Sustainable Transportation and Smart Logistics: Decision-Making Models and Solutions

Sustainable Transportation and Smart Logistics

Decision-Making Models and Solutions

Editors

Javier Faulin

Institute of Smart Cities, Public University of Navarre, Pamplona, Spain

Scott E. Grasman

Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering, Kettering University, Flint, MI, United States

Angel A. Juan

IN3 – Computer Science Department, Open University of Catalonia, Barcelona, Spain

Patrick Hirsch

Institute of Production and Logistics, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria

Table of Contents

Cover image

Title page

Copyright

List of Contributors

Foreword

Preface

Part I. Basic Concepts in Transportation

Chapter 1. Sustainable Transportation: Concepts and Current Practices

1. Introduction

2. Characteristics of Freight and Passenger Transportation

3. Sources of Energy and Transportation Modalities

4. Planning Intermodal Logistics

5. Quantitative Methods for Decision Making in Transportation

6. Emerging Trends in Sustainable Transportation

7. Conclusions

Chapter 2. Introduction to the Technology, Applications, and Modal Choice of Land Transport

1. Introduction

2. Road Transport

3. Rail Transport

4. Service Design

5. Future Technologies

Chapter 3. Environmental Sustainability in Ports

1. Introduction

2. The Concept and Areas of Environmental Sustainability in Ports

3. A Brief Overview of Maritime Logistics and Port Operations

4. An Application to Berth Scheduling

5. Conclusions

Chapter 4. A Review of Sustainability in Aviation: A Multidimensional Perspective

1. Introduction

2. Airspace Capacity

3. Airport Capacity and Constraints

4. Airport Operations

5. Airline Operations

6. Disruption Management

7. Conclusions

Chapter 5. Intermodal Transport—Basics, Structure, and Planning Approaches

1. Introduction

2. Intermodal Components

3. Planning

Part II. An Approximation to Sustainable Transportation and Smart Logistics

Chapter 6. Economic Measurement of Environmental Costs for Transportation Activity

1. Introduction

2. Comparing Social Costs and Benefits of Transportation Activity

3. How to Measure Social Costs and Benefits: Willingness-To-Accept and Willingness-To-Pay

4. Some Measures of Environmental Costs for Transportation Activity

5. Concluding Comments

Chapter 7. Green Network Design Problems

1. Introduction

2. Previous Survey Papers

3. Green Network Design Problems

4. Conclusions and Thoughts on Further Research

Chapter 8. Sustainable Logistics With Cargo Bikes—Methods and Applications

1. Introduction

2. Cargo Bikes for Inner-City Freight Delivery

3. Cargo Bike Specific Problem Attributes

4. Case Studies

5. Conclusion

Chapter 9. Environmental Sustainability of Freight Transportation Terminals

1. Introduction

2. Transportation and Environmental Sustainability

3. A Methodology to Assess Transportation Terminals' Energy Consumption

4. Strategies to Reduce Environmental Emissions at Transportation Terminals

5. Conclusions

Part III. Decision-Making in Sustainable Transportation and Smart Logistics

Chapter 10. Decision Making Using Exact Optimization Methods in Sustainable Transportation

1. Introduction to Exact Approaches

2. Traditional Vehicle Routing ILP Formulations

3. Green VRP Variants

4. A Sample Branch-and-Cut Algorithm

5. Issues to Consider in Exact Approaches to Green VRP Variants

6. Conclusions

Chapter 11. Decision Making Using Metaheuristic Optimization Methods in Sustainable Transportation

1. Introduction

2. Metaheuristic Optimization Methods

3. Eco-Friendly Transportation

4. Urban Transportation

5. Conclusion

Chapter 12. Decision Making Using Simulation Methods in Sustainable Transportation

1. Introduction

2. Simulation Technologies Applied

3. Integrating Sustainable KPIs in Simulation

4. Optimization and Simheuristics Approaches

5. Applications

6. Summary and Outlook

Part IV. Current and Future Trends in Sustainable Transportation and Smart Logistics

Chapter 13. Current and Future Dynamic Passenger Transport Services—Modeling, Simulation, and Optimization in a Sustainable Transport System

1. Introduction

2. Dynamic Passenger Transport Services—An Overview

3. Modeling and Simulation of Dynamic Passenger Transport Services

4. Modeling and Simulating Dynamic Transport Modes for a Sustainable Transit System

5. Conclusion

Chapter 14. Sustainable Road Traffic Using Evolutionary Algorithms

1. Introduction

2. Related Work

3. Red Swarm

4. Green Swarm

5. Yellow Swarm

6. Conclusions

Chapter 15. Crowd-Based City Logistics

1. Introduction

2. Crowdsourcing Logistics Services

3. Research Opportunities in Crowd Logistics

4. Beyond City Logistics

5. Final Remarks

Chapter 16. Future Trends in Sustainable Transportation

1. Introduction: Sustainability and Sustainable Mobility

2. Interdependencies Between the Components of the Urban System and Their Implications for Transport Sustainability

3. Sustainable Mobility Based on Smart Mobility: A Key Pillar of Smart Connected Cities

4. The Paradigm Shift: The City as a Complex Dynamic System

5. Conclusions: From Smart Cities to Wise Cities and the Role of Sustainable Transport

Part V. Applications and Case Studies

Chapter 17. Enabling Smart City Provenance-Based Applications to Improve Urban Mobility in Brazilian Cities

1. Introduction

2. Background

3. Material and Methods

4. BusInRio Architecture

5. Use Cases

6. Related Work

7. Conclusion

Appendix A: ETL Workflows Provenance Graph

Appendix B: Mobile Application Provenance Graph

Chapter 18. The Trade-Off Between the Three Columns of Sustainability: A Case Study From the Home Service Industry

