Everand Logo

Welcome to Everand!

  • Discover millions of ebooks, audiobooks, and so much more with a free trial

    Only $11.99/month after trial. Cancel anytime.

    Wastewater Biology: The Microlife
    Wastewater Biology: The Microlife
    Wastewater Biology: The Microlife
    Ebook739 pages5 hours

    Wastewater Biology: The Microlife

    By Water Environment Federation

    ()

    Read preview

    About this ebook

    Wastewater Biology: The Microlife is a widely-used, essential reference for wastewater operators and engineers. This new edition explores the organisms that are considered the most important in the treatment of wastewater and disease transmission and provides you with the knowledge needed to regulate and control treatment processes properly. In addition to detailed information on bacteria, protozoa, rotifers, nematodes and other metazoan, filamentous organisms, pathogens, and parasites, it includes a discussion of the microscope and photomiscroscopy as well as other tools, equipment, and procedures that are necessary for examining, identifying and enumerating these life forms. Generously illustrated with a minimum of technical jargon, this is an easy-to-use guide to the biological aspects of wastewater treatment. Includes 13 color plates to assist in identifying the microlife.

    LanguageEnglish
    PublisherWater Environment Federation
    Release dateJul 1, 2017
    ISBN9781572783423
    Wastewater Biology: The Microlife

    Read more from Water Environment Federation

    Related to Wastewater Biology

    Related ebooks

    Biology For You

    View More
    View More

    Related podcast episodes

    Related articles

    Related categories

    Reviews for Wastewater Biology

    0 ratings

    0 ratings0 reviews

    What did you think?

    Tap to rate

    Review must be at least 10 words

      Book preview

      Wastewater Biology - Water Environment Federation

      Copyright © 2017 by the Water Environment Federation. All Rights Reserved. Permission to copy must be obtained from WEF.

      Water Environment Research, WEF, and WEFTEC are registered trademarks of the Water Environment Federation.

      ISBN 978-1-57278-342-3

      WEF e-books are for a single-user only. Please see www.wef.org/LicenseAgreement for complete End User License Agreement. If you are interested in a multi-user license please contact csc@wef.org.

      IMPORTANT NOTICE

      The material presented in this publication has been prepared in accordance with generally recognized engineering principles and practices and is for general information only. This information should not be used without first securing competent advice with respect to its suitability for any general or specific application.

      The contents of this publication are not intended to be a standard of the Water Environment Federation® (WEF) and are not intended for use as a reference in purchase specifications, contracts, regulations, statutes, or any other legal document.

      No reference made in this publication to any specific method, product, process, or service constitutes or implies an endorsement, recommendation, or warranty thereof by WEF.

      WEF makes no representation or warranty of any kind, whether expressed or implied, concerning the accuracy, product, or process discussed in this publication and assumes no liability.

      Anyone using this information assumes all liability arising from such use, including but not limited to infringement of any patent or patents.

      The Publisher works hard to ensure that the information in this publication is accurate and complete. However, it is possible that the information may change after publication, and/or that errors or omissions may occur. We welcome your suggestions on how to improve this publication and correct errors. The Publisher disclaims all liability for, damages of any kind arising out of use, reference to, or reliance on information included in this publication to the full extent provided by state and federal law.

      About WEF

      The Water Environment Federation (WEF) is a not-for-profit technical and educational organization of 33,000 individual members and 75 affiliated Member Associations representing water quality professionals around the world. Since 1928, WEF and its members have protected public health and the environment. As a global water sector leader, our mission is to connect water professionals; enrich the expertise of water professionals; increase the awareness of the impact and value of water; and provide a platform for water sector innovation. To learn more, visit www.wef.org.

      Prepared by Wastewater Biology: The Microlife Task Force of the Water Environment Federation

      Ronald G. Schuyler, Chair

      Thomas R. Barron

      Jerry T. Cheshuk

      Ernst M. Davis

      Joseph J. Gauthier

      Edwin E. Geldreich

      Roger R. Hlavek

      Tracy L. Finnegan

      Dennis R. Lindeke

      Charles L. Logue

      Robert P. Marino

      Mary Alice H. Nelson

      Mesut Sezgin

      Sophie G. Simon

      Thomas L. Stokes, Jr.

      Alan Warren

      Richard G. Weigand

      Robert A. Whitworth

      Melvin C. Zimmerman

      Under the Direction of the Municipal Subcommittee of the Technical Practice Committee

      2017

      Water Environment Federation

      601 Wythe Street

      Alexandria, VA 22314-1994 USA

      http://www.wef.org

      Special Publications of the Water Environment Federation

      The WEF Technical Practice Committee (formerly the Committee on Sewage and Industrial Wastes Practice of the Federation of Sewage and Industrial Wastes Associations) was created by the Federation Board of Control on October 11, 1941. The primary function of the Committee is to originate and produce, through appropriate subcommittees, special publications dealing with technical aspects of the broad interests of the Federation. These publications are intended to provide background information through a review of technical practices and detailed procedures that research and experience have shown to be functional and practical.

