The Evolution of My Personal Theory of Learning

Laura Hembree Knighton AIL 601 The University of Alabama Fall 2010

Initial Personal Theory of Learning

My initial theory of learning attempted to explain the process of learning, including evidence of learning, learner needs and inputs, and the role of the instructor. In my initial theory, I stated, In order to show that learning has occurred, a learner should be able to explain the concept/knowledge gained. I believed, and still believe, that being able to explain something in ones own words is indicative that learning has occurred. I also noted that with certain topics, such as Math, there may not be a correct process for arriving at a solution; however, a learner should be able to explain his or her rationale behind the strategy utilized for solving a problem. In terms of learner needs and inputs, I stated that before learning could occur, certain basic conditions, such as those in Maslows Hierarchy of Needs, must be met. Furthermore, the learner may need intrinsic motivation or external incentives to be an active participant in the learning process. In addition, I referenced that in order to be successful, learners should be reflective, responsible, and maintain a value of knowledge and its potential applications. The instructors role played an integral part of my initial theory of learning. I described the role of the instructor as being one who designed and implemented appropriate learning experiences. Such experiences might include seeing, touching, manipulating, experimenting, etc. the concepts/materials in order to build a thorough understanding. I noted that merely stating information would not lead to meaningful learning for the student. Instead, I conveyed the notion that learning is often about experiences. I also implied that the instructor needed to be an active participant and adjust instruction based on student need and output. The Evolution of My Theory Theories of Learning and Instruction Prior to reading this chapter, I considered my beliefs about learning to be in line with those of the Constructivism (Social Psychology) school of thought. However, my thoughts

shifted when I read about Gestalt psychology and insightful learning. Driscoll (2005) described four features associated with insightful learning. These features included: trial and error leading to an abrupt, thorough understanding of a solution; performance of the solution with ease and perfection; retention of the solution; and application of the learning to other problems. Clearly this desirable type of learning advocates more than the memorization of facts. Since Gestalt psychology is in line with Cognitive psychology, I relabeled myself as a cognitivist. Learning can only be meaningful through internal thought processes, also known as cognition. I now view cognition as a precondition to constructivism. Radical Behaviorism According to Driscoll (2005), B.F. Skinner defined learning as a more or less permanent change in behavior that can be detected by observing an organism over a period of time. While I agree that learning can be ascertained through observation, I believe that Skinners view was a limited one as there are numerous ways to assess the occurrence of learning. However, I do have more confidence in Skinners views on reinforcement. According to his theory, when rewards are provided, a particular behavior is more likely to reoccur. Likewise, when consequences are applied, a behavior is less likely to reoccur. I view desirable behaviors as an integral part of learning. Therefore, positive and negative reinforcements can be applied to attain appropriate behavior, which is a precondition to learning. Skinners principles of behavior management, which include positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, reinforcement removal, and punishment, can be utilized by an instructor to create an effective learning environment and classroom management. Cognitive Information Processing The cognitive information processing theory provides pertinent information about the stages of information processing as related to the memory as well as effective techniques for

successful encoding. Information is first processed in the sensory memory. Therefore, instruction should appeal to the senses. Through attention to the information, the material is then transferred to the working memory. At this stage, techniques such as rehearsal and chunking are essential to retaining the information that will need to be effectively encoded and retained in the long-term memory. From this theory, it is clear that ones attention is a crucial factor in his or her learning. An effective instructor should facilitate appropriate strategies for encoding. These may include categorizing information, making connections, creating outlines and/or concept trees, mnemonics, mediation, visual and mental images, etc. Other important implications for instruction related to the cognitive information processing theory include organized instruction, extensive and varied practice, and developing learners self-regulation of learning (Driscoll, 2005). Meaningful Learning and Schema Theory Learners create meaning through their interpretations of their experiences. Cognitive operations are the driving force behind the meaning that is developed. Driscoll (2005) explained that rote learning, commonly called memorization, is what occurs when no connection was made to previously acquired knowledge. Thus, this type of learning has little meaning and therefore does not lend itself to application. Much of the meaningful learning theory is centered on the idea of knowledge being divided into hierarchies. When new knowledge is to be acquired, it should be linked to established cognitive structures, thus making the new learning meaningful and relevant. Therefore, the instructor should serve as a facilitator who provides meaningful materials that will aid the learner in making meaningful connections. The Schema Theory has similarities to the Meaningful Learning Theory. Schema is comprised of ones existing knowledge structures and experiences. When learning occurs,

