Safety, Health, and Security Standards for Water Resource Recovery: Manual of Practice No. 1

Preface

Since the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire in 1911, health and safety has been an upfront management tool regarded in the same context as productivity, quality, and cost. Reactively, the fire showed that fatalities and injuries, if prevented, have a direct effect on the bottom line, the workforce, and employees' families. Proactively, the same can be said about managing safety, health, and security at all water resource recovery facilities.

This Manual of Practice will serve as an injury-reduction tool to all those working in the wastewater field. It is no substitute for a well-maintained safety management system, however; this book contains guidelines and best practices for creating written programs and procedures as well as guidelines that describe how to perform a confined space entry, lockout/tagout, and chemical deliveries, among many others. From the laboratory to sewer system collection applications, this manual has recommendations that could help you reduce injuries and mishaps to ensure the ultimate safety and health of employees.

The seventh edition of this Manual of Practice was revised and updated by Tim Page-Bottorff.

Authors' and reviewers' efforts were supported by the following organizations:

Enterprise Protection Associates

SafeStart

South Platte Renew

Total Safety Compliance

1

Introduction to Health, Safety, and Security

1.0    NEED FOR HEALTH, SAFETY, AND SECURITY

1.1    Risk Management and Safety

1.2    Regulatory Compliance Safety

1.2.1    Private Sector Workers

1.2.2    State and Local Government Workers

1.2.3    Federal Government Workers

1.2.4    Not Covered by the Occupational Safety and Health Act

1.3    Best Management Practice Safety

2.0    INTEGRATING SECURITY INTO HEALTH AND SAFETY

3.0    SAFETY IN SMALL FACILITIES VERSUS LARGE FACILITIES

4.0    EMERGING SAFETY CHALLENGES

4.1    Lone Worker Safety and Geographically Separated Worksites

4.2    Use of Special-Purpose Vehicles

4.3    Adapting to Culture Changes

5.0    REFERENCES

6.0    SUGGESTED READINGS

From the 1700s and the Industrial Revolution to passing of the Occupational Safety and Health Act in 1970, ensuring the safety and health of workers has been constantly evolving. During the 1990s, another period of evolution introduced security to safety and health professionals. There are disparities in how safety and health are enforced in the private and the public sectors. Indeed, the wastewater industry is faced with an almost equal number of employees in each sector. Organizations or factors that affect enforcement and guidance for both the private and public sectors are the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), state or local department of labor offices, insurance carriers, and employer-driven policies and programs. The wastewater industry is unique in terms of safety because of the vast spectrum of work activities that must be performed in both operations and maintenance. This variety of tasks is the root cause of challenges faced by safety professionals and by operations and maintenance personnel who are responsible for safety in their workplace. The question, Where do I go to find information on . . . ? is often met with multiple responses and additional requests for information on a what if scenario basis. Unfortunately, there is no single definitive document or reference for all safety issues. In the wastewater treatment industry, resolutions to these issues are not always clear and must be met with knowledge, decisions based on experience, and best work practices, as identified in this manual.

1.0   NEED FOR HEALTH, SAFETY, AND SECURITY

Regulatory compliance, reduction of liability, reduction of costs and, finally, prevention of injury and illness are the core components necessary for optimum workplace health, safety, and security. OSHA publishes guidance for safety and health program management guidelines that can be referenced when establishing a health and safety program. These are nonmandatory standards and are used as examples that address various components of programs that may be mandatory under other regulatory standards.

Requirements for security in wastewater resource recovery facilities are constantly evolving, and efforts must be in place to remain informed about the current regulatory environment, changing threats, and methods available to protect both physical and informational assets, including cybersecurity. In many organizations, security has been integrated into the role of the safety and health professional's duties. This new role is addressed in Chapter 12.