      Water Environment Federation Technical Practice

      Committee Control Group

      Eric Rothstein, C.P.A., Chair

      D. Medina, Vice-Chair

      Jeanette Brown, P.E., BCEE, D. WRE, F.WEF, Past Chair

      H. Azam

      G. Baldwin

      Katherine (Kati) Y. Bell, Ph.D., P.E., BCEE

      C.-C. Chang

      J. Davis

      C. DeBarbadillo

      S. Fitzgerald

      T. Gellner

      S. Gluck

      M. Hines

      C. Maher

      J. Loudon

      S. Metzler

      F. Pasquel

      C. Peot

      R. Pope

      R. Porter

      L. Pugh

      J. Reeves

      S. Schwartz

      A. Schwerman

      Andrew R. Shaw, P.E.

      A. Tangirala

      R. Tsuchihashi

      N. Wheatley

      Contents

      LIST OF FIGURES

      LIST OF TABLES

      PREFACE

      Chapter 1     Introduction

      Ronald G. Schuyler

      1.0     OVERVIEW

      2.0     TAXONOMY

      3.0     USE OF THE PUBLICATION

      Chapter 2     Microorganisms

      Richard G. Weigand

      1.0     HISTORY

      1.1     Before Microscopes

      1.2     Germ Theory of Disease

      2.0     TYPES OF MICROORGANISMS

      2.1     Bacteria

      2.2     Protozoa

      2.3     Metazoa

      2.4     Viruses

      3.0     ROLES OF MICROORGANISMS

      3.1     Parasites and Pathogens

      3.2     Soil Microbes and Heterotrophs

      3.3     Freshwater Microbes

      3.4     Ecological Relationships

      4.0     REFERENCE

      Chapter 3     The Microscope

      Melvin C. Zimmerman

      1.0     INTRODUCTION

      2.0     COMPOUND MICROSCOPE

      2.1     Description

      2.2     Optical Principles

      2.2.1     Resolution

      2.2.2     Magnification

      2.2.3     Depth of Field

      2.3     Operating Procedures

      2.3.1     Step 1

      2.3.2     Step 2

      2.3.3     Step 3

      2.3.4     Step 4

      2.3.5     Step 5

      2.3.6     Step 6

      2.3.7     Step 7

      2.3.8     Step 8

      2.3.9     Step 9

      2.3.10     Step 10

      2.3.11     Step 11

      2.4     Operating Tips

      2.5     Measuring Objects

      2.5.1     Method A

      2.5.2     Method B

      2.6     Counting Chambers

      3.0     STEREOSCOPIC BINOCULAR MICROSCOPE

      3.1     Description

      3.2     Operating Procedures

      3.2.1     Step 1

      3.2.2     Step 2

      3.2.3     Step 3

      3.2.4     Step 4

      3.2.5     Step 5

      4.0     SELECTING A MICROSCOPE

      4.1     Dark-Field Microscope

      4.2     Phase-Contrast Microscope

      4.3     Interference-Contrast Microscope

      4.4     Inverted Microscope

      4.5     Polarization Microscope

      4.6     Fluorescence Microscopy

      4.7     Electron Microscope

      4.7.1     Transmission Electron Microscope

      4.7.2     Scanning Electron Microscope

      5.0     REFERENCES

      6.0     SUGGESTED READINGS

      Chapter 4     Bacteria

      Robert P. Marino

      1.0     INTRODUCTION

      1.1     What Are Bacteria?

      1.2     Role in Treatment

      1.3     Cell Shapes, Types, and Sizes

      2.0     PARTS OF THE CELL

      2.1     Cell Wall

      2.2     Cytoplasmic (Plasma) Membrane

      2.3     Glycocalyx

      2.4     Flagella and Pili

      2.5     Storage Products

      2.6     Gas Vacuoles

      2.7     Endospores

      2.8     DNA

      3.0     CLASSIFICATION OF BACTERIA

      3.1     Autotrophic and Heterotrophic Bacteria

      3.2     Aerobic, Facultative Anaerobic, and Anaerobic Bacteria

      3.3     Psychrophilic, Mesophilic, and Thermophilic Bacteria

      4.0     ORIGIN OF WASTEWATER TREATMENT BACTERIA

      5.0     GROWTH ENVIRONMENT AND DOMINANCE

      6.0     REFERENCE

      7.0     SUGGESTED READINGS

      Chapter 5     Protozoa

      Alan Warren and Colin Curds

      1.0     INTRODUCTION

      2.0     CHARACTERIZATION

      2.1     Taxonomic Identification

      2.2     Classification and Description

      2.2.1     Flagellates

      2.2.2     Amoebae

      2.2.3     Ciliates

      3.0     FEEDING PROCESSES

      4.0     REPRODUCTION AND GROWTH RATES

      5.0     PROTOZOAN POPULATIONS IN WASTEWATER TREATMENT PROCESSES

      5.1     Spatial Distribution

      5.2     Temporal Succession

      5.3     Factors Affecting Protozoan Populations

      5.3.1     Dissolved Oxygen

      5.3.2     pH and Carbon Dioxide Concentration

      5.3.3     Light

      5.3.4     Flowrate

      5.3.5     Toxic Waste

      5.3.6     Predation

      5.3.7     Source of Organisms

      5.3.8     Unit Process Operating Conditions

      5.3.8.1     Trickling Filters

      5.3.8.2     Activated Sludge

      5.3.8.3     Rotating Biological Contactors

      6.0     PERFORMANCE MONITORING AND PROCESS CONTROL

      6.1     Activated Sludge Units

      6.2     Rotating Biological Contactors