1. Introduction

2. Different Mobility Concepts for Mobile Home Service Workers

3. Case Study—Home Care

4. Conclusions and Outlook

Index

Copyright

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List of Contributors

Enrique Alba,     Departamento de Lenguajes y Ciencias de la Computacion, University of Malaga, Malaga, Spain

Alexandra Anderluh,     WU Vienna University of Economics and Business, Vienna, Austria

Pol Arias

Loughborough University, Loughborough, United Kingdom

Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom

Jaume Barceló,     Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, UPC-Barcelona TECH, Barcelona, Spain

Tolga Bektaş,     Centre for Operational Research, Management Science and Information Systems (CORMSIS), Southampton Business School, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom

Joschka Bischoff,     Transport System Planning and Transport Telematics, Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany

Paula Carroll,     College of Business, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland

Laurent Denant-Boemont,     Faculty of Economics, Université de Rennes 1 & CREM CNRS, Rennes, France

Okan Dukkanci,     Department of Industrial Engineering, Bilkent University, Ankara, Turkey

Majid Eskandarpour,     IÉSEG School of Management (LEM-CNRS 9221)

Javier Faulin,     Institute of Smart Cities, Public University of Navarre, Pamplona, Spain

Graham Fletcher,     Logistics, Operational Research and Analytics Group, Department of Mathematics, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, United Kingdom

Harry Geerlings,     Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands

David Goldsman,     Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, United States

Scott E. Grasman,     Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering, Kettering University, Flint, MI, United States

Manfred Gronalt,     University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Institute of Production and Logistics, Vienna, Austria

Daniel Guimarans,     Amsterdam University of Applied Sciences, Amsterdam, Netherlands

Sabrina Hammiche,     Faculty of Economics, Université de Rennes 1 & CREM CNRS, Rennes, France

Steven S. Harrod,     Department of Management Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark

Leonard Heilig,     Institute of Information Systems, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany

Vera C. Hemmelmayr,     WU Vienna University of Economics and Business, Vienna, Austria

Patrick Hirsch,     Institute of Production and Logistics, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria

Angel A. Juan,     IN3 – Computer Science Department, Open University of Catalonia, Barcelona, Spain

Bahar Y. Kara,     Department of Industrial Engineering, Bilkent University, Ankara, Turkey

Peter Keenan,     College of Business, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland

Eduardo Lalla-Ruiz

Department of Industrial Engineering and Business Information Systems, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands

Institute of Information Systems, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany

Raimundo José Macário Costa,     Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro, PPGMMC/UFRRJ, Seropédica, Brazil

Michal Maciejewski,     Transport System Planning and Transport Telematics, Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany

Pamela C. Nolz,     AIT Austrian Institute of Technology, Vienna, Austria

Djamila Ouelhadj,     Logistics, Operational Research and Analytics Group, Department of Mathematics, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, United Kingdom

Martin Posset,     University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Institute of Production and Logistics, Vienna, Austria

Sonja M. Protic,     Institute of Production and Logistics, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria

Markus Rabe,     TU Dortmund University, Dortmund, Germany

Afonso Sampaio,     School of Industrial Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, Netherlands

Martin Savelsbergh,     H. Milton Stewart School of Industrial and Systems Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, United States

Ralf-Charley Schultze,     UIRR, International Union for Rail-Road Combined Transport, Brussels, Belgium

Sérgio Manuel Serra da Cruz

Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro, PPGMMC/UFRRJ, Seropédica, Brazil

Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, PPGI/UFRJ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Daniel H. Stolfi,     Departamento de Lenguajes y Ciencias de la Computacion, University of Malaga, Malaga, Spain

Maurizio Tomasella,     University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom

Ron van Duin

Faculty of Technology, Policy and Management, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands

Research Centre Sustainable Port Cities, Rotterdam University of Applied Sciences, Rotterdam, The Netherlands

Tom van Woensel,     School of Industrial Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, Netherlands

Lucas Veelenturf,     School of Industrial Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, Netherlands

Jana Voegl,     Institute of Production and Logistics, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria

Stefan Voß,     Institute of Information Systems, University of Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany

Cheng-Lung Wu,     University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia

Foreword

Traditionally, many sectors of activity have been mainly driven by the objective of maximizing economic efficiency. It is now recognized that such a narrow-minded perspective is not desirable, since environmental and social aspects need to be taken into account. Seeking a balance between economic, environmental, and social objectives—the three pillars of sustainable development—is the goal of a growing number of organizations, both public and private.

The transportation sector has followed a similar path, as many stakeholders have traditionally favored economic efficiency to the detriment of environmental and social considerations. This has resulted in many negative externalities attributed to transportation activities: for instance, on the environmental side, the significant amount of pollution and unhealthy emissions generated by gasoline-powered vehicles, or on the social side, the lack of accessibility to transportation services for elderly people and persons with disabilities. With the aim of reducing these negative externalities, an increasing number of stakeholders are now considering the three columns of sustainability—economic, environmental, and social development—in the planning and management of their transportation activities. While this is a welcome development, it creates many challenges, as transportation systems are inherently complex, having to cope with multiple stakeholders, multiple modes, multiple commodities, in addition to dynamic and stochastic aspects: dealing with multiple, often conflicting, objectives creates additional difficulties. This long-needed book is about the challenges that arise in the planning and management of sustainable transportation systems.

Section 1 is dedicated to the basic concepts of sustainable transportation, for both passengers and freight. The emphasis is on decision making in the presence of conflicting objectives. The current practices for the different transportation modes—road, railway, maritime, aviation—are reviewed. In addition, intermodal freight transportation, which combines different modes into single trips, is also considered, since it creates challenges on its own, such as the division of tasks among multiple operators and the synchronization of their schedules.

Section 2 looks at various modeling approaches that seek to measure and minimize the environmental costs of transportation activities. These approaches include economic models and measurement techniques, but mostly consider operations research models for different transportation systems, whose operations are driven by environmental considerations. The subjects covered in that section include green network design problems, in which logistics activities are planned with the objective of minimizing unhealthy emissions, and cargo bike systems, which are well-adapted to inner-city transportation. Environmental sustainability of transportation terminals is also discussed.