Despite the creation of regulatory standards, insurance carrier or litigation pressure, and best-in-class safety programs, the wastewater industry continues to maintain a high average workplace injury rate. This conclusion is backed by data based on the overall number of injuries or the severity of injuries, which are classified into what is called a days away, restricted or transferred (DART) classification. When injury/illness/fatality (IIF) data are evaluated, the DART is the qualifying factor if an injury or illness is severe enough to be counted. Because injury data are qualified by an employer using guidance from OSHA, DART is the data standard for IIF reporting to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (U.S. BLS). The wastewater treatment industry refers to all the workers involved in wastewater/wastewater treatment operations; maintenance of water resource recovery facilities, lift stations, and associated conveyance systems; and interrelated systems such as stormwater and pollution control. In 2019, the IIF rate in the nation was 3.7 cases per 100 workers, whereas the IIF incidence rate for the wastewater industry was 4.2 per 100 workers (U.S. BLS, n.d.). The IIF rate for the wastewater industry has declined over the past few years and, for the first time in 2009, dipped below 5.0. The rate has never exceeded 5.0 since 2009 (U.S. BLS, n.d.). Table 1.1 illustrates IIF rates for the wastewater industry compared to national averages and some similar industries. (The reader is referred to Section 1.1 to learn how to calculate the IIF for a given organization and to compare that rate to Table 1.1 to determine a baseline performance of the organization's safety.)

Table 1.1 shows classification as it relates to industry. The classification is a grouping of like industries or subindustries that, for statistical purposes, are grouped together. The U.S. BLS then uses these groups and subgroups to analyze trends in injury and illness data. The lower the classification number, the more industries or subgroups that will be in a classification. The five-digit North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) number contains information that would be specific to any matching industry. As an example, if one were in facility operations for wastewater 221320, they would not want to evaluate performance against water facility operations in classification 221310.

Information for public versus private sector national averages is based on the classification of the first two numbers. Public sector employees are classified under a separate category for statistical purposes because of the difference in OSHA federal jurisdiction and OSHA state plans. Additionally, not every state reports IIF data to the U.S. BLS, which adds another margin of error to the BLS data tables.

TABLE 1.1   Comparison of Wastewater Treatment Industry Injury/Illness/Fatality Rates Versus National Averages and Similar Industries

*Forty-one states reporting IIF data to U.S. BLS (n.d.).

The spectrum of activities in the wastewater industry exposes workers to a variety of hazards. These hazards must be addressed through awareness and application of various risk management techniques. Because of the variety, type, and complexity of safety issues facing the wastewater industry, there are multiple standards and guidelines that direct the need for health and safety in any specific safety challenge. It should be assumed that there will be multiple references, guidelines, and standards that need to be reviewed before addressing a safety issue in the wastewater industry.

1.1   Risk Management and Safety

The Insurance Institute of America defines risk management as a managerial or an administrative process that includes the four functions of planning, organizing, leading and controlling the organization's activities to minimize the adverse effects of accidental and business losses at that organization to a reasonable cost. Making this definition synonymous with safety is the same as saying injuries or fatalities are the cost of doing business. The business of safety is rooted in the management of risk. Indeed, the amount of risk that an organization's management, supervisors, or field employees are willing to accept will directly affect safety in the workplace. Some organizations will align the safety department under the risk management department, which is a way to address loss control of internal assets such as people and equipment. Safety is often seen as the reduction of internal risk through education, training, and use of proper work practices. Safer workers are more productive, produce higher quality work, and reduce the loss or damage of public or company property.

Much of the risk is assumed or implied based on certain levels of authority within an organization. While effective safety programs are under direct oversight by all levels of supervision and management, there is a difference between responsibility and accountability for safety. The highest level of manager all the way up to a chief executive officer or a private utility have accountability for the safety program. Supervisors and managers in the field are both accountable for the actions of their employees and responsible for enforcing the policies and standards of safety. Employees also have a responsibility for safety in that they must be held accountable for their actions and be responsible for elements of a safety program that are either directly assigned to them or are implied in broad policy.

