Must Know High School Pre-Calculus

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This book is dedicated to my four children – Kate, Brendon, Andrew, and Kristen. Thank you for all your support and encouragement all these years.

Contents

Introduction

The Flashcard App

1    Functions

Relations and Functions

Composition of Functions

Inverse Functions

2    Quadratic Functions

Solving Quadratic Equations

Complex Numbers

Graphing Quadratic Functions – Parabolas

Applications of Quadratic Functions

3    Polynomial Functions

Factoring Polynomials

Remainder and Factor Theorems

Synthetic Division

Graphing Polynomial Functions

Using Graphs to Factor Polynomials

Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

Polynomial Inequalities

Rational Root Theorem and Descartes Rule of Signs

Maximum and Minimum Values of Polynomial Functions

4    Rational Functions

Intercepts for the Graphs of Rational Functions

Discontinuities of Rational Functions

End Behavior for Rational Functions

Graphing Rational Functions

Maxima and Minima of Rational Functions

5    Conic Sections

Analyze and Graph Circles

Analyze and Graph Parabolas

Analyzing and Graphing Ellipses

Analyze and Graph Hyperbolas

Eccentricity

Solutions of Systems of Quadratic Equations

6    Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Exponential Functions

Logarithmic Functions

Applications of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

7    Sequences and Series

Sequences

Summation Notation

Arithmetic Series

Geometric Series

Mathematical Induction

8    Systems of Equations and Matrices

An Introduction to Matrices

Solve Two Variable Linear Systems Using Cramer’s Rule and Inverse Matrices

Solving Three or More Variable Linear Systems

Solving Systems of Linear Inequalities

9    Triangle Trigonometry

Right Triangle Trigonometry

Figuring Out the Area of a Triangle Using Trigonometry

Law of Sines

The Ambiguous Case

Law of Cosines

10    Trigonometric Functions

Unit Circle

The First Quadrant

Beyond the First Quadrant

Radian Measure

Trigonometric Identities

Proving Trigonometric Identities

11    Graphs and Applications of Trigonometric Functions

Graphs of Trigonometric Functions

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Applying Trigonometric Functions

Solving Trigonometric Equations

12    Polar and Parametric Equations

Plotting Points on a Polar Coordinate Plane

Conversion Between Polar and Rectangular Coordinates

Graphs of Polar Equations

The Rose

The Cardioid

The Limaçon

The Lemniscate

Conic Sections in Polar Coordinates

Nonstandard Polar Curves

Conversion Between Polar and Rectangular Forms for a Function

Conversion Between Parametric and Function Forms

13    Complex Numbers

Polar Form of Complex Numbers

Multiplication and Division of Complex Numbers

Powers and Roots of Complex Numbers

Exponential Format

14    Introduction to Calculus

The Concept of a Limit

Evaluating Limits

Property of Limits

Continuity

Instantaneous Rates of Change

Differentiation Rules

Answer Key

Introduction

Welcome to your new pre-calculus book! Let us try to explain why we believe you’ve made the right choice. This probably isn’t your first rodeo with either a textbook or other kind of guide to a school subject. You’ve probably had your fill of books asking you to memorize lots of terms (such is school). This book isn’t going to do that—although you’re welcome to memorize anything you take an interest in. You may also have found that a lot of books jump the gun and make a lot of promises about all the things you’ll be able to accomplish by the time you reach the end of a given chapter. In the process, those books can make you feel as though you missed out on the building blocks that you actually need to master those goals.

With Must Know High School Pre-Calculus, we’ve taken a different approach. When you start a new chapter, right off the bat you will immediately see one or more must know ideas. These are the essential concepts behind what you are going to study, and they will form the foundation of what you will learn throughout the chapter. With these must know ideas, you will have what you need to hold it together as you study, and they will be your guide as you make your way through each chapter.

To build on this foundation, you will find easy-to-follow discussions of the topic at hand, accompanied by comprehensive examples that show you how to apply what you’re learning to solving typical pre-calculus questions. Each chapter ends with review questions—more than 250 throughout the book—designed to instill confidence as you practice your new skills.

sidebar (in real life) will tell you what you’re studying has to do with the real world; other IRLs may just be interesting factoids.