Section 3 emphasizes different operations research methods for decision making in sustainable transportation. In particular, a mathematical programming method is presented for solving vehicle routing problems that arise in logistics outsourcing, with the objective of measuring the emissions of vehicle routes. Section 3 also presents metaheuristics and simulation methods—and combinations thereof—adapted to the solution of sustainable transportation problems, for both passengers and freight.

Section 4 explores current and future trends in sustainable transportation. Demand-responsive transportation, road traffic optimization, and crowd logistics are some of the topics covered in this section. The emphasis is on a system-wide perspective that considers technological innovation—in vehicles and communications tools—as an important aspect to integrate in decision-making models, but not as the solution to sustainability issues in transportation.

Section 5 closes the book with two case studies. The first shows how Open Government Data can be enriched with data from mobile phones to improve urban mobility in Brazilian cities. The second illustrates sustainability aspects for home care mobility by discussing the trade-off between economic, environmental, and social objectives.

In closing, I wish to thank the editors and the authors of the chapters for having written such a relevant and timely book on decision making for sustainable transportation.

Bernard Gendron,     Interuniversity Research Centre on Enterprise Networks, Logistics and Transportation, Department of Computer Science and Operations Research, University of Montreal

Preface

Purpose of the Book

Studies about transportation have been traditionally very important to make countries more cohesive and organized. Historically speaking, this policy related to transport has been essential to the structuration of regions, nations, and continents. With the previous sentence being true, in the last 20   years a new component related to transportation has been raised: sustainability. This new concept, which has spread to all sciences and studies, is transforming transportation in a drastic way. Nowadays, communications and mobility are important, but having the same significance level of sustainability is also critical. This concept of sustainability is connected to the idea of making the mobility systems and transport modes stable with the passage of time and limiting the externalities (mainly pollution emissions and noise) generated by the transport vehicles. Similarly, logistic activities are in the throes of a dramatic change with the inclusion of new technologies and devices that allow for better traceability of the products to be distributed. These new logistic challenges need the consideration of new decision tools that consider uncertainty in innovative scenarios, constituting the smart logistics concept that complements the sustainable transportation notion earlier presented. Therefore, the main purpose of this book is to provide a review of the current state of nowadays transportation activities, considering the sustainability dimensions in all its modes (land, rail, sea, and air), along with the processes of making decisions taking into account environmental criteria. Likewise, this work searches to provide insight and perspective to the new tendencies of sustainable transportation in conjunction with showing learned lessons and good practices by means of appropriate case studies.

Furthermore, the main objectives and mission of this book are presented in the following points:

• To provide the academic community with a handbook that can serve as a reference in research on practical problems related to sustainable transportation and smart logistics;

• To present up-to-date research on how sustainability can enhance the transportation activities, making mobility a better experience for the user and limiting the externalities caused by transport activities;

• To identify and publish worldwide best practices regarding good decisions in mobility and transportation in urban areas of smart cities, as well as in interurban transportation of people and merchandise;

• To present different studies and methodologies that allow to implement sustainable policies in all transport modes (land, train, sea, air, etc.);

• To forecast emerging tendencies regarding sustainable transportation related to public regulations, economic policies, and design of cities.

Finally, we would like to say that the preceding objectives are connected to the purpose of helping to make sustainable transportation a better known area of expertise in order to facilitate its implementation in real situations. Due to the fact that it is not possible to implement what is not known, we hope to have contributed to the expansion of what sustainable transportation is.

Target Audience

The target audience of this book is wide and diverse because it can be a valuable tool for Master and PhD students, researchers, consultants, practitioners, managers, government workers, and policy makers in urban and interurban areas. More details about this target audience are explained in the following paragraphs:

1. Master and PhD students: The book is especially focused for teaching Master and PhD students in transportation science, logistics, operations management, business, information systems, operations research, architecture, and management information systems, among others. Similarly, it is particularly useful for teaching decision making in new technical protocols for smart cities, where all the aforementioned fields are integrated in a jointed way.

2. Researchers: This book makes a general overview about sustainable transportation and how it is integrated with smart logistics to make decisions in smart modern cities. Therefore, it provides innovative methods to focus research transportation problems, which can be advantageous for investigators in a wide spectrum of research areas, from business to architecture. Moreover, the book can also serve as a state of the art of transportation for many other researchers.

3. Consultants: Similarly, this work offers new methodological analyses to solving problems in transportation companies and industries, which can be employed by consultants and further applied to their customers.

4. Practitioners and managers: Many current professionals, such as supply chain managers, production managers, logistics and operations managers, engineers, and architects, deal frequently with real-life situations in companies. The insight and perspective related to transportation problems described in this book provide an appreciated resource to be implemented in real cases.

5. Government officials and policy makers: Generally speaking, sustainable transportation is an essential topic to be controlled by decision makers in both private and public sectors. The use of this work by this kind of professionals can shed light on the decisions they have to make to explore more convenient scenarios in smart mobility and in the design of new modern cities.

Overview of the Book

The chapters published in this book have been authored by 41 researchers affiliated with higher-education institutions or research centers located in 14 countries, as follows (in alphabetical order): Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Denmark, France, Germany, Ireland, the Netherlands, Poland, Spain, Turkey, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America. These manuscripts cover a range of topics related to sustainable transportation and smart logistics (STSL) and the way of making the best decisions considering criteria of cost, efficiency, and environmental impact. Thus, this book develops its contents in five sections: (1) Basic Concepts in Transportation; (2) An Approximation to STSL; (3) Decision Making in STSL; (4) Current and Future Trends in STSL; and (5) Applications and Case Studies. These sections describe the situation of modern sustainable transportation as well as the best way to make difficult decisions in this arena, as explained in detail below.