      7.0     ROLE OF PROTOZOA IN WASTEWATER TREATMENT PROCESSES

      7.1     Removal of Bacteria

      7.2     Flocculation

      7.3     Growth Stimulation of Bacteria and Healthy Floc

      8.0     MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION

      8.1     Direct Sampling

      8.1.1     Trickling Filters

      8.1.2     Rotating Biological Contactors

      8.1.3     Activated Sludge Units

      8.2     Artificial Support Media

      9.0     REFERENCES

      Chapter 6     Rotifers

      Robert A. Whitworth

      1.0     INTRODUCTION

      2.0     DESCRIPTION

      3.0     ROLE IN WASTEWATER TREATMENT

      3.1     Process Control

      4.0     ROTIFER IDENTIFICATION

      5.0     SAMPLE COLLECTION AND PREPARATION

      6.0     DIFFERENTIAL COUNTS

      7.0     REFERENCES

      8.0     SUGGESTED READINGS

      Chapter 7     Nematodes and Other Metazoa

      Mary Alice H. Nelson and Ronald G. Schuyle

      1.0     INTRODUCTION

      2.0     PHYLUM NEMATODA—NEMATODES (ROUNDWORMS)

      2.1     Characteristics

      2.2     Description

      2.3     Reproduction and Growth

      2.4     Classification and Identification

      2.5     Nematode Populations Within Wastewater Treatment Processes

      2.5.1     Factors Affecting Populations

      2.5.2     Role of Nematodes in Wastewater Treatment Operations

      2.6     Microscopic Examination

      3.0     OTHER METAZOA

      3.1     Phylum Tardigrada—Water Bears

      3.1.1     Introduction

      3.1.2     Characteristics and Description

      3.1.3     Reproduction and Growth

      3.2     Phylum Annelida—Bristle Worms and Leeches

      3.2.1     Introduction

      3.2.2     Bristle Worms

      3.2.2.1     Characteristics and Description

      3.2.2.2     Reproduction and Growth

      3.2.3     Leeches

      3.2.3.1     Characteristics and Description

      3.2.3.2     Reproduction and Growth

      3.3     Phylum Gastrotricha—Gastrotrichs

      3.3.1     Introduction

      3.3.2     Characteristics and Description

      3.3.3     Reproduction and Growth

      3.4     Subphylum Crustacea, Class Brachiopoda, Order Cladocera—Water Fleas

      3.4.1     Introduction

      3.4.2     Characteristics and Description

      3.4.3     Reproduction and Growth

      3.5     Subphylum Crustacea, Class Ostracoda—Seed Shrimp

      3.5.1     Introduction

      3.5.2     Characteristics and Description

      3.5.3     Reproduction and Growth

      3.6     Class Archnoidea, Order Hydracarina—Water Mites

      3.6.1     Introduction

      3.6.2     Characteristics and Description

      3.6.3     Reproduction and Growth

      4.0     METAZOA POPULATIONS WITHIN WASTEWATER TREATMENT PROCESSES

      5.0     REFERENCES

      6.0     SUGGESTED READINGS

      Chapter 8     Filamentous Organisms

      Mesut Sezgin and Joseph J. Gauthier

      1.0     INTRODUCTION

      2.0     FILAMENTOUS ORGANISMS OBSERVED IN ACTIVATED SLUDGE

      3.0     EFFECT OF FILAMENTOUS ORGANISMS ON ACTIVATED SLUDGE SETTLEABILITY

      3.1     Activated Sludge Floc

      3.2     Activated Sludge Settleability

      4.0     EFFECT OF FILAMENTOUS ORGANISMS ON SCUM FORMATION

      5.0     VISCOUS BULKING

      6.0     MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION

      6.1     Sample Collection

      6.2     Sample Transport and Storage

      6.3     Equipment and Supplies Needed for Sample Examination

      6.4     Sample Examination Under Microscope

      6.4.1     General Characteristics of Sample

      6.4.2     Characterization of Filamentous Organisms

      6.4.3     Identification of Filamentous Organisms

      6.4.4     Description of Filamentous Organisms

      6.4.4.1     Sphaerotilus Natans

      6.4.4.2     Type 1701

      6.4.4.3     Type 0041

      6.4.4.4     Type 0675

      6.4.4.5     Type 021N

      6.4.4.6     Thiothrix I

      6.4.4.7     Thiothrix II

      6.4.4.8     Type 0914

      6.4.4.9     Beggiatoa spp.

      6.4.4.10     Type 1851

      6.4.4.11     Type 0803

      6.4.4.12     Type 0092

      6.4.4.13     Type 0961

      6.4.4.14     Microthrix Parvicella

      6.4.4.15     Nocardia ssp.

      6.4.4.16     Nostocoida Limicola I

      6.4.4.17     Nostocoida Limicola II

      6.4.4.18     Nostocoida Limicola III

      6.4.4.19     Haliscomenobacter Hydrossis

      6.4.4.20     Type 0581

      6.4.4.21     Type 1863

      6.4.4.22     Type 0411

      6.4.4.23     Type 1702

      6.4.4.24     Type 1852

      6.4.4.25     Type 0211

      6.4.4.26     Flexibacter spp.

      6.4.4.27     Bacillus spp.

      6.4.4.28     Cyanophyceae

      6.4.4.29     Fungi

      6.4.4.30     Herpetosiphon spp.

      6.4.4.31     Trichococcus spp.

      6.4.4.32     Streptococcus spp.

      6.4.4.33     Bacillus Mycoides and Bacillus Cereus

