SEISMOLOCY AND THE EARTH'S INTTRIOR

413

:=:'i lvithin a percent or so. As more complete =: more precisedaia become available,these ::,:, es should become more accuratc, perhaps i:day convergjng give us a perfectmodel of to :: feal Earth. But what can we say now about the

armposition, Structur, dd Stateof ihe Interior .=-ocity and density models are important mainl,v := a meansto an endi the ultimate goal is to under::rd the composiiion, structure, and siate of the :rih's interior. Laboralory experimentsmake the on ::nnection betweenseismology the one hand = d petrology and geochemistry on the other. :::!h-pressure equipment and shock waves gener in are ,:ed by explosives used,as described Box 1: 2. io learn how velocity and density would , i , ' . ' i d H e r e n r o ,k s .p r r h p r r r h ps o l i do r i n a molten state, and eithcr near the surface :artially r in ihe deep interior. With this informalion the :arth model shown in Figure 17-33 can be interlreted to give information about the materials :l1d their state. The majof divisions, crust, mantle. and core ,Fig. 17 3o),were discoveredfrom the analysis of reflected and reftacted P and S waves and have been known for more than 60 years. The boundary betwen the ffust and th mantle is called the Mohorovieit discontinuity (M, or Moho, for short) after the Yugoslavian seismologist who discov efed it in :1909.It separates rocks in which P waves have velocities of about 6 to 7 kilometers per second (3.8 to 4.4 miles per second) from underlying mantle rocks, in which P waves have a (5 per velocityof about8 kilometers second mjles per second). Thc ficld methodof measuring these velocities describcd Box 17 3. From geologiis in cal sampling to find all possible crustal and mantle materials and from labofatory measurements of th properiies of ihese materials, we have larned to associateP- 7avevelocities wiih composition, as indicated in Table 17 3. We conclude from these measuremnts that the continental

Tli lithosphere is topped by a relatively lightlveighi

Lr,-1. \Fis r o o8y rF\edls llo lhFca'q v"rip"i1

it ihicker undd con thicknessi is thin under o0eans, tinents,and thickestunder high mountains.

Table:17-3 Corres!ondence beh{eencomposition and P a'ave velo.jty in igneous rocks

crust consists mosily of granitic rocks, with gabbro appearing near the bottom and that no granite occurs on th floor of the deep ocean,the crust there being entirely basalt and gabbro. The mantle below the M discontinuity is almost criain to be primarily the denseuliramafic rock peridotite. The crust is a distillate of the mantle and therefore differs chemically from its parnt. In this sense,the Moho is a chemical boundary locatedby seismicwaves. are Nowadays seismologists excited by the flner ihe variations within the crust, mantle, details, a n o r o r e T h p \ a r i e l i o ni n c r u . l a l. h . , l r e . s t n o section like the one shown in Figure 17-34 is one o I l h F n o r . : m p o n J n l r e p n Ls p i q r o0 3 . . 1 1 F sults.The thicknessof the crust varis from about 35 kilometers to 10 kilometers in a section extending from continent io ocean.Under a high mouniain the crust thickens to as much as 65 kilometo ters. lf Figure:17-34 suggests you that the continental crust floats on ihe denser mantle like an icebergon ih ocean.you have made a good obsen ation. lcebergs float becausethey are less dense than sea i\7atriflotation comes from the large volume of ice below the sea surface. When Archimedes principle of buoyanqv is applied to the {lotation of coniinents and mountains, it becomes th principle of isostasy,which holds that the relatively lighi continents float on a more dense mantlei most of a coniinent's volume lies below sea level for the same reason that most of an iceberg lies below the ocan surface. Nature has contrived that large topographic loads such as mountains and continents are compensoted-that is, supported primarily by buoyancy rather than by the strength of the crust. Rocks, which we know to be solid and strong over the short term (secondsor years), are, over ihe long term (thousands io millions of yea(s),weak and flow like a viscousfluidwhen loaded. When coniinenis grow or mountains are pushed up. a supporting root

TER\ALTROCEssEs

!l ?.,* i.

5r
ai

as of change ihe! passthroughmaterials different lastic propcltics.Thc !,ibration frequencies oi thc Eurth d,"pend the \.elocjties theser ,aves on of as r\/ll as on the densiiy of difiernt parts of th intrior,just as thc tonc ot a bll dependson its lasticityand densjty.Oncc all lh-"scisnlological data are accunulated,the ncxt stcp is to find Earth modcls whosc P rva!'c and S $'ave vclocities and internal dnsitis afe collsistent1\,ith the \o \' 3'I - in\ rr. rJoL.Frn. .,1 'lol "\ is mathematicians.is somthing like bing told that a driver madc a trip from Los Angelesto San Francisco in scven hours, ln bad 1\,'eatherux a Mondav, and h,,,ing make a bstgussof the to rouie he took. Thc mathematics this proccss of cannotb explainedhcrc. but thc tcchnioLres arc por.--" ul nough to allorv us to make a bsl cstimaie ol an Eafth model. A plot of inlernal dcnsitjcsand P and S-lvave vclocitics the Earih is given in Figure17-33. fo. It is qujtc ljkcly that thescu Jes represent r-aal th

s !.ro!!-

!erl r LkTl

E s t i m a t e f t h e v a r i a l i o ni n d e n s l t yo . d i n P o a n d S $ ' a ! c v c l o c i t i e sn t h e E a . L h n ! . l l e a n d i s . o r c U n c e r t a i D t ys p , o b a b l t :o D l ! a l e N p o c c n t o l i t h e r c l u . r l l a l u e . [ P r e ! a r e dL ] . A . I 4 D z l e s o n l k i a r d o D . L A n d . r s o n l o r t h e S i a n d a r dE a r t h C o m m i t t e e l ! t h c l i l l e f D a t i o n dIl l n i o n o f G c o d e s .a n d G e o p h y s i ( ls

