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Micropaleontology is concerned with microfossils and nanofossils (the latter being smaller than 50 m), the study of which must, of necessity, be carried out using the light or electron microscope. Such fossils are: 1- The remains of unicellular and multicellular microorganisms. 2-The dissociated elements and skeletal fragments of macro-organisms.
Objective of micropaleontology
1- Study the fossils in terms of morphology, structure, chemical and mineralogical components 2- Classification: discover their origin and systematic affinities 3- Application: (oil) exploration, biostratigraphy, palaeo-biology, paleoclimatology 4- Environmental inferences
Microfossils Groups
1. Foraminifera Unicellular/ calcareous or agglutinated/ marine
environments/ planktonic and benthonic/
heterotrophic.
2. Ostracods Multicellular/ calcareous or chitinous valves/
Foraminifera
Phylum: Protozoa Subphylum: Sarcodina Class: Rhizopoda Order: Foraminiferida
Foraminifera are single-celled animals protected by hard shells of different types of materials (chitinous, calcareous, agglutinatd, and siliceous). They are microscopic in size, and generally range from 0.1 to 1 mm. (approximately the size of a grain of sand or smaller). However, in the geologic past, forams with test diameters greater than 10 cm. (4 in.) were not unusual.
Animal consists of: Cell (Soft parts of foraminifera) has: Protoplasm (surrounded by membrane) Protoplasm within the shell (test) = endoplasm (dark and granulous) contains: - 1 or more nuclei - systems for cell-secretion (Golgi)
- systems for gas-exchange (Mitochondria) - systems for protein-synthesis (Ribosomes) - fluid or gas filled droplets (Vacuoles)
Protoplasm outside the test = ectoplasm (transparent) forms pseudopodia
Pseudopodia Long strings of ectoplasm (2-3 to 20 times test diameter) Can branch very often, shaping web-like appearance around the test. Surrounded by rather fluid layer Functions: 1- Feeling objects changes in chemistry of the environment
Planktonic forams migrate without pseudopodiaaction---they move only by the effect of water current and gas-volume variation.
Pseudopodia network: they are dense and more frequent near the opening of the test
Life style
Benthic forams live in/on sea floor sediments
Planktonic forams free floating living in the sea surface water (0.0-200 m), occupying different depths; some occupy depths down to 700 m in the water column.
Habitats of benthic foraminifera: 1. Epifaunal------(includes branched forms) from 0.0 to 1cm depth in the sediments.
Food
Foraminifera are heterotrophic (mostly omnivorous) organisms in nutrition, some food examples: bacteria, coccolithophorids, diatoms, dinoflagellates, radiolarians, algae, parts of other plants, and other foraminifera. Some species are very selective feeders. Food generally digested in the endoplasm. Species with small apertures digest outside the test (feeding-cyste).
Note: Spinose planktonic species are carnivorous/omnivorous and live close to the surface oligotrophic (low nutrients) water. Non-spinose planktonic species are herbivores live in deep water (below 200 m).
Symbiosis
Foraminifera make symbiosis with photosynthetic organisms
(zooxanthellae) such as: Algae, Dinoflagellates and Diatoms. Zooxanthellae are separated from protoplasm by membrane; and what is its functions? Suggestions: 1- Zoo. supply O2 and carbohyderates, forams supplies CO2
Some benthic foraminifera (e.g. Sorites sp., Amphisorus sp., Marginopora sp. and Permian fusulinids >10 cm) attain large sizes by help of symbiotic associations.
The dinoflagellates continue to photosynthesize, as long as they have light and nutrients. However, they do not keep the products of photosynthesis for themselves. They release almost all of it into the tissues of the host. The host uses this energy as food, and typically has enough energy to add more and more calcium carbonate into its test.
Does the symbiosis affect the isotopic signature (18O & 13C) of the foraminiferal shells and then makes the climatic inferences difficult?
Image of Marginopora vertebralis Note the occurrence of symbionts (brown zone) in the inner part of the test avoiding the external digesting area (white zone).
Image of Orbulina universa Note that the test is surrounded by dinoflagellate symbionts. Juvenile trochospiral shells are visible in the center of the transparent spherical chamber.