      7.0     FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH OF FILAMENTOUS ORGANISMS

      7.1     Mean Cell Residence Time

      7.2     Dissolved Oxygen Concentration

      7.3     Design of Biological Reactors and Influent Wastewater Feeding Patterns

      7.4     Influent Wastewater Characteristics

      7.4.1     Nature of the Organic Substrate

      7.4.2     Nutrients

      7.4.3     Sulfide Concentration

      7.4.4     pH

      7.5     Temperature

      8.0     CONTROL OF FILAMENTOUS ACTIVATED SLUDGE BULKING

      8.1     Manipulation of Facility Operating Conditions

      8.1.1     Manipulation of Return Activated Sludge Rate

      8.1.2     Reduction in Clarifier Solids Loading

      8.1.3     Manipulation of Dissolved Oxygen Concentrations in the Biological Reactor

      8.2     Chemical Addition

      8.2.1     Addition of Flocculating and Weighting Agents

      8.2.2     Addition of Toxic Chemicals

      8.2.2.1     Chlorine Addition

      8.2.2.2     Hydrogen Peroxide Addition

      8.2.2.3     Ozone Addition

      8.3     Adjustments in Wastewater Composition

      8.3.1     Nutrient Addition

      8.3.2     Sulfide Removal

      8.3.3     pH Adjustment

      8.4     Modifications in the Activated Sludge Process

      8.4.1     Changes in Influent Wastewater Feeding Points or Feeding Pattern

      8.4.2     Installation of Selectors

      8.4.2.1     Aerobic or Oxic Selectors

      8.4.2.2     Anoxic Selectors

      8.4.2.3     Anaerobic Selectors

      9.0     CONTROL OF FOAM–SCUM FORMED BY NOCARDIOFORMS

      9.1     Types of Foam–Scum Observed in Activated Sludge

      9.2     Role of Nocardioforms in Scum Formation

      9.3     Relationship Between Scum Formation and Facility Operation and Design

      9.4     Control and Prevention of Scum Formation

      9.4.1     Manipulation of Mean Cell Residence Time

      9.4.2     Use of Selectors

      9.4.3     Use of Chemicals

      9.4.3.1     Chlorine Addition

      9.4.3.2     Ozone Addition

      9.4.3.3     Iron and Aluminum Salts Addition

      9.4.3.4     Surfactant Addition

      9.4.3.5     Polymer Addition

      9.4.3.6     Antifoaming Agent Addition

      9.4.4     Bioaugmentation

      9.4.5     Termination of Preferred Food Sources

      9.4.6     Scum Disposal

      9.4.7     Reduced Aeration Rates

      9.4.8     Return of Anaerobic Digester Supernatant

      9.4.9     Addition of Mixed Liquor Supernatant from an Offline Biological Reactor

      9.4.10   Water Sprayers

      10.0     CONTROL OF VISCOUS BULKING

      11.0     REFERENCES

      Chapter 9     Indicator Bacteria

      Robert P. Marino

      1.0     CHARACTERIZATION

      1.1     Total Coliforms

      1.2     Fecal Coliforms

      1.3     Escherichia Coli

      1.4     Fecal Streptococci

      1.5     Enterococci

      2.0     USE OF BACTERIA AS INDICATOR ORGANISMS

      2.1     Indicator Sensitivity

      2.2     Indicator Limitations

      2.3     Indicator Die-Off (Disappearance) Rates

      2.4     Regulations Affecting Indicator Organisms

      2.4.1     Effluent Limits

      2.4.2     Receiving Water Criteria

      2.5     Section 503 Regulations and Indicator Bacteria

      3.0     PUBLIC HEALTH IMPLICATIONS OF INDICATOR BACTERIA

      4.0     COMPONENTS OF A MONITORING PROGRAM

      4.1     Sampling

      4.1.1     Sampling Preparation

      4.1.2     Sample Locations

      4.1.3     Sampling Schedule

      4.1.4     Collection Procedures

      4.1.5     Labeling Requirements

      4.1.6     Sample Storage

      4.2     Testing Methods

      4.2.1     Membrane Filter Technique

      4.2.2     Two-Step Membrane Filter Technique

      4.2.3     Comparison of Test Methods

      4.3     Quality Control and Quality Assurance

      4.3.1     Duplicate Counts

      4.3.2     Split Samples

      4.3.3     Blank Samples

      4.3.4     Environmental Blanks

      4.3.5     Recordkeeping

      4.3.6     Data Analysis

      5.0     REFERENCES

      6.0     SUGGESTED READINGS

      Chapter 10     Wastewater Pathogens

      Edwin E. Geldreich

      1.0     CHARACTERIZATION

      1.1     Types of Disease Exposure

      1.2     Pathways for Pathogen Spread

      1.3     Risk to Personnel

      2.0     PATHOGEN OCCURRENCES IN WASTEWATER AND SLUDGE

      2.1     Bacterial Agents

      2.1.1     Campylobacter

      2.1.2     Enteropathogenic Escherichia Coli

      2.1.3     Leptospira

      2.1.4     Salmonella

      2.1.5     Shigella

      2.1.6     Vibrio

      2.1.7     Yersinia

      2.2     Viral Agents

      2.2.1     Adenoviruses

      2.2.2     Astroviruses

      2.2.3     Enteroviruses

      2.2.3.1     Coxsackievirus

      2.2.3.2     Echovirus

      2.2.3.3     Hepatitis A Virus