As Table 1.1 demonstrates, the wastewater industry has an IFF rate that is higher than the national average. According to the U.S. BLS (n.d.), in 2015, the industry injury rate was as high as 4.7; it declined to 4.2, 4.6, and 4.3 over the next 3 years, settling at 3.9 in 2019. To calculate an incident rate, the following information is needed: number of annual injuries or illnesses in a workplace and the total number of annual staff hours worked. Therefore,

For example,

An organization would calculate its own injury rate, which is then compared against the national average or industry average to potentially gauge the overall safety performance in the organization. Incident and accident rates are lag indicators of safety program performance; it is recommended they not be used as the only measurement of safety performance.

Additional information regarding the types and severity of injuries can also be used to evaluate incident and accident rates. The DART-type situations provide another level of measurement for the number of incidents and also add the element of severity into consideration. While a fatality is the highest severity, the level below is any incident, which results in lost time.

1.2   Regulatory Compliance Safety

Compliance with regulations and standards for safety is the minimal requirement for protecting workers from injury and illness. Many organizations rely solely on OSHA regulations and standards for their health and safety program management. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration has three main purposes: to set health and safety standards, enforce the standards through federal and state inspections, and provide employer and employee education and consultation. Often, there is confusion over the jurisdiction of OSHA. This approach is considered a compliance-driven approach because only minimum requirements are considered by employers. The more tailored approach will include recommendations from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH), or national consensus standards like the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) or the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). The following section defines the jurisdiction of OSHA directly from the Occupational Safety and Health Act.

1.2.1   Private Sector Workers

Most employees in the United States are under OSHA's jurisdiction. The Occupational Safety and Health Act applies to private sector employers and employees in all 50 states, the District of Columbia, and other U.S. jurisdictions, either directly through federal OSHA or through an OSHA-approved state program. State-run health and safety programs must be at least as effective as the federal OSHA program. To find contact information for the nearest OSHA federal or state program office, the reader is referred to the regional and area offices map on OSHA's website (http://www.osha.gov/.)

1.2.2   State and Local Government Workers

Employees who work for state and local governments are not covered by federal OSHA, but have Occupational Safety and Health Act protections if they work in a state that has an OSHA-approved state program. There are 21 states with a state plan that covers both private sector and public sector employees. Five additional states and one U.S. territory have OSHA-approved plans that cover public sector employees only. These are Connecticut, Illinois, Maine, New Jersey, New York, and the Virgin Islands. Private sector workers in these four states and the Virgin Islands are covered by federal OSHA.

1.2.3   Federal Government Workers

Federal agencies must have a safety and health program that meets the same standards as private employers. Although OSHA does not fine federal agencies, it monitors federal agencies and responds to workers' complaints. The U.S. Postal Service is covered by OSHA.

1.2.4   Not Covered by the Occupational Safety and Health Act

The following entities are not covered by the Occupational Safety and Health Act:

•  Self-employed individuals;

•  Immediate family members of farm employers that do not employ outside employees; and

•  Workplace hazards regulated by another federal agency (e.g., the Mine Safety and Health Administration, the Federal Aviation Administration, the U.S. Coast Guard).

Compliance may encompass either following government standards or consensus standards or both. Government standards are developed and promulgated by federal, state, and local agencies to address safety through performance, as opposed to a technical specification that details how to accomplish a task. Consensus standards may be referenced by government standards, which may or may not have the same effect as being law. This distinction depends on how the government standard is written. An example of this is OSHA mandating monthly inspection and annual certification of fire extinguishers. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration does not direct how to inspect a fire extinguisher or how to determine if the device is serviceable. The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) is an example of an agency that publishes consensus standards. Continuing with the fire extinguisher example, NFPA 10 (NFPA, 2018) addresses how to inspect a fire extinguisher and evaluate the condition, location of installation, signage, and determination of the proper type of extinguisher for expected use.

1.3   Best Management Practice Safety

There are numerous terms used to describe organizations that extend their practices in business and operations beyond minimal expectations. Best in class or best management practice have become terms used to describe organizations that set industry standards by practices put into place that exceed regulatory requirements. Benchmarking is a tool by which organizations can compare their performance, methods, or policies against other similar organizations.