The first section contains five chapters and describes the key notions of transportation in its traditional approximations: land transport, maritime transport, and air transport, along with a consideration of the intermodal transportation.

Chapter 1 is written by the book editors (Faulin, Grasman, Juan, and Hirsch). This chapter describes the main traits of passengers and freight transportation in order to focus the study topics to be discussed in the remaining chapters. Afterwards, an introduction to the main sources of energy, which give support to each transportation mode, and a presentation of the main intermodal systems are included. Similarly, an explanation about how to make decisions in transport conflicting scenarios has been also added, along with some emerging trends in sustainable mobility.

Chapter 2 is authored by Harrod, who makes an approximation to land transport, considering the technology and components of road and rail transport. Fundamental strengths and weaknesses are explained for each mode, including a review of management science methods and the relevant academic literature. The chapter closes with a summary and forecast of coming new technologies such as driverless vehicles and magnetic levitation.

Chapter 3 is written by Lalla-Ruiz, Heilig, and Voss. This chapter introduces the concept of environmental sustainability in ports and explains how to incorporate environmental indicators into modeling and decision making. Focusing on the area of planning and optimization, this chapter gives an overview of port operations and explains, by means of an example of berthing operations, how concepts and strategies can be considered in decision making.

Chapter 4 is written by Guimarans, Arias, Tomasella, and Wu. This chapter is devoted to the environmental issues of air transport. The notable growth of air transportation in recent years has led to increasingly congested airports and airspace. Working at nearly maximum capacity involves risks that normally translate into operational disruptions, increasing costs, and lower service quality. In this chapter, the authors review several studies and applications aimed at better managing existing infrastructure and operations. Furthermore, the authors highlight the efficient management, together with suitable initiatives, to ensure a sustainable growth of the aviation sector in the next few decades.

Chapter 5 is authored by Gronalt, Schultze, and Posset. It describes how intermodal transport is an essential and sustainable way of transporting goods, predominantly on longer distances of over 300   km. It defines the transport of goods within a loading unit (container, swap body, and semitrailer) or vehicle (truck) by using different modes of transport (road, rail, inland waterways, and shortsea shipping) without handling of the goods themselves when changing the mode of transport. Intermodal transport has been complex in the past and is still complex today, but globalization and digitalization could be a tipping point to effectively mitigate its complexity in the future. Digitalization will have an important impact on smooth, efficient, and competitive intermodal transport.

The second section of the book is composed of four chapters and is devoted to a general approximation to sustainable transportation and smart logistics, constituting the central part of the book contents.

Chapter 6 is authored by Denant-Boèmont and Hammiche, and presents an introduction to measurement techniques of transport environmental costs and their economic approaches. The key concept for understanding those costs is externality. Initially, the chapter focuses its interest on social cost approaches, while, afterwards, it pays attention to evaluation techniques at the individual level in order to measure the essential terms of willingness to pay (WTP) or willingness to accept (WTA) for having damage reduction related to the transport activity (local air pollution, greenhouse gases, noise, etc.). These economic measurements are largely used in order to assess transportation policies in developed countries.

Chapter 7 is written by Dukkanci, Bektas, and Kara. It discusses the unintended consequences on the environment of logistic activities due to the use of land, energy, and other types of natural resources. Traditionally, the energy use in transportation produces pollutant emissions, which cause air pollution that is damaging human health. One way to reduce such externalities is the new design of the logistic networks where transportation activities are developed, generating the green network design problems, where the minimization of emissions is an integral and explicit part of the objective.

Chapter 8 is written by Anderluh, Hemmelmayr, and Nolz. It presents innovative practical manners to solve transportation-related problems in urban areas: the use of bikes or tricycles in urban distribution of merchandise to make delivery activities in centric areas of cities. This distribution presents many advantages for the citizen: it is quiet, emission-free, and avoids the production of a great range of noises. Thus, this chapter shows different techniques of using cargo bikes for freight transportation in inner-city areas and presents different scenarios for the efficient use of cargo bikes. The problems here discussed can be either deterministic or stochastic in nature, and might refer to a static or dynamic environment. Finally, the authors describe some applications of the successful use of cargo bikes in European cities such as, for example, Heavy Pedals and DPD in Vienna, Haijtas Pajtas in Budapest, and By-Expressen in Copenhagen.

Chapter 9 is authored by Protic, Geerlings, and van Duin. It explores the concept of sustainable development and the environmental sustainability of the freight transportation sector, paying attention to freight transportation terminals. Freight transportation terminals are crucial links in the supply chain. Terminals' environmental emissions are described, and the chapter presents a top-down model that facilitates tailor-made recommendations to reduce terminals' energy consumption. Various strategies on how to reduce terminals' emissions are discussed in terms of energy supply, consumption, and management.

The third section is composed of three chapters, and is devoted to the decision-making design in sustainable transportation and smart logistics.

Chapter 10 is authored by Caroll and Keenan. This chapter provides an introduction to mathematical exact methods and their implementation to solving vehicle routing problems in sustainable transportation. The use of the vehicle flow formulation on a sample of benchmark instances is demonstrated, along with some new problem instances that incorporate geospatial information in order to outline the use of emissions models to estimate the CO2 emissions on solution routes.

Chapter 11 is written by Eskandarpour, Ouelhadj, and Fletcher. It analyzes issues related to the use of metaheuristics procedures to solve efficiently the challenges of sustainable transportation. The aim of this chapter is to present some critical problems faced by the authorities to implement sustainable transportation systems, as well as to provide an overview of metaheuristics to solve these problems. Thus, two major streams are analyzed: the design of eco-friendly transportation and urban transportation. The first is related to the environmental aspect of sustainable development, while the second is interested in the social aspects of transportation.