      2.2.3.4     Poliovirus

      2.2.3.5     Norwalk Virus

      2.2.3.6     Rotavirus

      2.3     Pathogenic Protozoans

      2.3.1     Cryptosporidium Parvum

      2.3.2     Cyclospora

      2.3.3     Entamoeba Histolytica

      2.3.4     Giardia Lamblia

      3.0     OPPORTUNISTIC PATHOGENS

      3.1     Opportunistic Bacteria

      3.1.1     Clostridium

      3.1.2     Legionella

      3.1.3     Mycobacterium

      3.2     Opportunistic Viruses

      3.2.1     Reovirus

      3.3     Opportunistic Fungi

      3.3.1     Aspergillus

      3.3.2     Candida

      4.0     TREATMENT CONTROL OF PATHOGENS

      4.1     Primary Treatment

      4.2     Trickling Filter Process

      4.3     Aerobic Sludge Process

      4.4     Anaerobic Digestion Process

      4.5     Waste Stabilization Lagoons

      4.6     Wastewater Disinfection

      4.7     Individual On-Site Disposal Systems

      5.0     REFERENCES

      6.0     SUGGESTED READINGS

      Chapter 11     Wastewater Parasites

      Melvin C. Zimmerman

      1.0     CHARACTERIZATION

      1.1     Definitions

      1.2     Life Cycle

      1.3     Identification

      2.0     OCCURRENCE IN WASTEWATER AND SLUDGE

      3.0     INACTIVATION AND DESTRUCTION

      4.0     MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION

      4.1     Sample Collection and Concentration

      4.2     Separation of Parasitic Stages from Debris

      4.2.1     Zinc Sulfate Flotation

      4.2.2     Sucrose Flotation

      4.2.3     Formalin–Ether Sedimentation

      4.3     Staining Methods

      4.4     Enumeration Methods

      5.0     REDUCTION OF RISK

      6.0     REFERENCES

      Chapter 12     Photomicroscopy

      Tracy L. Finnegan

      1.0     INTRODUCTION

      2.0     APPLICATIONS

      3.0     SKILL AND CARE

      4.0     EQUIPMENT FOR PHOTOMICROSCOPY

      4.1     Microscope

      4.2     Microscope Lens Information

      4.3     Filters

      4.4     Camera

      4.4.1     Film Selection

      4.4.2     Film Speed

      5.0     FACTORS AFFECTING COLOR BALANCE

      6.0     DETERMINING EXPOSURE

      7.0     OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS

      8.0     BLACK AND WHITE PHOTOMICROGRAPHY

      9.0     DIGITAL OR ANALOG PHOTOMICROGRAPHS

      10.0     STORAGE

      11.0     IMPROVING SPECIMEN VISIBILITY

      12.0     TROUBLESHOOTING COMMON FAULTS

      13.0     CONCLUSION

      14.0     SUGGESTED READINGS

      Appendix A     Test Procedures and Methods

      1.0     ENUMERATION TECHNIQUES

      1.1     Counting Chamber

      1.2     Filament Measurement

      1.2.1     Method A

      1.2.2     Method B

      1.2.3     Scoring of Filament Abundance

      2.0     STAINING SOLUTIONS AND PROCEDURES

      2.1     Gram Stain—Modified Hucker Method

      2.2     Neisser Stain

      2.3     Crystal Violet Sheath Stain

      2.4     India Ink Reverse Stain

      2.5     Poly–β–Hydroxybutyrate Stain

      2.6     Sulfur Oxidation (S Test)

      2.6.1     Method A

      2.6.2     Method B

      2.7     Methylene Blue Stain

      2.8     Lugol’s Iodine Stain

      3.0     PRESERVATIVES AND FIXATIVES

      3.1     Merthiolate–Iodine–Formalin Preservative

      3.2     Burrow’s Polyvinyl Alcohol Fixative

      3.3     Miscellaneous Reagents

      3.3.1     Formalin

      3.3.2     Sheather’s Sucrose Solution

      3.3.3     Zinc Sulfate Solution

      3.4     Diluted Sludge Volume Index Procedure

      4.0     REFERENCES

      Glossary

      Index

      List of Figures

      2.1     Hooke’s compound microscope

      2.2     Individual bacteria grow as a colony to form a floc particle

      2.3     Some protozoa such as these stalked ciliates attach to floc particles and extend out into the water around them

      2.4     A typical rotifer, commonly found in wastewater treatment systems

      3.1     Comparison of (a) compound and (b) stereoscopic binocular microscopes

      3.2     Using an ocular micrometer to determine the size of microscope objects (Method B)

      4.1     Common bacteria shapes

      4.2     Uncommon bacteria shapes

      4.3     Morphology of a Gram-positive bacterial cell

      4.4     Diagram of the fluid mosaic model of membrane structure showing the integral proteins floating in a lipid bilayer

      4.5     Flagella and pili

      5.1     Representatives of the primary protozoan groups found in wastewater treatment processes

      5.2     Common ciliates in aerobic treatment processes

      5.3     Common peritrich ciliates in aerobic treatment processes

      5.4     Successions of protozoa in an activated sludge facility

      5.5     Bar chart of effluent quality issuing from laboratory-scale pilot facilities operating in the presence and absence of ciliated protozoa