Presently, there are six wastewater facilities in the United States that have met the requirements of the OSHA Voluntary Protection Program (VPP) and have received a star rating. This accomplishment is a goal for which management should strive. The average VPP worksite has a DART case rate that is 52% below the average for its industry (OSHA, n.d.).

International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 45001 is another set of guidelines to reference if an organization sets a safety management system goal for best in class. The ISO sets the guidelines for a management system but does not itself certify an agency. Certification of ISO 45001 is accomplished by a third-party auditing agency. ISO 14001 is also a family of standards that has jurisdiction in both safety and environmental management systems.

Both OSHA VPP and ISO certifications require a continued commitment of resources to maintain the safety program and the awarded status.

2.0   INTEGRATING SECURITY INTO HEALTH AND SAFETY

Integrating security into the duties of health and safety professionals creates unique challenges that are not unlike other challenges health and safety professionals have faced over the years. Many organizations struggle with incorporating health and safety into operations and, likewise, may struggle with security. Workplace health, safety, and security should not be thought of as programs outside of operations, but rather as integral to the everyday function of the organization and should be included within the management system in place. The overall organizational culture will affect the ability to successfully integrate security into the workplace. As with health and safety, management support must be present to allow for security programs and policies to be developed, implemented, and verified as effective in the field.

Security at wastewater treatment facilities has lagged behind the increase in security in the drinking water sector. This is attributed to a lack of regulatory guidance for wastewater facilities and a focus on the protection of drinking water and distribution systems. While water systems were required by congressional mandate to conduct vulnerability assessments following the terrorist attacks in the United States in 2001, wastewater facilities have only recently been evaluated to be included in congressional security initiatives (Copeland, 2010). More recently, America's Water Infrastructure Act 2018 has required the water sector to complete detailed risk and resilience assessments. These efforts address both malevolent and natural hazards. The American Water Works Association (AWWA) is encouraging wastewater systems to provide the same level of risk management, although it is not federally mandated to do so (U.S. EPA, n.d.).

3.0   SAFETY IN SMALL FACILITIES VERSUS LARGE FACILITIES

Classifying a facility as small, medium, or large operationally typically depends on flow, miles of pipeline, number of pumping or lift stations and, potentially, the number of employees at an organization. Often, the classification of a facility is subjective in terms of safety and not always related to the grading or classification of the system in relation to operations. For example, Grade A or Grade 4 facilities are the most complex wastewater treatment facilities in some states based on the population they serve or technology used in the treatment process. However, with regard to OSHA, the number of employees may determine the level of the complexity or the requirement of certain programs. In terms of health and safety, the challenges for small and large facilities are similar. While large facilities may have a greater frequency of certain activities that can increase their exposure to a specific hazard, that hazard should be no less of a concern for a small facility. Large facilities may have the advantage of multiple people with varied levels of experience identifying and addressing hazards, whereas a smaller facility could be limited in this factor. Additionally, cybersecurity threats exist for organizations of any size. While smaller organizations may have less technology that can be interfered with, they still need to adopt proactive measures, including good policies and procedures and awareness training for all employees. To address any safety issue, it must be identified and evaluated for appropriate mitigation. Chapter 3 of this manual (Identifying and Predicting Hazards ) illustrates methods that facilities can use to enhance their hazard identification and safety programs.

In addition to classifying an organization as large or small, there may be a difference if the agency belongs to the private or public sector. One of the largest differences in this area is not in the regulatory requirements of safety, but in the financial challenges each organization may face to comply with safety and health regulations. The same operational challenges for equipment in the facilities are often the same for safety and emergency response equipment. The life cycles of equipment in the public sector are typically prolonged. This increases maintenance and repair budgets as the requisition for new or replacement equipment is not submitted, which, in turn, creates situations where safety equipment is used past the operational life or manufacturer's recommendations. This situation is one that management must be prepared to address by putting proactive measures (such as policies and procedures) in place. The financial challenges of safety can be addressed with proper, frequent inspections to identify and project for future capital needs and equipment replacement. Many large organizations have asset management programs that project replacement of operations equipment. The same system can be applied to safety equipment and allow for planned expenses with regard to safety as opposed to reactionary purchases. Small organizations may face challenges with large capital purchases, but, again, with planning can avoid surprise expenditures related to safety equipment (Lotz & NyBlom, 2020).