schema plays a role in how the new knowledge is understood. Therefore, the activation of prior knowledge is a key component of effective teaching for meaningful learning. This will aid learners in making connections between already known information and that which is to be learned. Advanced organizers can be utilized as an instructional tool to assist learners in uncovering what they already know and the relevance of their prior knowledge to what they will be expected to learn. Such organizers positively impact the encoding process. Additionally, advance organizers provide insight for the instructor regarding the learners schemata. Sometimes schemata are incorrect and must be restructured based on the acquisition of new knowledge (Driscoll, 2005). Situated Cognition Situated cognition implies that knowledge is created through activity, particularly through what Driscoll (2005) calls the lived practices of the people in a society. Thus, participating in communities of practice is a fundamental part of this theory. The learners engaged in this participation interpret knowledge through their experiences. Cognitive apprenticeships are a way for learners to participate in communities of practice. Such apprenticeships allow for authenticity and complexity of experience (Driscoll, 2005). The creation of a learning community is another instructional strategy utilized for situated cognition. This instructional method entails a teacher and students working in collaboration in order to reach the goals. Such goals are often established through both teacher and student input. Students have the opportunity to reflect on their own work in addition to receiving peer reviews, which can serve as valuable learning opportunities. Situated cognition also offers three methods of assessment diagnosis, summary statistics, and portfolios. Diagnosis assessment is similar to formative assessment. It is constant and ongoing. Through diagnosis, teachers can adjust and tailor instruction based on the needs

and progress of the students. Summary statistics are a record of patterns in the learners performance over a period of time. This assessment type provides insight for the instructor in determining which students have met the desired objectives and which students are not making adequate progress and may require remediation. A portfolio is a collection of student work. Students are often tasked with selecting the work for their portfolios based on criteria set by the teacher. Additionally, students often keep a journal in association with their portfolio, which serves as a self-evaluation of learning (Driscoll, 2005). Constructivism Constructivism assumes that the learner constructs knowledge. It has roots in cognitive and development perspectives. This theory maintains that as learners seek to make sense of their experiences, they construct their knowledge. The constructivist theory has well-defined learning goals, which include: reasoning, critical thinking, understanding and application of knowledge, learner self-regulation, and reflection. Additionally, the constructivist theory has distinct conditions for learning. Learning should occur within settings that are multifaceted, realistic, and meaningful. Social negotiation, or cooperative learning, is a key element in learning. Furthermore, information should be conveyed through multiple modes of representation, as each different mode allows for different aspects of knowledge to be viewed and constructed by the learner. The constructivist theory advocates that learners should be encouraged to take ownership in the learning process, thus promoting the development of autonomous thinkers. Finally, instructors should facilitate the self-awareness of the process by which knowledge is constructed. This is often referred to as metacognition (Driscoll, 2005). Cognitive and Knowledge Development Piaget defined three distinct types of knowledge physical knowledge, logicalmathematical knowledge, and social knowledge. Physical knowledge is knowledge about