Chapter 12 is authored by Rabe and Goldsman. This chapter presents the use of simulation as a way of making decisions in complex situations when other methodologies fail. It explains the use of simulation to study practical logistics issues, such as transportation, inventory, and network structures. However, these improvements also affect, in many cases, the other two dimensions of sustainability: the reduction of traveled distance directly leads to a decrease in energy use and pollution; and in urban areas such indicators will lead to less noise and reduced traffic jams, among other benefits. Thus, this chapter discusses the introduction of environmental parameters into simulation models, and the combination of simulation with metaheuristics (simheuristics) to integrate different optimization aspects.

The fourth section is composed of four chapters and is devoted to the presentation of current and future trends in sustainable transportation and smart logistics. This section tries to provide insight into the situation of sustainable transportation and its immediate future to help the reader to better understand the current situation in sustainable mobility.

Chapter 13 is written by Bischoff and Maciejewski. It reviews the dynamic forms of on-demand transport modes which have quickly evolved in recent years. Some examples range from classical taxi systems, via ride-hailing and ride-sharing systems, to free-loading car-sharing systems. In the future, a growing sharing-economy and improved autonomous driving capabilities may help demand-responsive transport to become a dominating means of transport, both in urban and rural areas. Compared to ordinary car traffic, demand-responsive transport modes produce a certain amount of additional traffic by vehicles driving empty or cruising. This negative component may be compensated by a reduction in the number of parking spaces required or by pooling of rides, making this transportation style one of the most promising for the near future.

Chapter 14 is written by Stolfi and Alba. It addresses the challenges related to big cities that want to become smart cities, such as: population growth, traffic jams, as well as pollution and noise, causing many diseases. In this chapter three different strategies to optimize road traffic are presented: red swarm, green swarm, and yellow swarm. The first two consist of smart spots, usually installed at traffic lights, which suggest detours to drivers by using Wi-Fi connections, while the third uses LED panels to achieve that objective. Our strategies have proved to be useful for reducing travel times, greenhouse gas emissions, and fuel consumption of vehicles by preventing traffic jams, even when they are used by a reduced number of drivers.

Chapter 15 is authored by Sampaio, Savelsbergh, and Veelenturf. It describes in detail the rapid urban growth of modern cities and its influence in the design of transportation and logistics systems for freight. These systems have also led to new models for organizing movement of goods within the city. In this chapter, one of these new models is presented: Crowd Logistics. Thus, it discusses the characterizing features of crowd logistics, the review applications of crowd-based services within urban environments, and the research opportunities in the area of crowd logistics, showing important advances inside, what has been called, the sharing economy.

Chapter 16 is authored by Barceló. It presents a deep prospective analysis about what is sustainable transportation and what its relationship is with urban mobility. This chapter searches for sustainable transport systems in cities which usually assume the use of new automotive technologies by exploiting ICT applications which will provide suitable solutions. Moreover, this approach assumes that cities are dynamic and complex systems that must be analyzed from a holistic perspective, in which sustainability relies on both technological and nontechnological components having strong influences on the mobility requirements.

The fifth section is composed of two chapters and is devoted to applications and case studies related to sustainable transportation and smart logistics.

Chapter 17 is authored by Serra and Costa. It presents the use of Open Government Data (OGD) combined with mobile data collected from citizens' smartphones having the potential for innovative urban services to enable smart cities. This work aims to offer solutions related to the challenges of sustainable transportation and urban mobility in Brazilian cities, making progress in the emerging field of urban computing. It aims to contribute to the challenges of using OGD enriched with data provenance in mobile applications about public bus transportation (application BusInRio from the city Rio de Janeiro, Brazil).

Chapter 18 is authored by Voegl and Hirsch. It presents the possibilities which nowadays the home services show as services provided directly from companies at the customer's home. These services can be, for example, craftsman's work, babysitting, or gardening work, along with cleaning or cooking services. Staff providing home services can travel to the customer's home or premises in various ways (e.g., by car, taxi, or bike), which inflict different kinds of optimization problems. All these issues are discussed in this chapter. Within this case study the authors introduce sustainability aspects for home care mobility on the basis of the three pillars of sustainability and discuss how they interact. Furthermore, there is a trade-off between economic, ecological, and social objectives, revealing the importance of social aspects when they are compared to economic and ecological features.

After providing this general overview of the book contents, the reader will be aware of the main challenges which sustainable transportation is facing nowadays. Similarly, we hope that this work can contribute to the enrichment of the current literature about transportation and its future trends.

Acknowledgments

The development of this book has involved the conscientious efforts of a large group of people in addition to the authors of the chapters. The editors are grateful to the Elsevier publisher Brian Romer, who invited us to lead this project of editing a reference book about sustainable transportation during a Transportation Research Board meeting at Washington DC on January 2016. Similarly, we thank Carly Demetre and Anna Valutkevich, both Elsevier editors, for supporting and overseeing the development of this editorial project. We also want to express our gratitude to Professor Bernard Gendron for writing the Foreword of this book.

The chapter submissions for this book were subjected to a single-blind refereeing process which engaged up to three reviewers per chapter. The editors thank the reviewers for revising, proposing improvements, and advising the status of the chapters considered for publication in this book. Without their work and interest, this book could not have been completed according to the schedule. We also would like to extend our appreciation to those authors who considered publishing in this book, but whose chapters could not be included for a variety of reasons. We trust that their work will eventually appear elsewhere in the literature.

Furthermore, the editors would like to express their recognition to their respective universities, research centers, and colleagues for the moral support and encouragement that have proved to be crucial during the elaboration and accomplishment of this editorial project. Some of the chapters of this book have been the results of the research developed in the CYTED network SmartLogistics@IB (CYTED2014-515RT0489) and the projects TRA2013-48,180-C3-P, TRA2015-71,883-REDT, CAS16/00,201, and 2017-1-ES01-KA103-036,672 (funded by the Spanish Ministry of Economics & Competitiveness and by the Erasmus   +   program, respectively). Javier Faulin and Angel A. Juan wish to thank those financial aids, because without their support this book could not have been conceived in its current form. Moreover, Scott E. Grasman would like to acknowledge the support of his colleagues at Kettering University, as well as the support of the above-mentioned projects. Similarly, Patrick Hirsch would like to acknowledge the help and support of his colleagues at the Institute of Production and Logistics, who work together with him on topics related to sustainable transportation. The knowledge gained in externally funded research projects as ALTCARE (FFG 835,770), HubHarmony (FFG 853,777), Ambulance Routing (Austrian Red Cross), or DYNHHC (OeNB 15,991), built the basis for his work on this book.