4.0   EMERGING SAFETY CHALLENGES

Challenges facing the wastewater industry and its safety will include the continued issues of lone worker safety, specialized or unique equipment, and a culture shift in the makeup of the workforce.

Even as BLS projections show an increase in employment in the wastewater industry, more and more workers face working alone on a shift or at a location separated by miles from a main office or facility. Workers tasked with conducting maintenance activities in-house must use specialized equipment such as sewer cleaning machines, scissor lifts, boom trucks, and other pieces of heavy equipment. Finally, a generational change in culture is affecting worker demographics in the industry as more and more workers retire or transition from field to management positions. These are some examples of emerging challenges the wastewater industry is faced with today and will have to address in the next 10 to 20 years.

4.1   Lone Worker Safety and Geographically Separated Worksites

Working alone or with minimal coworkers present at the workplace presents unique challenges for safety. The following are some examples of events in which there would be only one or possibly two employees present in the workplace. Collecting samples from a waterway outside the facility fence line, checking operations of equipment at lift stations, or maintaining operations at a small package facility typically require no more than one operator to complete these tasks. A worker is called out at 1 a.m. to respond to a mechanical failure alarm at the reclamation facility. The weekend shift requires a cursory observation of facility operations and some laboratory analysis. The absence of another worker available to notice an injured worker or summon emergency help is the primary concern for lone-worker situations.

Additionally, the presence of more than one worker can change the scope of a task to be conducted. A lifting operation that would be at the limits of a single worker and a potential back injury risk can be reduced by the presence of another worker and the use of team lifting. Access the NIOSH lifting equation if uncertain of limitations in the working environment (CDC, n.d.). Environmental conditions such as weather can severely adversely affect the performance of a lone worker. For example, in cold climates lone workers are less likely to recognize the effects of hypothermia, and exposure to the elements may be longer because of the lack of a second set of hands to accomplish work in a shorter period of time. Lone workers are also more likely to be the subject of violence in the workplace.

The presence of additional workers also has a psychological effect on the behavior of an employee. Organizational culture will have an effect on the performance of lone workers in their decisions regarding safe work behaviors. Decisions made by individuals working alone should be no different than if another coworker or supervisor were watching. A lone worker will be exposed to many situations in which their personal safety culture may dictate the safety and level of risk they are willing to work under while alone on the jobsite. This is known as a safety value. A person or organization that values safety will have more consistent safe work performance compared to an organization that does not prioritize safe work practices. Safety must be integrated into management systems for it to be effective. For example, there may be only one employee on shift from midnight to 6 a.m., and the company has a policy that requires wearing a hard hat at all times throughout the facility. Does that worker follow the policy even in the absence of direct supervision? Recognition of hazards is one of the single most important aspects of preventing workplace injuries. The presence of only one set of eyes to see, recognize, and identify hazards can increase the risks to lone workers. Habits can increase situational awareness in the individual and reduce the potential for injuries or mishaps (Page-Bottorff, 2018).

Chapter 6 provides in-depth coverage of the safety challenges wastewater collection system operators and operators at facilities in remote locations may encounter. Although the wastewater industry is not unique in having lone workers, the frequency with which operators must perform hazardous tasks during normal operations while alone creates a greater risk for injury.

4.2   Use of Special-Purpose Vehicles

There are diverse mechanical and operational challenges in the wastewater industry. Indeed, workers in the wastewater industry are faced with unique safety challenges in the operation of sewer cleaning equipment, special-­purpose equipment such as high-reach lifts and mobile elevated work platforms, or heavy equipment with attachments. Chapter 7 addresses commercial driver's licensing and powered industrial trucks and forklifts. These pieces of equipment pose a challenge to employee safety in terms of general operation of the equipment, competency training of workers and, potentially, the inspection and recordkeeping requirements for special-purpose vehicles.

