CHAPTER 1

Contents

Position and Direction on the Earth's Surface

Navigation is the process of planning and carrying out the movement of transport of all kinds from one place to another at sea, in the air, on land or in space. The navigation of ships and all waterborne craft is called marine navigation to distinguish it from navigation in other surroundings, and it is marine navigation that is dealt with in this book and its companion volumes, which together comprise a new edition of the Admiralty Manual of Navigation. The last thirty years have seen great advances in navigational techniques. Man has landed on the moon. Spacecraft are exploring the outer regions of the solar system. The new techniques developed for space navigation have benefited marine navigation: detailed study of the first satellites in orbit around the Earth has led to the development of a world-wide navigation satellite system which can tell a ship's navigator his position with an accuracy of a few hundred metres. Automated computer-assisted navigational systems enable the navigator to maintain a continuous and accurate track and to avoid collisions. Hand-held calculators and desk-top computers enable him to reckon courses and distances around the globe with great precision, taking into account the true shape of the Earth. The principles of marine navigation remain unchanged by new techniques; therefore the treatment of the subject in this manual has been designed to re-state the principles while reflecting the latest methods. Volume I deals with the essentials of marine navigation - position and direction on the Earth's surface, map projections, charts and publications, chartwork, tides, coastal navigation and pilotage. Summaries of plane and spherical trigonometry, proofs of formulae, etc. may be found in the appendices at the back of the book. This opening chapter introduces the basic terms dealing with position and direction on the Earth's surface.

POSITION ON THE EARTH'S SURFACE

The Earth The Earth is not a perfect sphere; it is slightly flattened, the smaller diameter being about 24 miles less than the larger. The Earth's shape is known as an oblate spheroid (Fig. 1-1) with greatest (a) and least (b) radii of approximately 3444 and 3432 international nautical miles. The Earth turns about its shortest diameter PPh called the axis, the extremities of which are called the poles. An oblate spheroid is a figure traced out by the revolution of a semi-ellipse such as PWP], in Fig. 11, about its minor axis PPj. The successive positions of PWPj are called meridians. The meridian passing through Greenwich is called the prime meridian. The circle traced out by W is called the equator. The Earth revolves about its axis PP/ in the direction shown by the arrow. The direction of revolution is called east, the opposite direction west. The North Pole is on the left and the South Pole on the right of the observer facing east.

Latitude and longitude

A position on the Earth's surface is expressed by reference to the plane of the equator and the plane of the prime meridian. The latitude of a place (also called the geodetic, geographical or true latitude) is the angle which the perpendicular to the Earth's surface at the place makes with the plane of the equator. It is measured from 0 to 90 north or south of the equator. Fig. 12 shows a meridional section of the spheroid. The latitude of point M is the angle MLE (</>), where L is the point of intersection of the perpendicular to the Earth's surface at M and the plane of the equator OE. Planes parallel to the plane of the equator joining all places of the same latitude are known as parallels of latitude. They are also known as small circles.

The longitude of a place is the angle between the plane of the prime (Greenwich) meridian and the meridian of the place measured from 0 to 180 east or west of Greenwich (Fig. 1-3).

In Fig. 1-3 the longitude of F is the arc AB = angle AOB (east). The position of a place may therefore be expressed in latitude and longitude. For example, the Central Signal Station Flagstaff, Portsmouth Dockyard, is in latitude 50 degrees 47 minutes 57 seconds north of the equator and in longitude 1 degree 6 minutes 32 seconds west of Greenwich. The position may be recorded as follows: 5047'57"N or 106'32"W 106'.53W 5047'.95N or 1. 10889 + 50.79917

The third method of recording shown above is for use in a calculator, +ve signs being used for N latitudes and E longitudes, ve signs for S latitudes and W longitudes.