The editors would also like to acknowledge the help of the whole Elsevier team, because of their assistance and patience in making easier all our editorial tasks. Last, but not least, the editors would like to extend their sincere gratitude to their respective families for their sustenance and understanding during the development of this book.

Javier Faulin,     Public University of Navarre, Pamplona, Spain

Scott E. Grasman,     Kettering University, Flint, MI, United States

Angel A. Juan,     Open University of Catalonia, Barcelona, Spain

Patrick Hirsch,     University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria

Part I

Basic Concepts in Transportation

Outline

Chapter 1. Sustainable Transportation: Concepts and Current Practices

Chapter 2. Introduction to the Technology, Applications, and Modal Choice of Land Transport

Chapter 3. Environmental Sustainability in Ports

Chapter 4. A Review of Sustainability in Aviation: A Multidimensional Perspective

Chapter 5. Intermodal Transport—Basics, Structure, and Planning Approaches

Chapter 1

Sustainable Transportation

Concepts and Current Practices

Javier Faulin ¹ , Scott E. Grasman ² , Angel A. Juan ³ , and Patrick Hirsch ⁴       ¹ Institute of Smart Cities, Public University of Navarre, Pamplona, Spain      ² Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering, Kettering University, Flint, MI, United States      ³ IN3 – Computer Science Department, Open University of Catalonia, Barcelona, Spain      ⁴ Institute of Production and Logistics, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria

Abstract

Sustainable transportation is a popular concept with great influence in political decisions. After a general description of its main traits, we present the general characteristics of passengers and freight transportation in order to discuss later the importance of their environmental impact. Then we give an introduction to the main sources of energy, which give support to each transportation mode, presenting the main intermodal systems. An explanation about how to make decisions in conflicting scenarios is presented in the following section. Finally, some emerging trends in sustainable transportation are provided, along with conclusions.

Keywords

Decision making; Emissions; Energy; Environment; Externalities; Intermodal logistics; Sustainable transportation

Outline

1. Introduction

2. Characteristics of Freight and Passenger Transportation

3. Sources of Energy and Transportation Modalities

4. Planning Intermodal Logistics

5. Quantitative Methods for Decision Making in Transportation

6. Emerging Trends in Sustainable Transportation

6.1 Drones

6.2 Car Sharing

6.3 Automatic-Driven Vehicles

6.4 Public Transportation for Cargo

6.5 Trunk Delivery

7. Conclusions

References

1. Introduction

Sustainable transportation gains a lot of attention in today's research and practice. Economic growth and global trade relations lead to a tremendous increase in transportation activities. Transportation is related to numerous negative external effects such as noise, air pollution, or accidents; it is also a major contributor to human-induced climate change. Sims et al. (2014) state that greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the transportation sector have increased by a factor of 2.5 between 1970 and 2010 worldwide; hence, they have grown at a faster rate than in any other energy end-use sector. Victor et al. (2014) show that the transportation sector was responsible for more than 14% of the total global GHG emissions in 2010. GHGs include carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), and perfluorocarbons (PFCs) (EU, 2017).

With regard to sustainable development, there is a vast array of definitions, terms, approaches, concepts, methods, and tools, many designed for specific fields only (Missimer et al., 2017). Johnston et al. (2007) estimate that about 300 definitions for sustainability and sustainable development exist. Commonly used are the three pillars or dimensions of sustainability: economy, ecology, and society. The Renewed Sustainable Development Strategy of the European Union adopted by the European Council in June 2006 defines a sustainable transportation system as one that meets society's economic, social, and environmental needs whilst minimizing its undesirable impacts on the economy, society, and the environment (EC, 2011). The authors of this chapter refer to this definition, when writing about sustainable transportation. Ongoing developments in vehicle technology, new organizational forms in transportation, investments into infrastructure, the internalization of external cost, or customized algorithms for transportation planning are vital, inter alia, to support the aim of having a sustainable transportation system.

When highlighting transportation in the EU-28, freight transportation activities are estimated to amount to 3516 billion tonne-kilometers (tkm) in 2015 (EU, 2017); this figure includes intra-EU air and sea transportation but not transportation activities between the EU and the rest of the world. A tkm is defined as the product of the transported mass in tonnes times the distance covered in kilometers (km). The EU (2017) states that in 2015 road transportation accounted for 49% of this total, rail for 11.9%, inland waterways for 4.2%, and oil pipelines for 3.3%; intra-EU maritime transportation was the second most important mode with a share of 31.6% while intra-EU air transportation only accounted for 0.1% of the total. Between 1995 and 2015, the growth rate of freight transportation in the EU-28 on each mode was positive, road transportation increased by another 33.7%, which represents an average annual growth of 1.5% (EU, 2017) and the highest growth rate of all modes, when intra-EU air transportation is not taken into account. The total growth rate of freight transportation within that period was 23.6% (EU, 2017). Having a look at the modal split of freight transportation in the EU-28, one can observe that the portion of road transportation increased from 45.3% in 1995 to 49% in 2015 (EU, 2017); the portion of all other transportation modes, except for intra-EU air transportation, decreased slightly during the same period. In the USA, freight transportation activities were estimated to be 8301.5 billion tkm in 2014; road transportation accounted for 45.9% of this total (EU, 2017). Overall, there was an increase of 17.6% of freight transportation activities in the USA between 1995 and 2014 (EU, 2017).