BOX17-2 HICH PRESSURE AND SHOCK EXPERIMENTS nven if we knew in dtail how dDsitJand scFmrc vc lociiies chrnge ilith depth in the Ea h 1!. \forld still i ! , r n 1t o i d e . t i f y t h e m r t r i a l sa n d d e s c . i b eh e i rp h l s i t . a l . o n d i l i o n s .T o d o t h i s w e r l s o n e e dl n l o f m a t i o no n t h e d e n s i t i e s l d i f t e r e n tm a l e r i a l sa n d i h e y e l o c i t i e s o a'ith which scjsnic Naves tfavcl through them !rder the hiSh p.essuresand ten !rfratures ihat cxist in thc i n l e f i o f . l a p l a n e l .- l ' b e! . e s s u . e a t t h e c e n t ro f t h e Earih is Dcarly 4 million iimes atmospheri. pfessure1 and tem!eralurcs thcrc raDgc to sclcral thousand degrees. LIslng a htdrrulic prss, geophysicists caD s q u e e z eo c k s i n t h e l a b o . a t o r yt o p r e s s u r e s l a b o r L t r o 100 kilob,rrs heat then to tempratures l about o 1 0 0 0 " Ca n d a L t h e s a m e r i n e n e i s u . e m ! n ! o l t h e i r . p r o p c r t i e s .I h i s f . o . e d u r e d r t l i . a t e s ( o . , l i i j o n s a t dcpths of about 300 kilorneiers. ,A. re.enl te.ini,;al brakthrolLgh now nakcs it !ossibl. to incrcasclalrofat o f y p r e s s u r e s o 1 7 m e g { b d r sa n d t e m p c r a t r L r e o t is 3000'C, conditions similar to thosc in thc Eaith s cofe. l h e " " x p e . i n e n li s s i m i l a . l o l h a l d e p i . l e di n L h e i g u r f ex.cpt thai a dianond anvjl is us.d. The sanple h s q u e e z e d e t l l e e n l n ' o . u t d i i r m o n d s D d h e a t e db y a a b l a s e rb e a m A n o r h e . e . h n i q u el o r . o m p r e s s i D g c k s m to lcry hish pressureshappens to bc th roy sam 'lr' 'FlLl || IIr88"r"g"'
o \!o\' J' o .'6

Thc Bridgman squeeze., a device lor subjccting mircrals to pressurcsol a f""w tens ol thousands ot atmoslhcrcs nd tentefal!fes ol sei'e.al undred a h dgrees. The low p.essure ol the h,tdraulic press ts amplified by .oncentrating the lotal forc on thc r ll "r' " o \" . u ,n o ; n 8 | dr\ . o Fi\. .1. 1 "r".r."i-r-",F.".\rr o D n e D t s e pi n t h e E a . t h . s, x u s l . d i h e r x i k , . a i s i n g i h e p r e s s u r e n d l e m p c r a t u f e so t h a t
li-: .r ,.. -, . I o a, d 6 i,. .i. .. o' .re.

d e p t h s T h e r o c k i s d . s t r o l e d i n r h e p j o o s sb u i D t h e . , f c w r n i l l i . D i h s o l a s e c o n db e l o r e i i f a l l s a p a r t . d a t a n e e d e dt o . a l . L l i r e L h ed c n s i t , ! , r . s s u r - " ,a r d s h o c k such as dynamit. is rvrapped around the rock. U/her ! .r,o l -" n .r,t-ri .,J1\' ri. the dynarnitc js detonatcd, thc shock Nalc squeezes " velocitics) ar. obtained electronicall-!from se.sol5 on
ts". ol r-p^ ofe.!re,..ntr ..oo66-

-Pressmis measuFdn almospheres tn), e i (a b a N ,o r p . ! n d s pd sqlaL. i h (p s i ). 1 arn = 1.0:L brrs = 1.r7 I].s i. ce.to h : i s l s l e n dt . u s b ! r , l i l . l a r s ( l ( r rb a d a n dn e g a b a B( r c N d r s )

rninc such lhings as strcngth, thefmal. electrical, and elasij. prcpertics at high pressu.esand lempcratures.

414

THE BODY OF 1'HE EARTH: h'TERNAL IRCCE5SES

BOi 17-3 SEISMOLOGICAL SOUNI)ING O! THE EARTH'S CRUST AND UPPER MANTLE scisnokJgists ha!'e del,cloped a fiekl !fo,;edrLrc r{i. r1erive a lin s,ilh slo!c 1/v, and nrrercept r: values of measurnrgrhe thickn-"ssof thc .r,st and the vetocity ot vr, vtr. and r obraind fronirhe sraph are usc.r ro .ial P wares iD Lhecrusl ..d at th. tof of ihc nanLte. SDla| culare ihe rhickness tron the fo;mura s e i s m o n e t c r s : r ep l a c e d o n t h c s u f l a , ; ej n a t h e e x T V'V t n d i n el s a l i l o n a t h o t t ) o t n r ' N h e r e a n e x p t o s i o n _ 'Ihe r./it1 is set ofl to gcnerateP 1va!es. Nales leavc ihe ex p l o s i o ni n a l l d i r e c t i o n s s o h e t r a l c l i n 8 a i o n gr h e s u l A stude.l lamiliar !'iLh trigonometr\, ard Snell's law fa.e, others al.ng the top ol the rnanlle,ds shorvr ,. rtrc might t.y deriliDg this sintle but impofiant equarion. uppe. figur. ,{ tfrvcl time .urve can h ptoted on Th. lower figure shl)r's scismj.,tr,avesrcorded ai a w h i . h e a c h p o i n l f e p r e s e n t s h e r r a v e l L i m e , c q u , r e o disiaD.e oJ 163 kilofteters from r an explosion oi TNT. t o f l h e w a v c s t . r a c h a s e i s m o m c r e rf.h e l t o i o f Tlic ira.,es arc recofded tuon six setsmonerersFlaccd \ { a ! . s t h a t t r a v e l a l o n g t h e s u . i r o i s a s t r r i g h t t j n e 1 0 0 e t c r sa p a r i .T h . w a v e st h a t h a v er r a v e l c d m rhrough t h . o u g ht h c . r i 8 i n o f t h e J a p h1 \ , i t hd s l o l c o l 1 / V , . l h e d u s t a n d n , r n t l ea r ei n d i c a t e d y p r a n d p " r e s p e , j b ] ' h e s l o p c o l t h e l i n . i s n e r n t r d r o o b L a i n t h c s p ej e d V o l P u a v e s i t 1 i h e c ( E t . T h e w d v e sr r a l e r s i n g h c r n ! n t