Life cycle
Foraminifera resemble (certain) plants, having two phases of reproduction (heterophasic):
1. Asexual reproduction (schizogony)----( Microspheric form with numerous chambers = A-form) - Give young Gamont with half of the chromosome of the parent
Wall structure and composition Chitinous wall: foraminifera. present in fresh-water benthic
Agglutinated wall: -----only feature for benthic---foraminifer builds its test wall by cementing together exogenous grains (e.g. sand grains, oolites, fine grains of calcite or sponge spicule) by carbonate mineralization. Wall is a simple layer that grades from fine grains inside to coarse grains outside Calcareous (Ca CO3) wall: present for both benthic and planktonic foraminifera: (hyaline or porcelaneous) Hyaline/glassy wall: transparent, perforate, crystals are radial, with lamellae (laminations) that separated by organic layers. Porcelaneous wall: shiny, smooth, crystals randomly arranged
Superfamily: Orbitoidacea
Superfamily: Spirillinacea Superfamily: Duostominacea Superfamily: Robertinacea
Superfamily: Globigerinacea
Superfamily: Rotaliacea Superfamily: Cassidulinacea Superfamily: Carterinacea
Images of suborder Allogromiina: a) Allogromia; b) Shepheardella Images of suborder Textulariina (superfamily Ammodiscacea): c) Rhabdammina; d) Technitella; e) Sorosphaera; f) Saccammina and g) Tolypammina. From Brasier, 1980.
Images of suborder Textulariina (superfamily Lituolacea): a) Coskinolina; b) Cyclolina; c) Cyclopsinella; d) Dicyclina; e) Orbitolina. From Brasier, 1980.
Images of suborder Textulariina (superfamily Lituolacea): a) Reophax; b) Hormosina; c) Miliammina; d) Cyclammina; e) Loftusia; f) Spirocyclina. From Brasier, 1980.
e)
Images of suborder Fusulinina (superfamily Parathuramminacea): a) Saccaminopsis and b) Earlandinita. Superfamily Endothyracea: c) Nodosinella; d) Palaeotextularia; e) Tetrataxia. From Brasier, 1980.
4- Water currents directly inhibit the benthic foraminifera to build their habitat in/on the sea floor.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES:
1- Salinity ( = parts per thousand) ---- foraminifera can live in all aquatic environments such as:
- Fresh water (0.0-0.5)-----rivers and estuaries such as: Allogromiidae. - Brackish water (0.5-30)--- lagoons and marshes such Ammonia and miliolids - Normal sea water (35-45) is suitable for all other species. as:
-Hypersaline water bodies (up to 57)----closed seas, lakes, lagoons and marginal bays. Such environment is lethal and destructive for any kind of living foraminifera.
Notes:
High diversity and high abundance of benthic foraminifera occur under normal seawater and the lower the salinity of an environment, the lower the diversity of benthic foraminifera is there.
2- Alkalinity (pH):
3- Nutrients (food):
High amount of nutrients (food) = high numbers of benthic foraminifera foraminifera as a result of uptake of dissolved oxygen in remineralization processes.
An excess of nutrients is harmful on benthic High density and diversity of benthic foraminifera occur
at areas receiving more amounts of food and dissolved oxygen.
4- Dissolved oxygen
Depends on ocean circulation and fluxes of organic matter to the sea floor. High oxygen indicates good circulation and no excess of organic matter. This conditions lead to high faunal density and diversity. Low oxygen indicates stagnant water with more fluxes of organic matter on the sea floor. Thus conditions lead to anoxia and then to low faunal density and diversity. Amount of dissolved oxygen is inversely related with the amount of the organic matter.
1.
TEMPERATURE: planktonic foraminifers are temperature indicators - Spinose species live in shallow, warm surface water (075m). - Non-spinose species live mostly in (colder) deeper waters, down to some 500m. 2. HYDROGRAPHY: planktonic foraminifera flourish and become more abundant at eddies, turbulent zones and upwelling areas. 3. FOOD AVAILABILITY: plank. foram. are abundant and diverse at areas of high nutrients (food) such as eddies, turbulent zones and upwelling regions. Spinose species prefer oligotrophic (low food) waters. Non-spinose species prefer eutrophic (rich by nutrients) water.
Tropical (24-30C) Subtropical (20-24C) Transitional (10-18C) Subpolar (5-10C) Polar (0-5C)