Total passenger transportation activities in the EU-28 by any motorized means of transportation are estimated to amount to 6602 billion passenger-kilometers (pkm) or on average around 12.962   km per person in 2015 (EU, 2017); this figure includes intra-EU air and sea transportation but not transportation activities between the EU and the rest of the world. A pkm is defined as the product of transported passengers times the distance covered in km. EU (2017) states that passenger cars accounted for 71.5% of the total pkm in 2015, powered two-wheelers for 1.9%, buses and coaches for 8.2%, railways for 6.7% and tram as well as metro for 1.6%; intra-EU air and intra-EU maritime transportation contributed 9.8% and 0.3%, respectively. Between 1995 and 2015, the growth rate of passenger transportation activities in the EU-28 on each mode was positive except for intra-EU maritime transportation (−29.7%); passenger cars increased by 20.9%, powered two-wheelers by 11.1%, buses and coaches by 5.6%, railway by 26.1%, tram and metro by 38.9%, and air by 86.5%. The total growth rate of passenger transportation within that period was 23.8% (EU, 2017). Having a look at the modal split of passenger transportation in the EU-28, one can observe that the portion of air transportation increased from 6.5% in 1995% to 9.8% in 2015; during the same period, the portion of motorized individual transportation modes as well as bus and coach decreased slightly, the portion of intra-EU maritime transportation was halved, and the portion of public transportation modes rose slightly (EU, 2017). In the USA, passenger transportation activities were estimated at 7845.1 billion pkm in 2015; passenger cars, including light-duty vehicles, accounted for 27.3% of this total (EU, 2017). Overall, there was an increase of 18.3% of passenger transportation activities in the USA between 1995 and 2015 (EU, 2017).

In the EU, 26,134 persons were killed in road accidents (fatalities within 30   days) in 2015, which is 0.7% more than in 2014 (EU, 2017). Nevertheless, the number of fatalities was reduced by 66.2% between 1990 and 2015 (EU, 2017). In rail transportation, 27 persons lost their lives in 2015; this figure does not include casualties among railway employees or other people run over by trains (EU, 2017). Air transportation accounted for 150 fatalities in 2015 (EU, 2017). In 2015, the total GHG emissions in the EU-28 were 4451.8 million tonnes CO2 equivalents (CO2e), the transportation sector accounted for 1182.9 million tonnes CO2e, which is 26.6% (EU, 2017). The total GHG emissions were reduced by 22.1% between 1990 and 2015, whereas the transportation-related GHG emissions increased by 23% during the same period (EU, 2017). In 2015, road transportation accounted for 72.9% of the GHG emissions from transportation, total civil aviation was responsible for 13.3%, navigation for 12.8%, rail for 0.5% (excluding indirect emissions from electricity consumption), and other transportation modes for 0.5% (EU, 2017).

An externality is defined as a type of missing market and encompasses the unpriced effects of one agent's activity on the welfare of another agent (Berta, 2017). Externalities can be positive or negative. Demir et al. (2015) list the following negative externalities of freight transportation: local (<500   km in diameter) and regional (>500   km in diameter) air pollution, global GHGs, water pollution, noise pollution, congestion, accidents, and land use. Local emissions include, for example, a wide range of particulate matter, carbon monoxide (CO), or ozone (O3). Regional emissions result, for example, from sulfur emissions that lead to acid rain. Another negative externality of freight transportation, the infrastructure wear and tear, is stated in Ricardo-AEA (2014). In order to internalize the cost of these externalities, it is necessary to evaluate them. Demir et al. (2015) list several studies that model the negative externalities of road, rail, maritime, and air transportation. Ricardo-AEA (2014) introduces a couple of state-of-the-art calculation methods for evaluating external costs.

One of the pillars of the EU strategy to reduce GHG emissions is energy efficiency (Ruzzenenti and Basosi, 2017). Ruzzenenti and Basosi (2017) state that the efficiency of the freight transportation sector improved by 15% between 1990 and 2010 and the service demand grew almost twice as much. There is a strong link between economic growth and the growth of the freight transportation sector, but it is also important to consider the so-called rebound effect. This effect describes a growth in energy consumption that can offset the expected energy efficiency gains to a certain extent. Llorca and Jamasb (2017) distinguish between direct, indirect, and economy-wide rebound effects. Dahmus (2014) mentions that, historically, efficiency improvements have generally not proven to be successful in reducing humankind's overall consumption of energy resources. The author draws this conclusion from an examination of 10 activities over different periods. These activities include freight rail travel, passenger air travel, and motor vehicle travel. Dahmus (2014) concludes, efficiency improvements are worthwhile from an economic and social perspective, in the absence of appropriate external incentives, such efficiency improvements may not result in overall reductions in resource consumption. Based on the recent studies of Ruzzenenti and Basosi (2017) and Llorca and Jamasb (2017), one can conclude that it is important for political decision makers to think about accompanying measures to reduce the rebound effect, when improving the energy efficiency in the transportation sector.

In order to obtain a more sustainable transportation system, it is necessary to provide a suitable governmental policy framework as well as to encourage company-driven initiatives. For national economies it is essential to ensure a sustainable transportation system in the long run to support environmental protection. Profit-oriented companies in a competitive environment usually concentrate on their individual benefits. Reaching sustainability goals may also lead to an improvement of the economic situation of companies in some cases, but this is not the standard. Bektaş and Laporte (2011) or Oberscheider et al. (2013) show, for example, for different vehicle routing problems that the most cost-efficient solution is cheaper than a solution that minimizes the GHG emissions. Most quantitative optimization methods provided for sustainable transportation concentrate on the operational level of organizations. It is much easier for organizations to adopt their planning at this stage since they do not need to take costly investments. Nevertheless, much higher impact could be reached by changes on the tactical and strategic level. Some actions at these levels could be the change of sourcing strategies, use of alternative vehicles, stronger cooperation with other companies in order to avoid empty trips, and many more.