Difference of latitude, longitude

The difference of latitude (d.lat) between two places is the arc of the meridian between the two parallels of latitude. When a ship is proceeding from one place to another, d.lat is named north or south according to whether the parallel of the destination is north or south of the parallel of the place of departure. In Fig. 1-4 the d.lat between F and Tis the same as the d.lat between G and T, where GF is the parallel of latitude through F. d.lat from F to T = angle GDT (south) = lat F - lat T

Fig. 1-4. d.lat The difference of longitude (d.long) between two places is the smaller arc of the equator between their meridians. When a ship is proceeding from one place to another, d.long is named east or west according to whether the meridian of the destination is east or west of the meridian of the place of departure. In Fig. 1-5 the d.long from FtoT= arc BA = angle BOA (west) = angle FPT (the angle at the pole between the meridians of the two places).

POSITION ON THE EARTH'S SURFACE

Calculation of d.lat and d.long

The rule for finding the d.lat and the d.long is as follows:
Same names: Subtract Opposite names: Add

If, when using this rule, the sum of the longitudes exceeds 180, this sum is subtracted from 360 to find the smaller angle and the name is reversed. EXAMPLES Find the d.lat and d.long between: 1. Portsmouth (F): (5048'N, 107'W) and New York (T): (4040'N, 7400'W). 2. Malta (F): (3553'N, 1431'E) and Gibraltar (T): (3607'N, 521'W). 3. Sydney (F): (3352'S, 15113'E) and Honolulu (T): (2118'N, 15752'W). 1. \atF 5048'N lat T 4040'N d.lat 1008'S la t F 3 5 5 3 ' N lat T 3607'N d.lat 014'N latF3352'S lat T 2118'N d.lat 5510'N long F 107'W long T 7400'W d.long 7253'W long F 1431'E long T 521'W d.long 1952'W long F 15113'E long T 15752'W d.long 30905'W subtract from 360 _____ d.long 5055'E

2.

3.

The sea mile The sea mile is the length of one minute of arc (!') measured along the meridian in the latitude of the position. This is illustrated in Fig. 1-6. If M is the place on the Earth's surface and C the centre of curvature at M, and AMB is an arc of the meridian subtending an angle of 1' at C, then AMB is the length of the sea mile at M.

On Admiralty charts on the Mercator projection (see Chapter 4), the latitude graduations form a scale of sea miles.* Except on charts, where the symbol M is used, the sea mile is denoted by ', which is the symbol for a minute of arc. Thus, 10'.8 means 10.8 sea miles. The symbol is always placed before the decimal point.

The length of the sea mile The radius of curvature in the meridian increases as M moves from the equator to the pole; thus, the distance subtended by 1' of arc also increases. The length of the sea mile1^ is shortest at the equator (1842.9 m) and longest at the poles (1861.7 m), with a mean value of 1852.3 m at 45 latitude. Its length is tabulated in Spheroidal Tables (NP 240), published by the Hydrographer of the Navy. The formula for the length of 1' of arc is given in Chapter 3 and its derivation in Appendix 5.
* It is a common but mistaken practice for mariners to refer to a sea mile as a nautical mile. The British Standard Nautical Mile was discarded in 1970. ^ For the International (1924) Spheroid, see Chapter 3.

One-tenth of a sea mile is known as a cable, which varies between 184.3 m and 186.2 m according to latitude. A cable approximates to 200 yards, a convenient measure frequently used at sea for navigational purposes.

The geographical mile

The geographical mile is the length of 1' of arc measured along the equator (i.e. 1' of longitude). As the equator is a circle the length of the geographical mile is the same at all parts of the equator and is equal to (a sin 1' of arc), where a is the radius of the equator. For the International (1924) Spheroid, its value is 1855.4m.

The international nautical mile

This is a standard fixed length of 1852 m. Its correct abbreviation is the term n mile. Distances given in the Admiralty Distance Tables and in Ocean Passages of the World are in international nautical miles.

The statute mile

The statute or land mile is the unit of distance of 1760 yards or 5280 feet (1609.3m).

The knot
In navigation, it is convenient to have a fixed or standard unit for measuring speed. This unit is one international nautical mile (1852 m) per hour and is called a knot, abbreviated to kn. In normal practice, the errors arising from using international nautical miles instead of sea miles are very small (less than 0.5%). Sometimes, however, it is necessary to determine the error and this is set out in Appendix 5.