objects in the world. This knowledge is acquired through seeing and handling the objects. Meanwhile, logical-mathematical knowledge is of an abstract nature and is created from actions. This type of knowledge includes topics such as number, order, time, speed, etc. Finally, social knowledge comes from people, such as interactions with others. This knowledge base includes language, rules, values, etc. Learners will create their knowledge based on interactions with objects, the world, and other people. The instructor should provide a learning environment that promotes activity and interactions among peers. Questioning is an instructional technique that can be utilized to help students understand any inconsistencies in their thinking and restructure their cognitive structures based on misconceptions (Driscoll, 2005). Interactional Theories of Cognitive Development Jerome Bruner and Lev Vygotsky were the prominent theorists associated with interactional theories of cognitive development. Bruner cited three modes of the representation of knowledge and understanding enactive, iconic, and symbolic. Enactive representation is shown through motor responses. Meanwhile, iconic representation involves summarizing through images. Symbolic representation entails a symbol system, such as language, that can be used to convey understanding. Vygotskys work focused on development. He is well known for developing a theory known as the zone of proximal development. This is the level at which there is potential for development if the guidance of an instructor or capable peer is provided. Scaffolding is associated with the zone of proximal development. Vygotsky advocated that instructors should aim to guide students to new stages in their development instead of structuring instruction based on those developmental levels which have already been reached (Driscoll, 2005). Motivation and Self-Regulation

Motivation and self-regulation are key facets of learning. Often the instructor has to initiate this process by utilizing strategies that gain and maintain attention. Additionally, instructors may have to help develop students self-efficacy if such self-belief has not already been developed. Students need confidence in order to achieve success in learning. According to Driscoll (2005), self-regulation involves the learner setting goals, monitoring those goals, and controlling cognitive processes, motivation, and behavior accordingly. Self-regulation has been shown to improve learners future uses of strategies (Driscoll, 2005). Gagnes Theory of Instruction Gagnes theory of instruction contains a series of nine instructional events. The first event entails the instructor gaining the attention of the learners. The instructor then informs the learners of the objective. Next, the learners background knowledge is activated through the recall of previously learned skills and information. New content is then presented. The instructor provides learned guidance. Next, learners perform the new skill. Appropriate feedback is provided for the learners based on their performance. After proper practice and feedback, performance is assessed. Finally, through varied practice and ongoing review, the new knowledge and skills are retained and transferred to new situations. Final Personal Theory of Learning Learning is a multifaceted concept in which both the instructor and the learner play mutually important roles. An instructor begins the process by establishing classroom management and developing an optimal learning environment. Additionally, the instructor should convey respect for the students and a sense of belief in the students abilities. This will serve to help establish self-efficacy in the learners. An effective instructor should also plan organized, systematic instruction that is engaging and rich in experience. Learning activities should allow for the activation of background knowledge, provide ample practice, and multiple

modes of representation. Appropriate feedback should always be provided to students regarding their performance. Teachers should assist their students in making connections among previously learned and new concepts and skills. Additionally, instructors should facilitate students in their development of strategies that will aid in successful encoding of new material. An instructor should strive to teach students to be metacognitively aware of the learning process. Furthermore, an instructor should aim to lead learners beyond their current levels to the next level of development, which can be achieved through questioning, high expectations, appropriately challenging learning activities, and scaffolding students in their current zones of proximal development. An instructor must endeavor to know the learners and structure a variety of learning activities tailored to meet the needs of a diverse group of learners. Instructors should assess learning often through observation and other formative measures, as well as through summative measures such as summary statistics, portfolios, etc. Learners must also be active participants in the learning process. To be successful, learners should maintain a high level of motivation and give sufficient attention to learning activities. Additionally, learners will need a sense of self-efficacy to ensure their success. Learners should utilize their prior knowledge to think critically and make connections among concepts. It is also beneficial for learners to develop their own learning goals and self-regulate the process of reaching those goals. This can be achieved when learners are motivated, reflective, and utilize metacognition. Learners also need to be willing to collaborate with their peers and their teachers to assess the consistency of their cognitive structures and reach new levels of understanding. Learners should be able to represent their knowledge and understandings through imagery, actions, and explanations.

Reference Driscoll, M. (2005). Psychology of Learning for Instruction. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.