\l dp\. uo -cc to o o id" oro , ro\ l. " f " F I n ,\ . r d ( . p " . h . n F . \ o d d f . o m , n t , . ! Thereis one variaDr this gencrat to mcchanism. -. 1r ror some rcason tor exampl,regionalheat_ rng-pa ol lh uppcr mantlbecomes tcssoense thar ih adja.rent mantle, $.i11 ii atsoexertd buoy_ ,l o , " l a r , o i , r p ro r l - \ J ' . d t o p s d p , l , ho.". ri,hu r l-. F- u .r. " : . r \ ,r t , u o t sns,the loIver densih, mantlc sen,-"sas I roor. This mode of isostaric compDsation scemsto b operaling the Basir and Range in provinc(Utah. Arizona,Ne!'ada)of th UnireciStates. Th histr heat flo\\, in this regio. is c.rnsistentrv h th e_x_

planatior. Seismological studicsof crustatrhicknss haveprovidedquantitarive corroboration Ior the mechanism isoslasy. of Tn th years 1965to 1970, geologists ara geo ph\,sicists lhe ,orld ove. conc-"ntrated resafch cflorls irn the upper thousandkilometersof lhe Earih as part of the Intrmaiional Uppr Manrtl pfojecl.This concerted atack led to many excir ing discoveriesabout a rgion that had prevjoust_v Deen poorlv known. lrve can illusrrai the xnrfe importani of thcseby discussjng shcar-$rave the velocily modei.Accordingto rhis modet tlic lian_ tie is dividdon the basisof shiltsin velociiy inro

sE]SMOLOGYAND THE EANTH'SINIERIOR s s/a!e ve D.lv (km 3ecl

ll'..,::.:
'l..i-r:'.
;
: a00

lL|rcprrre

p ate $ d slrons

ll

y l 0 9 rp a r l i a n o I e n { e 3 k o 0 v e o . l y s . u r . eo l b a s a l l . n a g m : s. dN

l+ r a pd . c , . a s e i ]""*"u"-r,r d e n sl y 3 n C eo c i r o ! n e t s p j v

t
l S . d d e . s t y a n ov e . . l y n . r e a s y , r h . . , a sn s p r e s s l r e lsradm

r b d I P h a s er a n s r o n r e a k o w . l c J F e o N h o .s o , A , o .

t\

a l S o , d d e r s l l y n dv e o . l y i . r e a s itradra y rr lh n.reasn! Prssure

A modern vied of the siNcturc of the outrmost 700km of the narth is illustrated b,\j a ploi ol S wave velocity against depth. Note how changesin velocity mark the inporiant zones:lithospher,partially molten asthenosphe.e transitioDsto more dense molecular structLres.

zones a to g (Fig. 17-35).Zone a is the lithosphere, a slab aboul 70 kilomters (45 miles) thick in which the coniinents are embedded.Crust forms part ofthis outershellof the Earth. the uppermost Iis 1o$'er boundary is marked by an abrupt de creasein shear-wavevelocity. The lithosphere is characterizdby high velocity and efricient propagaiion of seismic rvaves. both of which implJ solidity and strength. or Zone b is the asthenosphere, zone of weakness.h is also called thc low-veiocity zoile for the
oh\.oJs rpd-on lh, lhc. Fd -r"'' \cl,' ill I F"

is lo$. Seismic waves are attenuaied mor than any$'here else strongly in the asthenosphr in the Earth. Because laborator-v experiments show that seismicwaves a!e slowed and absorbed mixture, a slush,' mosi in a cr-vstalline-liquid geophysicisis ancl petrologists lhink that thc as thenosphere is partidlly melted, perhaps 1 l. 1n percent. We har.e alrcady noted that th Earih's tithosphreis made up of abort ten distinci plates,creaied alons mid-ocanridgs and dc A zones. solid slab under stroyedin subduction lain by a weak laver might be more easily mova ble. and perhaps this accounts for the mobilitr" of plaies. ihe liihospheric Velocity and densilv in bolh the lithosphere and asthenospherefit a pridoljtic composition.

These two zones,therefore, do not differ so much chemically as they do in physical staier the boundar]'at 70 kilometers marks the solidus (!vhr melting begins),sepaiatingthe solid lithosphere from the not so solid asthenosphere.In Chapter15 it was proposedthat ihe mll of the asthenospheris the primary soufce of basaliic which fits th picturc nicly. magma, ends at a dpth ol about 250 The asihenosphere (155 solid kilometers mils), and the rocksbecome slightly again in zone c. Th velocity increass wilh dpth in this region becauseof the cffcct of pressur. increasrng kilometrs (250mils) blow Zon d, about ,100 is The rapid the surface. thin but very lmportant. increase in velocitv ihre correlates with the rapid increasein density in Figure:1733. This transition is too abrupl io be accounted for b] a A of composiiion change. change phasc thai is. a closerrepacking the atomiclevel-is required. on The theoretical explanation l,!'asbeautifully ve.j fied in:196s(,hen E. A. Ring .ood and S. Akjmoto olivine in iheb laboratories and found squeezd that at critical pressures and tmperatures its atoms iake up a more compact arrangemeni, changinginio the spinel structure (Fig.17-36).Oliv i r e r l h " p r i r c p d l m i r e r d l n D p r i d o p ." n d d r d i kilometers the Earth,condi in dpthof about.{00

I I

476

THE BODI Of THE EART}! INIERNAL FROCEsSES

Ol-ivine(Ms,Sioa with Fe,SiOJ is a najor nineral in ihe Earin's mantle. Pa.t (a) shows oliviDe in its low'pressure forn. Th large pale-brown atoms are oxygen, the nedium-brown atons are silicon, and rhe dark-brown ones are magnesium(or ironi. \/l/hen the pressurereaches a ditical value, codespondirs to a depth of about 400km ir the Earth, ihe molecule collapsesinto a denser fom (b). Noie ine dec.ease iD void space in the high-pressurcform, in which the oxygen atoms are morc closely packed. SeismoloSists have found where this transition occu$ in the Earth, and petrologists have obseNed th transition in high-pressurelaboratory exped-

612 I i,'

(105 Prssure atm) ligtre a7-37 Density iD the Eaith's fluid core plotied against depth below the surface and against pressurc (black cuve). Comparison with the densitiesfor ton, nickel, and iron-silicon nixiures measured in laboratory studies enablesseismologists cbnclude that to the core is nostly iron but slightly less dense than pue iron, as iJ a snall amoutrt oI a !'lighteninC" element like silicon were preseni.