Linear measurement of latitude and longitude

The linear latitude of a place is the length of the arc of the meridian between the equator and that place. It is measured in sea miles north or south of the equator. This is illustrated in Fig. 17. If point M is in latitude 60N, then: angle MLW = 60 = 60 X 60 minutes of arc = 3600' The linear latitude of M is 3600 sea miles north of the equator. If a place MI is situated 1800 sea miles south of the equator, its latitude is

1800' or30S.
The linear longitude of a place is the smaller arc of the equator between the prime meridian and the meridian of the place. Along the equator it is measured in geographical miles (see above) east or west of the prime meridian. This is illustrated in Fig. 1-8.

Fig. 18.

Linear measurement of longitude

If point B is 40E of the prime meridian PAPj, the angle AOB is 40, the arc AB of the equator is 40 = 40 X 60 = 2400 minutes of arc along the equator, i.e. 2400 geographical miles. It will be seen from Fig. 1-8 that the distance on the Earth's surface between any two meridians is greatest at the equator and diminishes until it is zero at

the poles, where all the meridians meet. The linear distance of a degree of longitude on the surface of the Earth varies approximately with the cosine of the latitude. (The error in assuming that the length of a degree of longitude varies directly with the cosine of the latitude lies between zero at the equator and 0.34% at latitude 89 for the International (1924) Spheroid.) The precise formulae for the length of 1' of latitude and 1' of longitude are given in Chapter 3. The Earth as a sphere Although the shape of the Earth is that of an oblate spheroid, for most purposes of navigation it may be assumed to be a sphere, with radius equal to the mean of the greatest and least radii and measuring approximately 3440 international nautical miles.* A sphere is the figure formed by rotating a semi-circle about its diameter. Any plane through the centre of the sphere cuts the surface in what is known as a great circle. Any plane which cuts the surface of the sphere, but does not pass through the centre, is called a small circle (Fig. 1-9). Thus, when the Earth is regarded as a sphere, meridians of longitude become semi-great circles joining (but not passing through) the poles cutting the equator at right angles. The equator is a great circle but all other parallels of latitude are small circles.

* This figure is taken from the International (1924) Spheroid, which has mean radius

The great circle is important in navigation because it gives the shortest distance between two points. It is also the path taken by an electro-magnetic radiation near the Earth's surface (radio, radar, light, etc.). Using the mean radius for the sphere derived from the International (1924) Spheroid, the length of 1' of arc on the meridian or on the equator equals 1853.3 m. This distance approximates very closely to the length of the international nautical mile of 1852 m. The Earth may therefore be treated, without appreciable error, as a sphere where 1' of latitude is considered equal to 1 n mile anywhere on the surface. (The errors introduced by assuming a spherical Earth based on the international nautical mile are not more than 0.5% for latitude, 0.2% for longitude.) On the equator 1' of arc of longitude also equals one n mile. This means that linear latitude and linear longitude may now be measured in the same units, n miles.

DIRECTION ON THE EARTH'S SURFACE

True direction The true direction between two points on the Earth's surface is given by the great circle between them; it is expressed in terms of the angle between the meridian and the great circle (angle PFTin Fig. l-10(a)). True north True north is the northerly direction of the meridian and is the reference from which true bearings and courses are measured. True bearing The true bearing of an object is the angle between the meridian and the direction of the object. In Figs 1-10 and 1-11 the true bearing of T from F is given by the angle PFT, where PF is the meridian through F and FT is the great circle joining F to T. PFT is measured clockwise from 000 to 360. In Fig. 1-10 T bears 030 from F: in Fig. 1-11 T bears 330 from F. Over short distances the great circle may be drawn as a straight line without appreciable error, as in Figs l-10(b) and 1-1 l(b). The error varies with the latitude and the bearing. Position of close objects It is often convenient to indicate the position of an object by its bearing and distance from a known or key position, rather than by latitude and longitude. A shoal, for example, might be described as being 239, 7 miles from a certain lighthouse. True course True course is the direction along the Earth's surface in which the ship is being steered (or intended to be steered). It is measured by the angle between the meridian through the ship's position and the fore-and-aft line, clockwise from 000 to 360.