Infrequent equipment operation may also present a safety risk. If employees are not familiar with equipment operation, training may be required more frequently to maintain competency on special-purpose equipment. There are few formal training programs and information regarding training on specialized equipment, such as sewer cleaning equipment, available from OSHA or other regulatory agencies. As such, organizations should rely on manufacturers' information, request training on equipment both during delivery and initial use, and inquire about the availability of recurring training. Recurring training will be needed for new employees and also for experienced employees who have demonstrated a lack of knowledge or skills on the job.

One safety challenge is the availability of specialized equipment through an equipment rental company. As an example, it may not be cost effective for an organization to own a scissors lift for a maintenance activity that occurs only twice a year so it will rent the equipment on an as-needed basis. The equipment rental typically does not come with an equipment operator, and one of the organization's employees is assigned the task of operating the scissors lift. Has that employee been trained on operation of the equipment and on any specific hazards that may be encountered during the operation of this aerial lift? Are there local or state certification requirements for the operation of this piece of equipment? These are questions that must be answered before an employee is allowed to operate a piece of rental equipment.

4.3   Adapting to Culture Changes

The makeup and diversity of the workforce in the wastewater treatment industry is no different from the rest of the workforce in the United States or any other part of the world. Like other industries, the wastewater treatment industry has experienced an increase in the number of women and Hispanic workers in the field. Communication between workers speaking different languages can be a challenge for safety. Indeed, communicating hazards and protective methods and, in the event of an emergency, alerting workers to imminent danger are key to employee safety. Additionally, the wastewater treatment industry is challenged with societal influences, such as peer pressure and lack of mentorship. There are also physiological challenges associated with worker age or weight when performing a physically demanding job. These challenges constantly affect the industry's workforce and need to be considered when determining how to address health and safety in the workplace. Among these challenges is that older workers have a lower injury frequency than younger workers, but the severity of injuries among older workers is higher. Human factors in the workforce are now a holistic focus for practitioners as they approach cultural issues in both physiological and psychological workplace challenges (Carayon et al., 2018).

The aging workforce in the wastewater industry forces health and safety professionals to address issues such as obesity, which can complicate workplace injuries through increased risk of permanent disability following a workplace accident or the requirement of additional treatments. Costs associated with worker's compensation are generally higher, as illustrated in a National Council on Compensation Insurance study (Shuford & Restrepo, 2020). Workplace ergonomics is a key factor to consider when addressing the issues of older workers and, potentially, obese workers. Only through proper evaluation of the workplace and activities of workers can preventive controls be put into place.

Wastewater treatment industry technicians working during the 1970s witnessed changes in workplace safety with the creation of OSHA, as well as operational changes as the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency enforced the Clean Water Act and provisions such as operator certification and facility construction standards crossed over from being strictly water standards to application to wastewater operations. Today, many of the engineers, operators, and laboratory technicians that endured the challenges that change brings are ready to retire. As this group retires, the experience level in the wastewater industry will decrease, providing an opportunity for those who desire a career change and those who bring the enthusiasm of youth. The challenge will be to retain institutional knowledge of facility equipment and operations while adding new talent to the mix. Many workers joining the wastewater industry today are technologically savvy and come with a desire to learn methods and jobs that encourage use of these skills. This workforce shift will create challenges for health, safety, and security. The amount of risk that a worker is willing to accept is statistically higher in younger age groups and is illustrated by a higher injury rate among younger workers compared to older workers.

Methods for training health and safety subjects need to be relevant to the goals and objectives of training, and instruction techniques need to be applicable to the audience. For example, workers leaving the workplace may respond well to real-life examples as they have years of experience to draw upon; a new hire with limited practical experience will still need to be taught the why and the how to perform a task safely.