tions are just right for it to changephase.This is an excellent example of how the collaboration of specialistswith different backgrounds (sismologists and petrologists)can, little by little, remove some of the mystery of Earth's interior. Zone e is one of small change with depth, but zone f, near 700 kilometers, shows another rapid transition.In 1974experiDenters in Japanand the U.S. reached the required pressuresin the laboratory and found that olivine breaks down into dense,simple oxides like FeO. SiOr, and MgO ai this depth. The entire region from 400to 700kilometers,containing zones d, e, and f, is sometimes called the bansition zone. The lower mantle, zone g, extending ftom 700 kilometers (435 miles) to the core at a depth of 2898 kilometers (1800 miles), is a region that changes little in composition and phase with depth. Density and velocity inffease gradually. again due to increasing pressure. The Earth's core is far away but not out of the rcach of seismic waves. We know that its outer region is fluid and its inner one solid (Fig. 17-30). To obtain its composition, we use the same approach that has alreadyproved souseful-comparison of laboratory experiments and seismological data. Look at Figure 17-37to seehow this is done.

SEISMOLOGY AND THE EARTH'S N.{TERIOR

477

density in the fluid core is plotted. Also -: -.:oi!n are the densitiesof nickl, iron, and a mixb-v :: ofiron andsilicon,deiermined "shockjng" -:.s materials in ihe laboratory with explosives, - \ras describedin Box 17 2. Wc seeLhatnickel is ::o dense.hon is better but nceds to be lightned :i adding perhaps 15 percent silicon. Would :ier clements fit the data? Prhaps. but our of ,ioice is limited by the relativeabundance elefor the :ents. Bcause core accounts one-thirdof :ie mass of the Earth, ii must contain relatively hon is ih only abundant e]:bundant elemenLs. the =ent that approaches requireddensityunder ne pressure of millions of almospheresat these as .reat depths.ltis a little too dense, Figure17 37 .hows, so a plentiful "lighlening" element like sil

icon must be added. Oxygen or sulfur might also be possible lighiening elements. In this way seismologicalobservaiionsand laboratory meas rements of ihe properties of matrials combine to give an incomplete bul nevertheofth Earth'sintrior'A lessgood approximaiion zoned. diflcrenLiatedEarth is found in which the are major components a metalliciron core and a mantle consjstingprimarily of iron-magne rocky The manile includesa iransilion sium silicales. which atomsare forced into closerpack zone in and most of ing, a partially molten asihenosphere, F L ' i l h o s p h e . q l h i r . l r g l - r $ r P iI g l r J \ l hFoJl. product of the difterentiaLion processthe end capsthe manlle.

SUMMARY

1.MosL earthquaks originaie in the vicinity of plate boundaries. The mechanism of eafLhquakes governed by th kind of plate boundary: fracture under iensile siless is occurs at borndaries of divergence,fracture undcr compressi\'stressat bounda es of convergence,and lateral slip along t.ansform faulis. 2. Great earthquaksreleaseln a few minutes huge amounls of elastic sirain nergy that had been slowly stored in the rocks of the fault zone ovr ins or hundreds of yars The source of this strain is plate mDtions. 3. Richtcr magnitudesarc diermined from the siz of the ground motions. as measrrred are when seismic ft'a1.es recorded on seismographsThc thre types of seismic waves are P waves, S waves, and surface wavcs The entire Earth can b set into global vibration by great carihquakes. 4. From a siudy of the travel times of scismic waves and the frequency, or pitch, of the global oscillations,seismologists have found that the Earth is divided into shells-rhat planet. with is, it is a zoned. differentiaid a. A slablike, mostly ultramalic llthosphere, broken inio large, mobil plales. ihe primary source of basaliic magma. as evi b. A partiallv molten asihenosphere, of dencdby reducedvclocity and high absorption seismicwaves forced into a closer packing by the high presc. A transition zone, where atoms are d. A lolver mantle, mainly iron magnesium silicate. e. A fluid orter core, mostly iron but wilh one or more "lightening" lments. f. A solid iron central core. 5. The continentswith iheir lightweight fclsic crusts-the end producis ofthe difierentiain tion process are embedded the lithosphere.

EXERCISEs
m 1 . W h a t i s a n e , r f l h q d a k H o N i s i l s m a g n i t u d e a s ? urd? HoN many earthquakescdusese.ious darnagc :o -. H,.\ o'\lhFdic o,'^iol "rlhqrJI"lo" latc Nilb the lhfee t-lpcs ol plate boundarics? 3. Seismographstations repo.l the follorving 5-P time for dilTerctrccs an earihqrake: Dallas, S P = 3 min' u t e s iL o s A n g e l e s S P = 2 m i n u t e s iS n F r a n c F c o . , U S-P = 2 minuts. se a map of the ILS. and tralel 1o lime .rrves (Fig. 17 1.1) obLajn a rough epicenter.

THE BODY OF THE IARTH INTERNAT IROCEsSES

MagntizdMoon Rocks-A Puzzle Unlike thc Eafth. the Moon has no planel lvide magneticfield. Thcrc is no qustionabout ihis. Sovietand Americanspacecraft have benunable to detctsuch a fild aftr severalcfforts.Yei mag netized rocks have been found lying on the lLlnar surlace. Discordant data ar ihe stuff of great discoveries. and planetary scientists are vying to explain these semingly coniradictor"v results. The leading hl"othesis at this time proposesthat the Moon rocks in their rmanent magnetism ''remember" an earlir period of lunar histor-v some 3 to 4 billjon -vears ago (the age range of the rocks),when the Moon did hav a planetaq/ mag netic fiekL.This magnetic field implies in turn lhe existenc this earlv time of a small liquid ifon at core that has since cooled and solidified. Is there a betterwa"vto manifestlh power of modcrngeological and geophysical methodsthan to letch a rock from the lunar sLrdac"". dale ii, mcasureits magneticfild. and then describethe physical state at the centr of the Moon billions of years ao?

Figure 18-22 A plumb line ofdinaril"! hangs in a ve ical posiiion. N e a r a n o u n t a i n s y s t e mw e v o u l d e x p c c ti h e p h m b bob to bc deflected torvard the mountains because of the gravitational attraction of their mass. The olscrvd deflection is iypi.allJ less than expected, a discrcpancy whose explanation led to an impo ant disco!ei-!. The diagam exaggerates the anount of deflection,which ls small but readil,v measLrri:ble.