TRUE NORTH

TRUE NORTH

True course is not to be confused with heading (or ship's head], which is the instantaneous direction of the ship and is thus a constantly changing value if the ship yaws across the course due to the effect of wind, sea and steering errors.

The compass The navigational compass is an instrument which provides the datum from which courses and bearings may be measured. There are two principal types of compassthe gyro-compass and the magnetic compass. (These instruments are described in detail in Volume III.) The general principles of the two types of compass are set out below with an explanation as to how true courses and bearings may be obtained from them. The gyro-compass This instrument is a rapidly spinning wheel or gyroscope, the axis of which is made to point along the meridian towards true north. Courses and bearings which are measured using a gyro-compass are true provided there is no error in the compass, and are measured clockwise from 000 to 360.
Error of the gyro-compass

For a number of reasons the gyro-compass will not always point exactly towards true north. Any error must be known before the compass may be used as an accurate reference. Details of how the error may be found are given in Chapter 9. The degree of accuracy of gyro-compasses used in the Royal Navy is such that the maximum error is of the order of 5 at the equator and 1 at latitude 60. However, in a number of commercial compasses the error may exceed this by one or two degrees.

If the gyro bearing of an object is 077, while its true bearing is known to be 075, then it can be seen from Fig. I-12(a) that the gyro is reading 2 high; similarly, if the gyro bearing is 073, as in Fig. l-12(b), the gyro is reading 2 low. In order to obtain the true bearing, a gyro error high must be subtracted from the gyro bearing, and a gyro error low must be added to the gyro bearing. The

suffixes G or T may be used to denote Gyro or True courses and bearings respectively. The magnetic compass This instrument may be considered as a bar magnet freely suspended in the horizontal plane and acted upon by the Earth's magnetic field and the magnetic properties of the ship. The Earth may be considered as a gigantic magnet. Magnetic lines of force emanate from a position near King George V Land in Antarctica known as the South Magnetic Pole. These lines of force follow approximate semi-great circle paths to the North Magnetic Pole, north of Bathurst Island in the Canadian Arctic. These magnetic poles are not stationary but are continually moving over a largely unknown path in a cycle of some hundreds of years. The magnetic meridian A freely suspended magnetic compass needle acted upon by the Earth's magnetic field alone will lie in the vertical plane containing the line of total force of the Earth's magnetic field. This vertical plane is known as the magnetic meridian. Magnetic meridians, however, do not necessarily point towards the magnetic poles because the Earth's magnetic field is irregular. In addition, the magnetic poles are not 180 apart; thus, it is rare for the magnetic needle to point towards the magnetic pole. Magnetic north Magnetic north is the name given to the direction in which the 'north' end of a magnetic needle, suspended so as to remain horizontal, would point when subject only to the influence of the Earth's magnetism. It is the northerly direction of the magnetic meridian. Variation Variation is the angle between the geographic (true) and magnetic meridians at any place. It is measured east or west from true north; in Fig. 1-13 the variation at F is 20 west. Variation has different values at different places and is gradually changing. Its value at any place may be found from the chart which gives the variation for a certain year together with a note of the annual change. The navigator must always allow for this annual change. Variation may also be obtained from special isogonic charts on which all places of equal variation are joined by isogonic lines and known as isogonals (not to be confused with magnetic meridians, which are lines offeree). Deviation, compass north If a magnetic compass is put in a ship, the presence of iron, steel or electrical equipment will cause the magnetic compass to deviate from the magnetic meridian. The angle between the magnetic meridian (magnetic north) and the direction in which the needle points (compass north) is called the deviation. It is measured east or west from magnetic north. The magnetic field of the ship changes direction and amount, in part, as the

ship alters course. Consequently the deviation is different for different compass courses. I n p r a c t i c e , t h e deviation in a ship's magnetic compass is reduced to a minimum by the use of permanent magnets and soft-iron correctors. The residual deviation is found by swinging the ship through 360 and tabulating that residual deviation for the various compass headings. (Both these procedures are explained in detail in Volume III.) The residual deviation may be tabulated as in Table 1-1. Table 1-1. Deviation table*
BEARING OF DI COMPASS HEADING MAGNETIC (FROM CHART) 236M 5TANT OBJECT COMPASS (OBSERVED) DEVIATION