In addition, this book is accompanied by a flashcard app that will give you the ability to test yourself at any time. The app includes more than 100 flashcards with a review question on one side and the answer on the other. You can either work through the flashcards by themselves or use them alongside the book. To find out where to get the app and how to use it, go to the next section, The Flashcard App.

We also wanted to introduce you to your guide throughout this book. Chris Monahan has more than 30 years’ experience teaching math at the high school and college levels. He knows what you should get out of a pre-calculus course, and his strategies will help get you there. Chris has seen the typical kinds of problems that students can have with pre-calculus, and he is experienced at solving those difficulties. In this book, he uses that experience to show you not only the most effective way to learn a given concept but how to get yourself out of traps you might have fallen into. We’ve had the pleasure of working with Chris before and are confident that we’re leaving you in good hands.

Before we leave you to Chris’s surefooted guidance, let us give you one piece of advice. While we know that saying something "is the worst" is a cliché, if anything is the worst in pre-calculus, it’s getting used to functions. Let Chris introduce you to the concept and show you how to apply it confidently to your pre-calculus work. Take our word for it, mastering functions will leave you in good stead for the rest of your math career.

Good luck with your studies!

The Editors at McGraw-Hill

The Flashcard App

This book features a bonus flashcard app. It will help you test yourself on what you’ve learned as you make your way through the book (or in and out). It includes 100-plus flashcards, both front and back. It gives you two options as to how to use it. You can jump right into the app and start from any point that you want. Or you can take advantage of the handy QR Codes near the end of each chapter in the book; they will take you directly to the flashcards related to what you’re studying at the moment.

To take advantage of this bonus feature, follow these easy steps:

1     Functions

MUST KNOW

The set of any ordered pairs is a relation. An important subset of relations is the set of functions.

Functions are relations that guarantee for each legitimate input value there will be exactly one output value.

In order for a function to have an inverse, the function must be one to one.

The range for rational functions can very often be found by determining the inverse of that function.

Mathematics is known for its ability to convey a great deal of information with the usage of the minimum number of symbols. While this may be initially confusing (if not frustrating) for the learner, the notation of mathematics is a universal language. In this chapter, you will learn about function notation.

Relations and Functions

One of the major concepts used in mathematics is relations. A relation is any set of ordered pairs. The set of all first elements (the input values) is called the domain, while the set of second elements (the output values) is called the range. Relations are traditionally named with a capital letter. For example, given the relation

the domain of A (written DA) is {−9, −1, 2, 4}. The domain was written in increasing order for the convenience of reading, but this is not required. The element 2, which appears as the input for two different ordered pairs, needs to be written just the one time in the domain. The range of A (written RA) is {−3, 0, 1, 3, 5}.

The inverse of a relation is found by interchanging the input and output values. For example, the inverse of A (written A-1) is

Do you see that the domain of the inverse of A is the same set as the range of A and that the range of the inverse of A is the same as the domain of A? This is very important.

EXAMPLE

Determine the domain and range of the relation:

The domain is {−5, −4, −3, 2, 3, 9}, while the range is {−2, 5, 1, −8, −2, 7}.

Functions are one of the most important concepts in all of mathematics. To understand this, let’s first look at exactly what a function is. A function is a relation in which for each first element in the relation there is a unique second element. (To restate this: for each element in the domain there is a unique element in the range.) If a relation is a function, then there can only be one answer for each input value.

You can see that in the previous example A is not a function because 2 is used twice as an input with different output values, while A-1 is a function.

Verbal descriptions of examples identifying functions require us to give thought to all the possibilities of what is included. A graphical representation covers all possibilities.

EXAMPLE

Is the relation represented by the graph below a function?

No, it is not because some input values (−4 and 2) have multiple output values.

A very useful guideline for determining functions is the vertical line test. If a vertical line passes through multiple points anywhere on a graph, then the relation determined by those points is not a function.

Let’s apply the vertical line test to a graph. Does this graphical representation represent a function?