EXPLORINC THE EARTH WITH GRAVITY The Indian Puzzle Some 150 years ago during the great land survey oflndia, curiousdiscrepancywas uncovered by BriLish sLr.vcl,ors. distance Th betweenKaliana, some 100kilomeiers (60 mils) soLrthof the Himd la-varange, and Kalianpur.600 kilomters(375 miles) farlher south, lvas delermined in two pfcisewa]'s-by measuremcnt overthe s rface and bv rcfcrnceto astronomical obscrvations-and the rcsults disa$eedby some150mcters(s00feet) in 600kilometers.This mav sema small amount, but it rvas an iniolcrable surveying rror \'en by ninetenth-cnturli siandatd!.The astronomical method of measuring distanc ussihe anglesof starswith rspct io thc vcrtical, rvhich is d-"fined by a plumb line (a lveight susp-"nded a string). on proposedihat To accountfor the differnce,il l/1'6s the plumb linc was tilted torvard the Himalayas becaus ot thc gravitational attraction ot the m o , r r d c o | h . o u m b b o h . .d . g J r , L u . i r the dislancemeasurement. lvhen thc efleol lvas actuallycalculated, was found that the mounil tains should have introduced an even larger erlor-one of abour 450 merers(1500 feer)-rhus compoundng the prz,zlc (Fis. 1,8-22).

-{Q&tgif

Manr e

Figure 18-23 Examples of buoyanc!'. lcebugs and ship hulls floai becausethe volune s!bmerged is lighter than ihe t,olume of Naier displa.ed. Simildrly the volume of relali!el-! light crustal rock projecting into thc densr nlan t l e p r o v i d e sa b u o y a n tf o r c et h a t s u p p o r l s l h e n o u n t a i D m a s s! b o v e ,

TIII

EARTH's MACNETISM AND CRAVIT"I

:: :805 no less a figure ihan the Astronomr : ..1 Sir Gcorgc Airy. came forward .ith an that contain-"d . . rnation fof lhis discrepancy discussed in of :: :rasis the principle of isostasi, proposedthat the enormousl) ,:.!ier 17. Aify lry -. r mourtaiDsarc not supportecl a strong. - ,l I'plo\\.' I lh, I .! 'o. l i' . "s"" the excess mass : :cnserrock. Statedoth,"rwisc, salevel is compensated : hN mountainsabo\.e : a dcfi.iency of mass in an underlying root. :is root pfovidcs thc buoyEnl suppori, in the jusl as a ship with a -innr of all floatjngbodics, Thc plumb -..p hull is buol.,ed p (Fig.18-23). "fls both the excess r,ir masson Lopand lhe -rficinc! of massblow.hencthe rcduccd de Th resolutionol lhc Indian ..ctiorl (Fig.18-2a). but .Lrzzl nol only 1dto the conccptof isostas,v =isointrodr{,cd gravity surveying as a method for . i r r . - \ i - l P n , F ro L ) \ " ' f gravity !ariations. :orresponding

Obs.tuedp nJibboi.lel e.l.n e q u a . d c ! a l e aa e r e . l . l s

figure 18-24 Thc discrepaocy between the observed and cxpected d e f l e c l i o n l l h e p L d m bb o b i n F i g u i e 1 8 - 2 2c a n b e o recon.iled if th cxccss mass of the nouniain B compensatcdb-v a deficiency ol nass in a "li8ht" oustal root belov The rooi prolids buoyant suP' polt for the nounlain. \{hich othcn'isevould sink

from Th localvdlueolgravitv.g. canbc obLained the period* of a s('ingingpenduiumor from th a.releratior of a falling $,eight-an expefimnl course. p.rformed in evcry elementarvph-l'sics P.ndulums have bccn usdin $avity sur\.ys,but b-r'themodern Lhev havc moslly beensupplanld gfvimetr.]his is a device no morc complex than a wcight on a spring thal stretches or con trom plac tracts as gravity increassor itccfeass principle is to place (Fig. 18-25).Alth.rugh the is simple.ihe enginc ing of ihe gra\.imeter most lcgant:lhis dcvice,nol much largerthan a therrir."s" I dFlelgairr. ll 3 Earth'sgravitv (g).The standardunii "of as 10 us.d in gravity survNlsis lhe milliac{releration js 0.001 per cenlinetrper seconi:l scgal.which thc gravimeter m-"as'rre can easjly ond.A modcrn gfavity betrveen tablc top and th in a ditrrnce floor, r'en thoush th.r tablc iop is onl-r or meter fa hcr from th center of thc Earthl

Figure 18-25 The gravimetcr is simple in co.oepi but eleg a n t i n i m ! l e m e n l r l i o n .A r n a s sa t t a c h e d o t a s p f i d g e r p e r i e n c . sa l a r g c r o r s m a l l e .p u l l e a s g r a v i t y r a r i e s .T h c c o r r . s p o n d i n S x l e n ol sions or compressnrds lhe spfing aie neasured rerv pre.hel,v. so that small . h a n g e s] D g r a v i i y c a n l e o b s e r v e d .

Graviiy Surveying The millions of dollars rquired to develop the sensitivityachievedb"v the modern $avjmetr -' rr 'l"t..ri ,' n Ir h" oi ir.lr . , na' lt thc direct r-"sultof the rcognitionsome forty j ' , . . . o i h . h e I L P J g F oo g i , c u ' r ' . i l

"Thre required loLin.

..n!l1e os.illation.

l\'hich oil is trappd (such as folds. faults, and sali dc,nes) often prodLrce variations in th normal gravitational fiNld {hat ar detectablebv sensitive instruments.Such a gravity anomal:ris causedb"v massdue to a mounlain a .hange in subsurface .oot, a salt dome.or any othcr lateralgeological (se l Fig.18-20). he idea is to useits gfav change ity effect to find and describe any anomalous than thc aver_ mass-anyihing more or lcssdnse gc to agerock and Lhus explorcthe subsurlacc profil ologt'by naking $avity sun'cys. Before a hoiv lik-" that of ligur 18 26 can be produced,

436

pRoLl5srs IHE BoD\ or IHL rARlH I\TLRNAL

ever. three important correciions must be applied to the value oI g from each station at which the gravimeter is readi oiherwise, the most interesting anomalies would be obscured. :1. If the Earth were spherical and nonrotating, the $avitalional attraction of ihe planeiary body would be the sameeveq'whefe on the surlace.BecauseoI centrifugal force. howcver, things tend to fly outward from a rotating body. Hnce, gravity is less at the equatori that is, things weigh less therethan at the poles.The samecentrifugal lorce makesihe Earth bulge outward at the equator and

lifi i- G dr n ed .tons dlF io ! : - - - o i d F n r ! . e d m e ns t r r l r ---!j: - th.knesses1 2 3 o,a

fisuie 18-26 Schematicillustration of a sravitv anomaly. Thc shown value ol gravity changesa.ross the strucLDre sedinenls contain less mass bccausethe less-dense than an equal volume of Sranite.The thicker the . F d : m F l d _ vd e F o s i l n F B r e " " l " d p ' r p " " . i n r gravity. as the cuNes show.