(000 )

NNE (022f) NE (045 ) ENE (067f) E (090 ) ESE (1122) SE (135 ) SSE (157f) S (180 ) SSW (202F) SW (225 ) WSW (247i) W (270 ) WNW (292i) NW (315 ) NNW (337f)

236M 236M 236M 236M 236M 236M 236M 236M 236M 236M 236M 236M 236M 236M 236M

237FC 237|C 237fC 237iC 237 C 236iC 235iC 235 C 234iC 234 C 234 C 234fC 234|C 235iC 236 C 237 C

liW

ifw ifw
IfW 1 W iW iE 1 E IfE 2 E 2 E IfE UE |E NIL 1 W

* The standard forms used in the Royal Navy to record deviation (S374A, Record of Observations for Deviation, and S387, Table of Deviation) are tabulated every 22| to facilitate the calculation of the various compass coefficients (see Volume III). Intervals of 10 or 20 may be used if so desired.

It may also be shown in the form of a curve where deviation is plotted against the compass heading. This is shown in Fig. 1-14.

Intermediate values for deviation may be found by interpolation from the tables or inspection of the curve. For example, the deviation for 260 compass heading may be found to be 1JE.

Magnetic and compass courses and bearings Magnetic courses and bearings are measured clockwise from 000 to 360 from magnetic north (the magnetic meridian) and are given the suffix M, e.g. 075M. They differ from true courses and bearings by the variation. This is illustrated in Fig. 1-15.

Fig. 1-15.

Magnetic courses and bearings

The magnetic bearing of T from F (angle MFT) is 085M, while the true bearing of T from F (angle PFT) is 065. The difference is the variation, 20W. Compass courses and bearings are measured clockwise from 000 to 360 from compass north, and are given the suffix C, e.g. 195C. They differ from true courses and bearings by the amount of variation for the place and the deviation for the compass heading. This is illustrated in Fig. 1-16. The compass bearing of T from F (angle CFT) is 055C, whereas the magnetic bearing (angle MFT) is 065M and the true bearing (angle PFT) is 045. Angle MFC is the deviation, 10E, angle PFM is the variation, 20W.

Graduation of older magnetic compass cards There may still be some older magnetic compass cards* at sea which are divided into four quadrants of 90, the angles being measured from north and south to east and west. For example, the bearing 137M would be shown as S43E.
* Even older cards may still be found which are divided into four quadrants by the cardinal points, north, east, south, west. Each quadrant is divided into eight equal parts, the division marks being called points: each point has a distinctive namenorth, north by east, north north east and so on. There are 32 points in the whole card.

Practical application of compass errors All charts have what are known as compass roses printed on them. When there are two concentric rings, the outer ring represents the true compass and the inner the magnetic compass, as shown in Fig. 1-17. Some small-scale charts have only the true compass rose; others also have an indication of the amount of magnetic variation. On the northsouth line of the magnetic rose is written the variation, the year for which it is correct, and its rate of change. Before he can use this magnetic rose for laying off the compass bearing or the compass course, the navigator must apply both the deviation and the change in variation. Conversion of magnetic and compass courses and bearings to true The following rule should be applied for the conversion of magnetic or compass courses and bearings to true: Easterly variation and deviation are added or applied clockwise. Westerly variation and deviation are subtracted or applied anti-clockwise. This rule may be memorised by the mnemonic CADET: C AD E T Compass Add East True i.e. when concerting from compass to true, add east, subtract west and vice versa. An alternative mnemonic which may be used is: Error West, Compass Best. Error East, Compass Least.

Fig. I17.