The graph does not satisfy the vertical line test, so it does not represent a function.

As you well know, mathematics uses a lot of notation. If you wish, you can think of it as codes or shorthand. With functions, we get the ability to work with multiple equations and have them clearly identified. We can discuss the functions

and simply refer to them as f(x), g(x), or p(x) and everyone will know which algebraic rule we are using.

At this point in your study of mathematics, you should know that the function notation is a substitution process. With f(x) = 4x - 7, f(-3) = 4(-3) - 7 = -19, while f(2t) = 4(2t) - 7 = 8t - 7.

Many disciplines use functions and they do call them f(x). Economists might use R(p) to represent the revenue earned when the price of an item sold is $p. A chemist might use the notation V(t) to represent the volume of a gas when the temperature of the gas is t degrees. It is commonplace to use f(x) when first learning about functions because f is the first letter of function and x is frequently used to represent the input variable.

The domain of a function is the set of values for which the function is defined. When the function in question is a generic algebraic function, we realize that the domain will be the set of real numbers except for those input values that will result in an attempt to divide by 0 or taking an even root (such as the square root or fourth root) of a negative number.

EXAMPLE

We know that x = 7 cannot be allowed because it causes the denominator of the fraction to equal 0. We also know that 2x .

Therefore, the domain of k(x) and x ≠ 7.

Finding the range of a function is not as easy to do, and you will therefore see that this subject is examined a number of times in this book.

The arithmetic of functions is just a fancy name for doing the algebraic arithmetic you have been doing since you began to study Algebra I.

EXAMPLE

If f(x) = 8x² − 16x .

With f(x) = 8x(x − 2) so f

Composition of Functions

Evaluating a function with the output of another function is called a composition of functions. Using f(x) = 8x² − 16x and

and f(−6) = 8(−6)² − 16(−6) = 8(36) − 96 = 288 − 96 = 192. There are two ways to represent this action using function notation, f(g( − 3)) or f ∘ g(−3). We can determine the rule for this composed function in terms of one variable:

is not the same as f(g(x)).

EXAMPLE

The number of articles for a product sold by a company is given by the function n(p) = − 0.75p + 150, where p represents the price, in dollars, to produce one unit. The profit, P, for selling n units of this product is P(n) = − 4n² + 20n − 25. Express the profit in terms of the price to produce each article.

. It is easy to see that the domain for p(x) is x ≥ 3, while the domain for q(x) is x ≠ 3. What is the domain for the composed function r(x) = q(p(x))? We begin with the domain of the inner function, so x ≥ 3. We now have to consider if there are restrictions on the outer function. In this case, we cannot just say x ≠ 3 but must determine the value of x for which q(x) to determine that x ≠ 9. Therefore, the domain for r(x) is x ≥ 3 and x ≠ 9.

A much more interesting problem is when the two functions are g(x) = x. Consider the two composite functions f(x) = g(h(x)) and k(x) = h(g(x)). The domain of h(x) is x ≥ 0 the domain of g(x) are all values of x. Consequently, the domain for f(x) is x ≥ 0. The domain for h(x) is the set of all real numbers because the output values for g(x) satisfy the domain for h(x)is really just x since x simplifies to be |x| since the domain is the set of real numbers.

EXAMPLE

Given the functions

, determine the domain for the function d(x) = b(c(x)).

The domain for c(x) and the domain for b(x) . We need to determine for what value of x.

Solve the equation:

.

Consequently, the domain for d(x)

Inverse Functions

An inverse function is one that satisfies the equation f(g(x)) = x for all values of x in its domain. In many algebraic examples, the process for determining the inverse function is to interchange the x and y in the equation and then solve for y. For example, the inverse of the function y = f(x) = 2x + 1 is found by solving the equation x = 2y + 1 for y .

You will recall that there are some issues that arise that force us to put restrictions on our answers. For example, the function f(x) = x² only has an inverse if we restrict the domain to x ≥ 0 (because the solution to the equation x = y² is x = ± y and we can only have one solution to be a function).

Another problem you experienced in Algebra II is that the