--^
Ffee-a cotre.lon r p..es B:l same

j
^ i

r&,.^
/ A ,z-/'q\\ . <

:iE*T:$**',
BodqLer corecton removes gravlaliona artraclon or mouniai.s

flatten at the po1es.Remember ihat g is proportional to 1/R'z,in which B is the distarce to the center of the planet. BecauseR decreasesby 21 kilomeicft going from the equator to the pole of our flattened or spheroidaL plNei. g increases with latitude. An intrnational formula has been adopted that bsi describesg everywhere on the Earth's surface, iaking into account the Earth's shape and rotation." This formula value is subhacted from the gravimeter reading in the search for anomalies,which could otherwise be masked by the big efiects of rotation and flalining. 2. Becaue of iopographicvariations,gravity stations generally differ in elevation-that is, in distance R from the center of the Earth ln our we searchfor anomaloussubsurfacemasses, must elevation on the rmove the obvious effect of l o r d lg r d \ i l ] \ d l P r u s ' n p . h 'f d ' l \ " r s \ . r i " " a s ) I B r o 8 c l l h p c o r r F c l i o na . , l a l r e a d i 3 s d F corrected iftheywere madeat sealvel.This is as called a free-air corrction, and ii amountsto adding 0.31 milligals for each meter of elevation abovesealevel. 3. Finally, in ordr to highlight subsudace effects, it is impo ant to account for all obvious near-surfacemassesthat affect gravity. The freeair correction reduces the reading to sea level only partially, becauseit allows for Lhe distanc to the center ofthe Earth but not for the attraction of the mass oI rock between the station and sea level. The correction ihat compltes the subtrac tion of the local topography is called the Bouguer correction. It amounts to subtracting about 0.1 milligals for each meter of rock between sealvel and the point of ihe reading. For gravity suNeys on the ocean,where g is measuredat sealevel. the Bouguer correction cofrects lor the low density and, therefore, the low gravitational attraction of water by increasingthe gravimeter reading by the amount necessaryto "convert" the ocan to rock. of in this way, the obvious gravity deficienc-v the annmd ocpar is re-oved In orJp lo Fmphasize The free-air and Bouguer Ious suboceanicmasses. , o f l F , i o n sd r e d e p i c l " d i a C n r m d . i c d l l \ n f : g r I o ve 18 27. If there were no local variations in mass in the interior, the sum of all these corrections and the $avimetf reading 'ould be close to zero-lherc lvould be no gravity anomaly, becauseeverything
1By international a8tuenent the value ol s = s73 049(1+ sin'? sin,,t o.oooooss 2+)millials, in whi.hdjs the o 1u52334 larittrde.Thns, gravily is alout0.5 percentslonger al lhe Nort! Fole whe.e d = 90' and sir d' = l than dt ltrc .quaior where

C;vitv is mcaiired at A and B to sce iJ there is a differc;ce in subsurfacemass.To emphasjzesubsu! coneclions are Inade to the value ol face elTects, gravity ai B, as if to bring B to the same elevalion as A and also to remove the obvious gravitational r " c o I o l h e m o , r , " r . q r \ r d n d , r , 1 3 r a vl \ S "t difference beti{een A and B is asc.ibed to a change in subsudace 8eolo8y.

THE EARTH S MACNETISM AND CRAVITY

437

_g

-!

89 JF

;S

-t '-.. gravily anomaly Bouguer

dnscontincntal gfavity survey tuom the Pacili. Ocean to the Atlantic Ocean The negaiiv moiniainous regions, the near zero values at low elevations' and s.ui;rv -.-.li"t-**ihe ihe po'sitive values over cieepoceans,nino;ins the ioposraphv, demonstrateth role of isostatic .ompensation in sha!ing Eadh's surface leatures

would have been taken into account. Howevr. where the sum differs from zero, we have found a l o u sm a s s - a no r p b o d y .a n I n ' - u ' i o n d "n 6rn sedimentarybasin. or a mountain root The shape d n d r d g r i U d r o l ' n F 8 r a \ ' l j J n o m d l !h e l D .d e fine the dimensions and density of the anomalous l l m a g i n .d r i \ n g a c r o s \ h e U n l e d s " r r s " o D ping every mile to measure gravity You would thcrebyproduce a gravimetric profile ofth country crossing many geotogical provinces, and it might be interesting to see how the gravimerer can aid us in interpreting th geological features. This has actually been done, and the resultant gravity-anomaly profil is shown in Figue :18 28, which includes an extnsion into the Ailantic ocean made with a shipboard gravimeter. The top and middle sections of the figure show the g.avity profile and the topography. respectivly. All the conections have been applied to the gra\ity curve-that is, all the land mass above sea level and all ofthe lock ofland massin the oceans have been accounLedfor-so this wiggly curve should refleci subsurface mass variations. Note the ngative values-thai is, the deficincy in gra\.ity-across the Sjerra Nevada. the Rocky p V o u n l dn s , J n d l h e B , . i r 3 r d R d n u p r o \ n e . The anomaly is close to zero in the low plains. becomesslightly negative undr ihe Appalachian

