the realms of history, such as the migration of an image of Ephesian Artemis from Ephesos to Massalia, ensuring a genuine link between Artemis at Ephesos and the remote outpost at Massalia: †

…the Ephesium is a temple dedicated solely to the Ephesian Artemis: for when the Phokians were setting sail from their