      6.1     (a) Typical monogononta rotifer and (b) typical digononta (bdelloid) rotifer

      6.2     Family Brachionidae

      6.3     Order Bdelloidea

      6.4     Family Brachionidae

      6.5     Family Brachionidae

      6.6     Subfamily Colurinae

      7.1     Free-living nematode

      7.2     Fertilized nematode

      7.3     Nematode egg

      7.4     Life cycle of free-living nematodes

      7.5     Appearance and basic structures of common free-living nematodes found in aerobic wastewater treatment processes

      7.6     Semidiagrammatic lateral view of a typical tardigrade, 220X, with all musculature omitted

      7.7     Water bear

      7.8     Shed water bear cuticle with eggs

      7.9     Dorsal view of Aeolosoma, a typical aquatic oligochaete showing separating bud, 50X

      7.10    Aeolosoma worm

      7.11    Bristle worm

      7.12    Gastrotrich

      7.13    Diagrammatic internal structure of a typical gastrotrich

      7.14    Cladocera

      7.15    Anatomy of female Daphnia pulex, 70X, diagrammatic, muscles not shown

      7.16    Ostracod

      7.17    Ostracod

      7.18    Female Cypricercus reticulatus (Zadd.), 80X, with left valve removed to show appendages, diagrammatic

      7.19    Water mites

      7.20    Mideopsis orbicularis (Müller) female, 40X

      8.1     Effect of filamentous organisms on formation of different types of flocs in the activated sludge process

      8.2     Effect of filamentous organisms on flocculation of activated sludge flocs

      8.3     Variation of SVI with initial suspended solids concentration

      8.4     Correlation between SVI and zone settling velocity

      8.5     Relationship between SVI and total length of filamentous organisms

      8.6     Relationship between SVI and total length of filamentous organisms at different suspended solids concentrations

      8.7     Gram stain, modified Hucker method

      8.8     Neisser stain

      8.9     Sulfur oxidation test

      8.10    India ink reverse stain

      8.11    Poly-β-hydroxybutyrate stain

      8.12    Crystal violet sheath stain

      8.13    Anthrone test for carbohydrate

      8.14   Worksheet for microscopic examination of flocs and filamentous organisms

      8.15   Worksheet for observation of protozoa and metazoa and identification of filamentous organisms

      8.16   Identification key for filamentous organisms present in activated sludge

      8.17   Correlation between MCRT and occurrence of filamentous organisms in activated sludge processes

      8.18   Combinations of F:M and biological reactor dissolved oxygen concentrations that result in filamentous bulking and nonbulking activated sludges

      8.19    Activated sludge process with selectors

      11.1    Life cycle of Giardia lamblia

      11.2    Ova of various helminths

      12.1    Trinocular microscope with 35-mm camera attached

      12.2    Research-grade trinocular microscope with 35-mm camera attached

      12.3    Trinocular stereomicroscope with camera attached

      12.4    A 35-mm color negative print, 200X, bright field

      12.5    A 35-mm color negative print, 200X, phase contrast

      12.6    Trinocular microscope with instant camera attached

      12.7    Digital photomicrographs

      12.8    Research-grade trinocular microscope with digital camera attached

      12.9    Research-grade trinocular microscope with digital camera with three-dimensional imaging attached

      12.10  Digital photomicrographs using various staining techniques

      A.1     Cross-section of a typical counting chamber

      List of Tables

      3.1     Comparison of different types of microscopes commonly used

      5.1     Some protozoa typically found in wastewater treatment processes

      5.2     Twelve most important protozoa in biological filters and activated sludge facilities in the United Kingdom

      5.3     Percentage frequency of occurrence of some protozoa in facilities producing effluents within the four ranges of BOD5

      6.1     List of typical rotifers found in wastewater

      6.2     Simple illustrated key to some common rotifers found in wastewater treatment

      8.1     Dominant filamentous organisms observed in bulking and foaming activated sludges

      8.2     Diluted SVI test

      8.3     Subjective scoring of filament abundance

      8.4     Measurement of total extended filament length

      8.5     Simplified filament quantification technique

      8.6     Nocardia filaments counting methodology

      8.7     Summary of typical morphological and staining characteristics of filamentous organisms observed in activated sludge

      8.8     Summary of typical morphological and staining characteristics of filamentous organisms observed in activated sludge

      8.9     Effectiveness of selectors against filamentous organisms

      8.10   Methodologies used to control biological scum in the United States

      9.1     Typical concentrations of fecal coliform bacteria

      11.1    Parasites found in sludge samples

      12.1    Basic color-compensating filters

      A.1     Subjective scoring of filament abundance

      Preface

      The description, ecology, and beneficial and detrimental roles of microscopic life forms—the microlife—found in wastewater treatment processes are critical biological knowledge for operators and technicians. Operators and technicians must regulate the wastewater environment to provide acceptable treatment conditions. This publication emphasizes the biological aspects of wastewater treatment that would be of most value to them. It provides a general overview of microorganisms and is written with a minimum of technical jargon so that it can be of value to a wide spectrum of wastewater professionals.

      Because the publication includes discussions of the taxonomy (i.e., the naming and classification) of the microlife commonly found in a water resource recovery facility, a brief review of taxonomic principles is included. The primary means of identifying the microlife is through the microscope; therefore, a chapter is dedicated to its use and understanding. In addition to the microscope, a means of keeping records of the microlife can be obtained through photomicroscopy, the technique of taking photographs through the microscope. Therefore, a chapter is also dedicated to photomicroscopy.