Mountains. approacheszero again in the coastal plains and continental shelf, and zooms to large positive values over the deep Atlantic The striking feature revealed by the graviiy anomaly and shown in the bottom sction of Fig ure 18-28 is lhe way the Mohoroviaia discontinu ity minors the topography (except in the Basin and Range province). The gravity anomaly is strongly negatjvewhere thc crusi thickens to prol,ide buoyant support {or mountains whai causes ihe negative anomaly in these iopographically high places is the mass deficiency due to the displacement of denser mantle by lhe less dense crustal root. The high pDsitivegravity values over the ocean basin signify the presence ol excess mass:denseInantle rock is much closerto ihe sur face here. This feature has ben called an anti'negative" topography root, and it mirrors the (water instead of rock) of the ocean basin. The Appalachians show a modest negative anomaly. which indicaies that they have a shallow rooi This is appropriat for an old mountain systemi its root (and g anomaly) is disappearingas its topography erodes away. One might have expected ' 1 F s t r r c l J r a l l th r g hB " s i r d R d n C P o \ i n , " . p " its averageelevation of about one kilometer. with to have a slightly thickned crust to go along with its negative anomaly. Actuall-\,, many geophysicists thought this lo be ihe caseuntil experiments

THE BODT OF II{E EARTHI NTERNAL |IIOCESCTS

with seismic waves revealed the thin crust. Be causethc seismicioformation revealsthat there is t o r l h PD d \ n a n d R J n g F o \ i r , P P u e d e d u c pl h b l l h e m d . . L l p f i F n c \ l h p r e r - d result of ihe area being underlain b-v mantle j m a l e r , d o t r p l d l! a l y l o s d e n s . " s - h o s r i n l the figur. Many ofthese results wcre anticipaied in Chap' isosiasyin lhe context ter 17,where we discLlssed of the siructurc of the crusi and upper mantle as determined by seismic mthods Actuallv, the concepi of isostatic compensationwiih its notions of "floaling" continents and still higher floating mountains was discovered from gravity obserl'adata conBul, sismological tions such as these. by clearing tributed much to our undersianding up such quesiions as where ihe mass dficiencies are located and whether compcnsaiion involving ffustal roots or compensation via low density mantle is the isosiatic mechanismresponsiblefor them. Low-densiiy mantle seemsio go wilh a tec_ l o n i cs p i 1 8 l h a l 1 ' u d p s- e c F n 'r o l ' a n i " m h ' 8 h heat flow. and 1o$' seismic velocities which implies, perhaps, a partially molien mantl directly suggestthat below ih Moho. Some geologists these features. as they occur in the Basin and Range province, indicate ihat tension-producing forces, perhaps due to a spreading or divergence zone, are activ within a continent Compensation invoiving crustal roots is th predominant isosiatic mechanism for continenis as a whole. as well as for high mountains. In this wa-r', gravimetry and sismology com bin to rveal the importance of isosiasy to the l r l u o v o l g F o , o g \ n a r p g i o n da r d ' o n i r e r l a l o : n g F \ a n p l a \ s h o t { t \ h a rL i r d s s ' o ' e .t h " " o l ' o u of insight the combination can ofier. Eroding mountains wiII b pushed up by the excessbuovancy of ihe root until both rool and mouniain range neariy disappear.Such loads as ice caps or sediments filling a basin can depress the crust' Wher gravity studies indicaie thal a positive or ngative toad (a depression.for example) is not compnsated,some force must be present thal helps support ii and keeps it from subsiding or risins. Continents are unlikely to be destrovedbv subductionr the ability to float allows them to "ride o t ' repeaiedepisodesof splitting and collision.

Th-enechanism of lostslacial upLift (a) A continen rr 'l t-l llauFr sross, l^da ns fF c-u. lh) "r" d l i a d i q o ' rl _ t6.x6p ', i'oo dc.e'op. " r ;elJ " .ro r - l e s l d c r " ' d i q J p p " " r h u r l l F r u n l r " _ io l \. . . t " , o u . . " o ,\ . c o q t t , t n a 1 . F I r , u F -.,i evjdenccd by ncsative sravily anomallr' (d) Buo"lancv of the root leads to slow uDlift The root dlsappcaN,

aoom"\ oisrop'a" qrrous d"pi' l'" d _c o I o' todav foreesriueto ice load and rool. FennoscaDdia the not c is betwee. stases and d FigLtrc to scaler . ,st is aboul 40km thi.ki a 3-km thick Slacier I a $ o r l . E r o d , , F r o u r" b o r r \ n r 1 r ' l l d s c r \ p od e , F l ho l h , c u q D r p o o , r d o _ o l h " s p i S l " instantly. A cork floating in molassswould rise more stowly; ihe drag oI lhe viscous fluid would slow down the process. lf rl'e could perform a similar experiment on the Earth, we cofld ]e'rn much aboui the viscosity of the mantle and how it affects rates of uplilt and subsidence How convenieni it would be if w could push the crust ilown somewhere,remove the {orce. and ihn sit back and watch it rise. h N a t L r F d \ h a er g u o oe ' l o . g \ l o d o l - ' . e \ o P f i m e n tl o u . . T h P l o d o . d , o n i ' " n r a l S l " " P - " 1 ice shet 2 to 3 kilometers thick that can appear wilh the onset of an ice age in the geologicall-v years The crustis shori period of a few thousand by depressed the ice load, and a downward bulge developson its undersideto provide buovant sup port. At the onset of a warming trend, the glacir melts !apidly. Wiih the rcmoval of the load. uplift

Llp!Jrlo,p

rhp crd"lJ dssumF! i s u,Eindl lFrFl d1d

UpliftThe Fennoscandian Nature's Experimentwith Isostasv If you depressa cork floating in water wrth vour finger and then rleaseit, the cork pops up almost

THE TARTH'S MAGNETISM AND CRAVITY

439

(Fig.18 29).'Ihcrate :: :ie deprssed crustbegins by :: rplift can be cLocumented dating ancint can tI] us ho 'Iong : -;). Such raisedbaches A :-r a particularsiretchof land was at sea]eve]. r-:ative $avitv anomaly tells ho$.much of a .:lic rooi rmalnsand hou much moreuplift will :cur before lh rooi disappea]s. Such depressionand uplift has occurred in l,-. vay, Sweden,and Finland. as wcll as else;rere in glacialed regions. Thc ice cap rctr-.ated yearsago.and the :Dm theseregions some10,000 rd has ben rising since.Figufe 18-30 shows placeln ihe past5000 :r1r much up\{arpingLook .=.rs, Thc mosl inlcnseuplvarpinghas occurred i:ar wst-central Srveden, rvhich is believed to -:\ been overlainbv the thickesiice. Some200 reiers of uplift has occurred in 10,000years, an per year. The re.rerage rate of 2 centimeters :raining negaii'.,egaviiy anomaly of 50 milli.als impliesthat part of ihe root still remainsand hai about 200mctersmore uplifi must occur beis A :ore isostaticcompnsalion complete. few rinor car(hquakes occurin th region,additional that stresses to too much due :1idence,perhaps, have !uoyancy are still present.Geophysicisls rs-"d thse data to show ihat the l\reak zone llhich "flo1\,s' so Lhal Lhecrustal root col d de with the pa ially moltenasthen r'lop) coincids This rgion is important not onl-vas a osphere. factor in ih mobility of ihe lithospheric plats and ds ihe soulce of basaltic rnagmai its ability io -vicld makes it th key factor ol isostatic compnsation.
, prr\b d,. 1. tr s,.l dr,,., ,,a.",.,GF"t g.