2. Characteristics of Freight and Passenger Transportation

Transportation has become increasingly important in industrialized countries, where it has become a basic activity for economic and social development. Trends show transportation will keep rising as the gross domestic product (GDP) grows.

Transportation's main function is to connect consumers and producers, enhancing the productive specialization and the access of consumers to a growing variety of products at a higher quality. The importance of transportation goes beyond purely economic aspects. The importance that leisure has in modern societies makes transportation an essential activity for the normal development of humans.

The importance freight transportation has in the world economy is mainly explained by five factors:

1. The development of information and communication technologies has allowed a fast and safe way of sharing information. That is, customers may search for items that are sold outside their national borders.

2. The continuous innovation in transportation, along with improvement of infrastructure, make transporting products increasingly cheaper. Faster ships, longer trains, and better highways reduce the costs of transportation and the transported product gains competitiveness.

3. The globalization phenomenon has a huge impact on international trade and preferences. The process of homogenization of preferences allows companies to produce at large scale in one point in the world. Later the production can be easily transported around the world thanks to common international trade regulations.

4. The consumption economy is evolving to an increasingly faster product life-cycle. Rapid planned and unplanned obsolescence make any product have a short life, leading to a continuous cycle of producing and transporting new goods.

5. Access to higher standards of life is spreading around the world, which is heavily linked to higher consumption and transportation. To this respect, China is becoming the greatest market in a relatively short period of time, with a gradually increase in its domestic demand.

Moreover, passenger transportation is also remarkable for the economic and social development of human societies. On one hand, the progressive improvements in private and public transportation services are offering citizens a reliable and cheaper way to travel. On the other hand, the increase in household disposable income, linked to economic development, is a key factor for the boom of pleasure trips. Both approaches highlight the idea of increasing transportation demand as a way of obtaining better travel experiences. This need of new sources of trips to satisfy new transportation needs, focused on computer and information networks, constitutes the new paradigm of passenger transportation, allowing the design of new collaborative structures, which make mobility easier.

New transportation cooperation protocols for either goods delivery or people transportation, such as car sharing (Uber or Cabify), automatic-driven vehicles, trunk delivery, using public transportation for cargo, bikes and tricycles delivery, people transportation by bikes and electric vehicles, etc., are designing a new protocol of freight and passenger distribution. A new special case is the situation presented in the use of drones or electric cars for giving support to distribution activities, events control, or even parcel delivery. This complex situation is becoming more and more frequent in the old parts and downtowns of many cities, making necessary the use of quantitative models to have accurate solutions to sustainable transportation problems (Fig. 1.1). These scenarios in which new sources of energy will play an outstanding role will profile the future transportation paradigm.

Figure 1.1 Transportation network in the old town of Pamplona (Spain) showing the connected mobility.

3. Sources of Energy and Transportation Modalities

The role of electric, hybrid, and fuel cell vehicles (generally referred to as EVs) is taking centerstage in sustainable transportation due to improved EV technology, along with increased efficiency in the production, storage/distribution, and use of renewable energy sources. EVs can help increase energy security, reduce emissions, and provide a socioeconomic benefit. While the reduction in local emissions and noise pollution is an obvious benefit, the limited driving-range and load capabilities of EVs impose nontrivial challenges when planning for effective widespread adoption for transportation and logistics. EVs, which are restricted by the amount of electricity stored in their batteries or the amount of hydrogen for fuel cells, require a complex recharging/refueling network. Creating such a network of charging or fueling stations (or battery/fuel swaps, which may be considered special cases) further requires a vast energy supply network.

As already stated, managing sources of energy is a multiechelon network design problem. At one layer lies the challenge of location and capacity of recharging/refueling stations; at another layer lies the challenge of supplying energy to the stations. Energy may come from traditional production, e.g., nuclear, natural gas, hydro, or coal, along with wind and solar. Renewable energy sources, e.g., wind, solar, or hydro, not only have sustainability benefits but may also allow for both centralized, e.g., wind/solar farms, hydro facilities, and decentralized production. Decentralized production systems have the benefit of reducing energy transmission issues, but also allow for the implementation of renewable energy systems, e.g., those that integrate wind and/or solar with hydrogen as a storage mechanism (Martin and Grasman, 2009; Cottrell et al., 2011) in order to serve multiple purposes. Overlying the issues is how to transition during the phased introduction of EVs.

Richardson (2013) reviews literature on EVs, the electric grid, and renewable energy integration, particularly wind and solar energy. Assumptions and methods are discussed along with environmental and economic impacts. The paper concludes with recommendations for future research. Mwasilu et al. (2014) presents a comprehensive review and assessment of the latest research and advancement of EV interaction with smart grid. Following a review of papers, a strategy for integrating EVs into the grid, including the use of smart charging technologies and penetration of renewable energy sources, is presented. Other recent papers look at the feasibility of self-sustainable hydrogen fueling stations based on control strategies, capacity factors, and efficiency (Zhao and Brouwer, 2015), capacity decisions reflecting the added value that renewable energy might provide (Grasman et al., 2013), and the optimal location of fueling stations considering traffic routing and demand uncertainty (Miralinaghi et al., 2017).

4. Planning Intermodal Logistics

Intermodal logistics has historically been defined as a process of transporting freight or passengers through a system of interconnected networks involving various combinations of modes of transportation, e.g., road, rail, sea, and air, in which all the components are seamlessly linked and efficiently coordinated (Boske, 1998). Because of recent applications, such as last mile logistics, this definition needs to be expanded to include the use of bikes, drones, and other technology. Intermodal logistics offers a full range of transportation modes and routing options, allowing for coordination of supply, production, storage, finance, and distribution functions in order to achieve efficient relationships. Grasman (2006) provides a mathematical formulation that allows for multilevel control. For example, networks can be designed but, since input parameters are typically uncertain, the formulation allows for a rerouting option when random unforeseen occurrences arise along the planned feasible