Compass rose printed on Admiralty charts

Remember that, as explained earlier, variation is the difference between true and magnetic, while deviation is the difference between magnetic and compass, i.e. True Variation = Magnetic + Deviation = Compass There are two methods available for laying off the compass course or bearing.
Method 1

Deviation (for the compass course steered) and variation (corrected to date) are applied to the compass course or bearing in accordance with the above rule to

obtain the true course or bearing. The parallel ruler is then placed at the true reading on the true rose.
Method 2

The parallel ruler is placed on the given compass bearing or course on the magnetic rose. It is then slewed through a small angle in accordance with the above rule to allow for: 1. The change in variation to bring it up to date. 2. The deviation for the compass course being steered. The algebraic sum ( + ve for east, ve for west) of the deviation and the change in variation is called the rose correction. These two methods are illustrated by the following example. EXAMPLE
A ship is steering 260C. Variation from the chart was 12W in 1982, decreasing 10' annually. The compass bearing of an object is 043C. Using the deviation from Fig. 1-14, what is the true course and how would the bearing be plotted using the above two methods? The year is 1985.

Plotting the bearing Method 1

For any particular compass heading, it will be evident that the combined effect of deviation and variation may be applied as a total error correction. In this case, total error correction = + l2E 1 l2W = 10W. To convert to true while on heading 260C, all compass bearings should be reduced by 10. The application of compass error in one step avoids a very common mistake, that of taking out the deviation for the compass bearing of the object instead of the compass course of the ship.

Method 2

Place the parallel rule on the magnetic rose in the direction 043M. Slew through a total rose correction of +2 clockwise (i clockwise to allow for the easterly change of variation and l2 clockwise to allow for the easterly deviation). Plot the bearing on the magnetic rose, 045M. As magnetic north on the compass rose is offset 12 to the west (see Fig. 1-17), it will be immediately apparent that 045M is the same as 033T, the true bearing.

To find the compass course from the true course The mnemonic CADET is used in the reverse direction, i.e.
True to compass, add west, subtract east There is, however, a small complication. Before the navigator can find his compass course he must know the deviation, but he cannot find his deviation until he knows his compass course. He therefore enters the deviation table with the magnetic course in lieu of compass course and, particularly if the deviation is large, makes a second calculation to get the exact deviation. For example: True course Variation Approx. compass course 260 + 10 W 268fC

If the navigator enters the deviation table with this approximate course of 268fC, he will see that the correct deviation to use is nearer 1|E than l5E, giving a revised compass course of268iC.

Checking the deviation If a compass bearing is taken of an object which has a known true bearing and if the variation is also known, then the deviation may be found and compared with that obtained from the deviation table. The various methods of checking the deviation are given in Chapter 9. In practice within the Royal Navy, the deviation of a magnetic compass providing the primary means of navigation should remain within 2 of the residual deviation obtained at the time of the swing over a period of several months, whilst that for a magnetic compass providing a secondary means of navigating (or a primary means of steering) should remain within 5 over a similar period.
EXAMPLE
By calculation, the sun's true bearing is 230, the compass bearing is 235C, variation 12W. What is the deviation?

Clearly deviation is -7 and since, true to compass, east is subtracted, the devation is 7E.

Relative bearings The line of reference is the fore-and-aft line of the ship, i.e. the ship's course. Bearings are relative to this line and are measured from the bow from 0 to 180 on each side. Starboard bearings are Green, port bearings are Red.

Fig. 1-18.

Relative bearings

Relative bearings may also be measured clockwise from 000 to 360 from the fore-and-aft line of the ship and are given the suffix Rel, e.g. 135 Rel. In Fig. 1-18 the bearing ofZis Green 30 (030 Rel), that of YRed 140 (220 Rel). If the ship is steering 045, the true bearing of X is 075, and of Y 265. Alternatively, X could be said to be 30 on the starboard bow, Y 40 on the port quarter.
The expressions on the bow, on the beam, and on the quarter without any specified number of degrees or points mean respectively 45 (4 points), 90 (8 points), 135 (12 points) from ship's head.