In addition to issues directly tied to the makeup of the workforce is a change in many organizational structures to include security in the risk management or safety area of responsibility. It is important that management recognize that the security of information, processes, and physical assets are integral to the safety and health of the workforce and the public. Both Chapters 11 and 12 will address this change in the culture of facility safety to include security as an aspect of daily operations. Chapter 11 outlines how to enhance coordination with outside agencies and the need to look beyond the fence line regarding support and interaction. Chapter 12 introduces security to the safety and health area and illustrates available risk evaluation methods and items that every facility should take into consideration regarding security. Table 1.2 provides a reference table of safety, health, and security issues and the organizations that address them. SARS-CoV-2 has changed the landscape of the wastewater treatment field in terms of health and safety for the worker. Chapter 8 discusses how to handle biological hazards, pandemic or not, and how these affect not only the climate but also the culture in the wastewater treatment field.

TABLE 1.2   Safety, Health, and Security Reference Table

5.0   REFERENCES

Carayon, P., Wooldridge, A., Hose, B. Z., Salwei, M., & Benneyan, J. (2018). Challenges and opportunities for improving patient safety through human factors and systems engineering. Health Affairs (Project Hope), 37(11), 1862–1869. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2018.0723

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (n.d.). NIOSH lifting equation app: NLE calc. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/ergonomics/nlecalc.html

Copeland, C. (2010). Terrorism and security issues facing the water infrastructure sector (Congressional Research Service 7-5700; RL32189). Congressional Research Service.

Lotz, T., & NyBlom, S. (2020). Conducting a risk management needs assessment. American Society of Safety Engineers Annual Conference, New Orleans, LA, Session No. 533 Abstract.

National Fire Protection Association. (2018). Standard for portable fire extinguishers (NFPA 10).

Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (n.d.). Voluntary protection programs. http://www.osha.gov/dcsp/vpp/all_about_vpp.html

Page-Bottorff, T. (2018, December 15). The habit of safety. https://safestart.com/articles/the-habit-of-safety/

Shuford, H. & Restrepo, T. (2020). How obesity increases the risk of disabling workplace injuries. National Council on Compensation Insurance. https://www.ncci.com/Articles/Pages/II_obesity_research_brief.pdf

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (n.d.). Injuries, illnesses, and fatalities. https://www.bls.gov/iif/

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). America's water infrastructure act: Risk assessments and emergency response plans. https://www.epa.gov/waterresilience/awia-section-2013

6.0   SUGGESTED READINGS

Morrison, K. (2011). Protecting the public worker. Safety & Health, 183 (2), 44–48.

U.S. Department of Labor. (2020). Voluntary protection programs. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. http://www.osha.gov/dcsp/vpp/all_about_vpp.html

2

Safety and Health Management Systems

1.0    DEVELOPING and IMPLEMENTING SAFETY AND HEALTH MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

1.1    Developing the Right System

1.2    Roles and Responsibilities

1.2.1    Management

1.2.2    Supervision

1.2.3    Field-Level Supervisors and Crew Leads

1.2.4    Employees

1.2.5    Accountability

1.3    Effective Safety Management Systems

1.3.1    Leading Versus Lagging Indicators

1.3.2    Identifying and Predicting Hazards

1.3.3    Facility Inspections

1.3.4    Safety Management System Audits

1.3.5    Recordkeeping and Documentation

1.3.6    Training

1.4    Incident Analysis

1.4.1    Importance of Training Before Incident Occurrence

1.4.2    Importance of Medical Case Management Following an Incident

1.4.3    Root Cause Analysis

2.0    WRITTEN PROGRAMS

2.1    Written Programs Required by Regulation

2.2    Written Programs Used to Establish Consistency of Safe Work Practices

3.0    BEHAVIOR-BASED SAFETY

3.1    Employee Involvement and Importance of Feedback

3.2    Incentive Programs

4.0    REFERENCES

1.0   DEVELOPING and IMPLEMENTING SAFETY AND