Figure 13-30 -r" i, \, Dd' up' | (i ' | ' -t) | .F 'no-.rd " 5000years, according to M. Sauramo The crust, deprcssed -! the aeight of the ice cap of the last ice b y s a g e .i s s l i l l r e b o u n d i n g o m c 1 o , o o 0 e a r sa l t e r t h e

\ o h r m a n . o . l J h b \ . J s g - ' d d , ' r r F rF \ p e r i mnl to demonstrate the isostatic mechanism than nature s demonstration with the Fennoscanoratr postglacialuplift.

SUMMARY

1 . Motions in thc fluid iron core someho , set up a dynamo action ihat generates the

Earth'smagntjcfield. Thc field can be fairly lveil dcscribcdby a hypotheiicalbar magnei locald nar lhe center of the Earth and approximatIy aligned rvith its axis of fieldthai prevaild 2. Manvrocksbecame magnetizedin dirctionof the gcomagnciic lhe '!vhnthe_rwer formed. If the rocks are dated radiometrically, the histor,vof the magn-"iicli""ldcan be recovered from this remanentmagnetizalion. pole occuthat Th remanent magnetizalion old rockssuggsis the Ea h's magnetic of pied dlfferent positions in the past. Actually, th"" magnetic pole probably did not wander but stayd fairly close to the gographic pole. The apparnt polar wandering Ls probably an indicalion thai the lithospheric plaies have been moving, changing th geograph-! ih surfac.Evidence such as coal in Antarctica and glaclal depositsnear of th equatorsupportthis idea. Remanentmagntizationhas alsoled io ih discovery ofreversals in th magneticfield. Th history of revrsa1s sinc Crtaceoustime has been lvorked oui, Although unexplaincd,theserevcrsals have becomea very impoftant tool in dating the sea floor. Whn th seafloor crusi is formed at mid ocanrifts, ii becomes magnetizedThrs

44n

THT BOD\ Of THE EARTH INIERNAT PRO([95E9

with the crust as il spreadsaway ftom the rift. The sequence magneticimprinting sLays sholvs as positive and ncgativ magnetic anomalics. which a suNeying of reversals ship can readily detect.Using the history of reversals.we can determine thc ageol the undeflying sea floor and the rate of sea+loor spreading. 5 . cravitaiional chansesover the surface of the Earth are due io the planct's oblateness, its rolation, its topo$aphy, and differencesin ils subsurfacemass The first three factors can be allowed for. so that the rcmaining gravitational anomaliesindicate subsurface geological ditrerences. Gravity anomalies associatedu'ith continents, ocans,and mounlains show that the Earth's crust is not strong enough to support topographic loads ovcr long periods. Roots,or dorvnward bulges of the crust, develop and provide buoyanl supporl This is an examplc oI isostatic adjustment.Another exampl is the depresrion of thc Fennoscandian usi bythe weight of a continental glacier.Alihough the ice cap disappeared years ago,uplifi is still continuing in that srea and will conlinuc until the some 10.000 relic root disaBDears.

EXERCISES I What evidence supporis the hypothesis Lhat the Eadh s mdgneticfield oriSinalesin a fluld iron core? The renaneni magnctization in somemctcorites and y W Moonrockshas t to beex!lained. ould yo! haz ard a guessds to its oriSin? 2. In a region ('herc the geothermalgradient that is, the temperature incrcase with depth is 3"C pe. hundred meteN, al Nhat depth Nould you cxpect the rocks to lose theif magnetism? 3. A sedimentaryformation is found to have remanent magtretism, ivith an inclination of 45' measufed from the bedding plane. What was thc laiitude of the formation when it became magnetized?What wds its longitude?World you answer.hange if the bed had bccn tihed ailer ii was magneiized? 4. What is the connection betweeD thc sequencesof magneiic revcmals worked out on land and the bands of posiiive and negative magnetic anomalics found on lhe sea floor? Therc are regions ol the sea 'magnetic quiel zoncs" Nhcre no floor known as reversals in magnetic anomalies oc.ur. Can you guess lbe age of the crusl in lhese rcgions tuom thc magnetic feve$al time scale in Figure 18 20? 5. Would the gravily anomaly (after making ftee-di. and Bousuer corrections) show larse nesatilc valus, valuesnear zcro, or large positive values at ea.h ol the followins llaces? (al Rocky Mountains. (b) East coasi of the U.S. (.) Middle of an o.eaD basin. nxFlain yoitr answers. 6. You obse.ve a near-zero gravity anomaly atop a mouniain alter maklngthc free air and Boaguercor reclions. What a'ould you conclude?

BIBLIOGRAPHY ' l h e S o u r c eo f t h e C Carrigan, . R., aDdD. Gabbins. E a r t h ' sM a g n e t i c i e l d , ' S . i e n i i f i . A n e . i c o n , I e b ' F Cox, A., cd., Plote Tectonics ond Geondgneli. Reve. a s o k . S a nF r a n c i s c o r w H . F r e e m a n n d C o m p a n y , ' 1973, Garland, al D.. The Eorih's Sfiope dnd Grdvity. New York: PergamonP.ess,1965. Hejdzler,l. R., "Sea Floor Spreadins," Scientilic Americdn, December 1968.(Ofrpdnt 875.) LePichon,X., J. Francheteau,and J. Bonnin, Plote Tec tonics. Nei! York: Elscvie. PublishinS Company, 7973. Strangway, D. W', Historl, of the Eorti's Mognetic Field. Ncw Yorkr Mccraw Hill, 1970. Takeuchi,S., S. Uyeda, and I-I.Kanamori Dcbote oDoul lie Edrtfi, rcv. ed., San ftanoisco: Ffenan, C o o p e r& C o m p a n y 1 9 7 0 .