      This publication provides operators and technicians, as well as other wastewater professionals, with an easy-to-use guide to the biological aspects of wastewater treatment, including 13 color plates to assist in identifying the microlife.

      Authors’ and reviewers’ efforts were supported by the following organizations:

      City of Atlanta Public Works Department, Atlanta, Georgia

      Lycoming College, Williamsport, Pennsylvania

      McCombs Frank Roos Associates, Inc., Plymouth, Minnesota

      Nalco Chemical Company, Naperville, Illinois

      The Natural History Museum, London, United Kingdom

      Rothburg, Tamburini and Winsor, Inc., Denver, Colorado

      University of Alabama, Birmingham

      West Virginia Environmental Training Center, Ripley, West Virginia

      1

      Introduction

      Ronald G. Schuyler

      1.0     OVERVIEW

      2.0     TAXONOMY

      3.0     USE OF THE PUBLICATION

      1.0     OVERVIEW

      Wastewater Biology: The Microlife is a presentation of the description, ecology, and beneficial and detrimental roles of the microscopic life forms—the microlife—found in wastewater treatment processes. Because a knowledge of biology is especially desirable for the operators, technicians, and engineers who must regulate and design the wastewater environment to provide acceptable treatment conditions, this manual emphasizes the biological aspects of wastewater treatment that would be of the most value to them. However, the text also will be of value to other wastewater professionals, especially chemists, educators, and microbiologists.

      This publication has been written with a minimum of technical language so that it can be easily reviewed and absorbed by individuals from different professional backgrounds. However, because the publication includes discussions of the taxonomy (naming and classification) of the microlife typically found in a water resource recovery facility, a brief review of taxonomy principles is included here.

      2.0     TAXONOMY

      To deal with the enormous diversity of life forms, organisms historically have been grouped by one or more related characteristics they display (such as structure, genetics, or biochemistry) into a hierarchy of categories: kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. The top category, kingdom, is a very broad, general category. As more categories are specified, the number of different organisms that fit that particular classification decreases. When the last category, species, is specified, only one life form or organism is designated.

      As the number of known life forms or species has increased along with our knowledge of the degrees of relationships of these species, the need for a more precise indication of the classification position of species has also occurred. To cope with this need, classifiers have split the original seven basic categories and inserted additional categories. Modern classification schemes, therefore, consist of the following: kingdom, phylum, subphylum, superclass, class, subclass, cohort, superorder, order, suborder, superfamily, family, subfamily, tribe, genus, subgenus, species, and subspecies.

      It is not necessary, however, to list all categories when discussing a particular organism. The scientific name (bionomen) consists of the generic name (denoting the genus) and the species name that distinguishes the organism from other species of the genus. For example, the honeybee is Apis mellifera. Note that the genus is capitalized, but the species name is not. Also, both genus and species names are either underlined or set in italic type. If the scientific name of the organism is repeated in text, the genus name is abbreviated (e.g., A. mellifera).

      3.0     USE OF THE PUBLICATION

      The groups of life forms reviewed in this publication include the organisms considered the most important in the treatment of wastewater and disease transmission. Understanding these microorganisms will assist the operator, engineer, and others in better understanding how to properly control processes. Other organisms, such as viruses that have little or no treatment significance, are not included in this manual, except as they relate to waterborne diseases (Chapter 10).

      Chapter 2 gives an overview of the microorganisms. Chapter 3 then introduces a valuable tool in the observation of microorganisms, the microscope. Discussions of the specific types of organisms begins in Chapter 4 with bacteria, and continues with protozoa (Chapter 5), rotifers (Chapter 6), nematodes and other metazoa (Chapter 7), and filamentous organisms (Chapter 8). These are the organisms typically involved in wastewater treatment. However, some of these organisms are also pathogenic or parasitic and cause disease. Chapter 9 discusses bacteria that can be used to indicate the potential presence of disease-causing microorganisms. Those disease-causing organisms, or pathogens, are reviewed in Chapter 10. Chapter 11 completes the discussion of microorganisms by covering parasites, those organisms that live at the expense of a host organism. Chapter 12 presents information on equipment and techniques to obtain a photographic record of microscopic findings. The equipment and procedures necessary for examining, identifying, and enumerating these life forms also are presented in Appendix A. Hopefully, with this content and arrangement, readers will find Wastewater Biology: The Microlife useful in their professional endeavors and a source of information whenever questions arise relative to microorganisms.

      2

      Microorganisms

      Richard G. Weigand

      1.0     HISTORY

      1.1     Before Microscopes

      1.2     Germ Theory of Disease

      2.0     TYPES OF MICROORGANISMS

      2.1     Bacteria

      2.2     Protozoa

      2.3     Metazoa

      2.4     Viruses

      3.0     ROLES OF MICROORGANISMS

      3.1     Parasites and Pathogens

      3.2     Soil Microbes and Heterotrophs

      3.3     Freshwater Microbes

      3.4     Ecological Relationships

      4.0     REFERENCE

      1.0     HISTORY

      1.1     Before Microscopes

      Robert Hooke, in the 1660s, is credited with assembling lenses into the first crude microscope (Figure 2.1). However, another craftsman, Antonj Van Leeuwenhoek, was the first to actually study and describe bacteria and protozoa in great detail, terming them animalcules. Using simple but powerful lenses of approximately 300X magnification, he studied a variety of objects, including cow dung.

      Leeuwenhoek’s invention gave scientists the power to see, for the first time, an incredible new universe of tiny objects so minute that their existence had never been suspected. This was a momentous discovery that had many applications such as understanding food spoilage, fermentation, and the causes of human disease.

      Figure 2.1 Hooke’s compound microscope, drawn by himself. Note that the object is seen by light reflected from above, unlike Leeuwenhoek’s animalcules, which were seen by light transmitted through them.

      1.2     Germ Theory of Disease

      After Hooke’s original invention of the microscope, it took more than 150 years to develop instruments even remotely similar to ones in use today. By that time, scientists were beginning to understand the relationship between certain diseases and their microscopic causes.

      In the 1880s, Robert Koch established the bacterial cause of cholera and developed a series of steps or postulates to link specific microbes to specific diseases. Pathogenic, or disease-causing microorganisms, were now being discovered.

      French scientist Louis Pasteur is credited with advancing much of this knowledge as a result of his research on why German beer was considered superior to French brew. His experiments included heating, or pasteurization, of liquids to kill unwanted organisms, an idea that was later applied to the medical field. The general understanding of germs grew into specific knowledge of the relationship between one disease and one type of microorganism. Soon these specific causative agents were isolated and identified.

      In the late 1800s, this led to the realization that epidemics such as cholera and typhoid were waterborne diseases of microbiological origin. Suddenly, drinking water treatment and wastewater treatment were critical industries and the realm of pollution microbiology was born.

      2.0     TYPES OF MICROORGANISMS

      Microorganisms of greatest significance to water quality professionals can be classified into four groups: bacteria, protozoa, metazoa, and viruses. It should be understood that the descriptions provided here will serve as working definitions for these groups, with detailed descriptions to be found elsewhere. Each of these groups plays a key role in the complex world of wastewater biology.

      2.1     Bacteria

      These small, single-celled organisms are found in tremendous numbers in polluted water. They come in a variety of sizes and shapes and are the most prolific microorganisms on earth, found essentially everywhere.

      Many significant waterborne diseases have bacteria as their causative agents, and bacteria do the most significant portion of the work in wastewater treatment. Of particular interest to wastewater operators are those bacteria that grow as long, threadlike filaments and those that help form small biological communities known as floc (Figure 2.2). Chapter 4 presents a more detailed discussion of bacteria.

      2.2     Protozoa

      This term applies to a rather large and diverse group of single-cell organisms that are typically much larger than bacteria. Protozoa, like bacteria, are typically found in large numbers in polluted water and wastewater. Many of them are quite mobile, swimming rapidly through their microscopic world. Others attach themselves to tiny particles and extend into the water around them (Figure 2.3).

      Protozoa play a critical role in the wastewater treatment process. Their presence in varying numbers has long been used as a process evaluation tool for experienced operators. Some protozoa play primary roles in the clarification of effluent because of their predation on dispersed bacterial growth. In many instances, specific protozoa can be easily identified and quantified in wastewater samples.

      Figure 2.2 Individual bacteria grow as a colony to form a floc particle (courtesy of Richard G. Weigand).

      Figure 2.3 Some protozoa such as these stalked ciliates attach to floc particles and extend out into the water around them (courtesy of Richard G. Weigand).

      During the past decade, protozoans have received increased attention because of their connection to waterborne diseases. Giardia and Cryptosporidium are two protozoans responsible for significant outbreaks of illnesses in the United States. Chapter 5 describes protozoa in more detail.

      2.3     Metazoa

      This term technically applies to all animals composed of more than one cell. From a practical standpoint, it refers to larger, more complex animals than those considered protozoa. Included in the metazoa group are organisms known as rotifers, so named because of their rotating crowns of hairlike cilia (Figure 2.4). Although typically somewhat larger than bacteria and protozoa, they are still microscopic in size.

      Rotifers are fairly common in some wastewater treatment processes and play an active role in the breakdown of organic wastes. Observing and quantifying rotifers contributes to the evaluation of treatment conditions. Chapter 6 is devoted to further discussion of rotifers.

      Figure 2.4 A typical rotifer, commonly found in wastewater treatment systems (courtesy of Richard G. Weigand).

      Many other metazoa must be considered in the discussion of wastewater microbiology. Nematodes, or roundworms, have many microscopic forms often found in wastewater treatment. Water bears, bristle worms, water fleas, and seed shrimp are all metazoa that may take up residence in a wastewater treatment process. These higher life forms are the most complex microorganisms typically associated with wastewater microbiology and are further discussed in Chapter 7.

      2.4     Viruses

      This group of organisms is somewhat unique compared to those described above. They are much smaller than bacteria—too small to be seen with a conventional microscope. Viruses are parasites and, therefore, can only reproduce within a host cell (such as a bacteria, animal, or plant cell.).

      Although viruses play no known role in wastewater treatment processes, they are nonetheless important to water quality professionals. Many diseases caused by viruses can be transmitted through polluted waters. Hepatitis is the most common of these. However, the human immunodeficiency virus, the virus that causes acquired immune deficiency syndrome, has never been shown to be transmitted

      Enjoying the preview?
      Page 1 of 1