Magnetism

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Contents
Articles
Antiferromagnetism BiotSavart law Classical electromagnetism and special relativity Coercivity Diamagnetism Electromagnet Ferrimagnetism Ferromagnetism History of electromagnetic theory Lorentz force Magnet Magnetic bearing Magnetic circuit Magnetic dipole Magnetic domain Magnetic field Magnetic monopole Magnetic refrigeration Magnetic stirrer Magnetic structure Magnetism Metamagnetism Micromagnetics Molecule-based magnets Neodymium magnet Paramagnetism Plastic magnet Rare-earth magnet Single-molecule magnet Spin glass Spin wave Spontaneous magnetization Superparamagnetism Vibrating sample magnetometer 1 3 7 13 16 20 30 31 37 74 85 97 102 107 110 116 137 150 158 160 161 171 172 175 177 182 188 189 192 197 202 205 206 210

References
Article Sources and Contributors Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 211 215

Article Licenses
License 218

Antiferromagnetism

Antiferromagnetism
In materials that exhibit antiferromagnetism, the magnetic moments of atoms or molecules, usually related to the spins of electrons, align in a regular pattern with neighboring spins (on different sublattices) pointing in opposite directions. This is, like ferromagnetism and ferrimagnetism, a manifestation of ordered magnetism. Generally, antiferromagnetic order may exist at sufficiently low temperatures, vanishing at and above a certain temperature, the Nel temperature (named after Louis Nel, who had first identified this type of magnetic ordering).[1] Above the Nel temperature, the material is typically paramagnetic.

Antiferromagnetic ordering

Measurement
When no external field is applied, the antiferromagnetic structure corresponds to a vanishing total magnetization. In an external magnetic field, a kind of ferrimagnetic behavior may be displayed in the antiferromagnetic phase, with the absolute value of one of the sublattice magnetizations differing from that of the other sublattice, resulting in a nonzero net magnetization. The magnetic susceptibility of an antiferromagnetic material typically shows a maximum at the Nel temperature. In contrast, at the transition between the ferromagnetic to the paramagnetic phases the susceptibility will diverge. In the antiferromagnetic case, a divergence is observed in the staggered susceptibility. Various microscopic (exchange) interactions between the magnetic moments or spins may lead to antiferromagnetic structures. In the simplest case, one may consider an Ising model on an bipartite lattice, e.g. the simple cubic lattice, with couplings between spins at nearest neighbor sites. Depending on the sign of that interaction, ferromagnetic or antiferromagnetic order will result. Geometrical frustration or competing ferro- and antiferromagnetic interactions may lead to different and, perhaps, more complicated magnetic structures.

Antiferromagnetic materials
Antiferromagnetic materials occur commonly among transition metal compounds, especially oxides. An example is the heavy-fermion superconductor URu2Si2. Better known examples include hematite, metals such as chromium, alloys such as iron manganese (FeMn), and oxides such as nickel oxide (NiO). There are also numerous examples among high nuclearity metal clusters. Organic molecules can also exhibit antiferromagnetic coupling under rare circumstances, as seen in radicals such as 5-dehydro-m-xylylene. Antiferromagnets can couple to ferromagnets, for instance, through a mechanism known as exchange bias, in which the ferromagnetic film is either grown upon the antiferromagnet or annealed in an aligning magnetic field, causing the surface atoms of the ferromagnet to align with the surface atoms of the antiferromagnet. This provides the ability to "pin" the orientation of a ferromagnetic film, which provides one of the main uses in so-called spin valves, which are the basis of magnetic sensors including modern hard drive read heads. The temperature at or above which an antiferromagnetic layer loses its ability to "pin" the magnetization direction of an adjacent ferromagnetic layer is called the blocking temperature of that layer and is usually lower than the Nel temperature.

Antiferromagnetism

Geometric frustration
Unlike ferromagnetism, anti-ferromagnetic interactions can lead to multiple optimal states (ground statesstates of minimal energy). In one dimension, the anti-ferromagnetic ground state is an alternating series of spins: up, down, up, down, etc. Yet in two dimensions, multiple ground states can occur. Consider an equilateral triangle with three spins, one on each vertex. If each spin can take on only two values (up or down), there are 23 = 8 possible states of the system, six of which are ground states. The two situations which are not ground states are when all three spins are up or are all down. In any of the other six states, there will be two favorable interactions and one unfavorable one. This illustrates frustration: the inability of the system to find a single ground state. This type of magnetic behavior has been found in minerals that have a crystal stacking structure such as a Kagome lattice or hexagonal lattice.

Other properties
Antiferromagnetism plays a crucial role in giant magnetoresistance, as had been discovered in 1988 by the Nobel prize winners Albert Fert and Peter Grnberg (awarded in 2007). There are also examples of disordered materials (such as iron phosphate glasses) that become antiferromagnetic below their Nel temperature. These disordered networks 'frustrate' the antiparallelism of adjacent spins; i.e. it is not possible to construct a network where each spin is surrounded by opposite neighbour spins. It can only be determined that the average correlation of neighbour spins is antiferromagnetic. This type of magnetism is sometimes called speromagnetism.

References
[1] L. Nel, Proprites magntiques des ferrites; Frrimagntisme et antiferromagntisme, Annales de Physique (Paris) 3, 137198 (1948).

BiotSavart law

BiotSavart law
In physics, particularly electromagnetism, the BiotSavart law ( /biosvr/ or /bjosvr/)[1] is an equation that describes the magnetic field generated by an electric current. It relates the magnetic field to the magnitude, direction, length, and proximity of the electric current. The law is valid in the magnetostatic approximation, and is consistent with both Ampre's circuital law and Gauss's law for magnetism.[2]

Equation
Electric currents (along closed curve)
The BiotSavart law is used to compute the resultant magnetic field B at position r generated by a steady current I (for example due to a wire): a continual flow of charges which is constant in time and the charge neither accumulates nor depletes at any point. The law is a physical example of a line integral: evaluated over the path C the electric currents flow. The equation in SI units is[3]

where r is the full displacement vector from the wire element to the point at which the field is being computed and r is the unit vector of r. Using this the equation can be equivalently written

where dl is a vector whose magnitude is the length of the differential element of the wire, in the direction of conventional current, and 0 is the magnetic constant. The symbols in boldface denote vector quantities. The integral is usually around a closed curve, since electric currents can only flow around closed paths. An infinitely long wire (as used in the definition of the SI unit of electric current - the Ampere) is a counter-example. To apply the equation, the point in space where the magnetic field is to be calculated is chosen. Holding that point fixed, the line integral over the path of the electric currents is calculated to find the total magnetic field at that point. The application of this law implicitly relies on the superposition principle for magnetic fields, i.e. the fact that the magnetic field is a vector sum of the field created by each infinitesimal section of the wire individually.[4]

Electric currents (throughout conductor volume)

The formulations given above work well when the current can be approximated as running through an infinitely-narrow wire. If the current has some thickness, the proper formulation of the BiotSavart law (again in SI units) is:

or equivalently

where dV is the differential element of volume and J is the current density vector in that volume. In this case the integral is over the volume of the conductor. The BiotSavart law is fundamental to magnetostatics, playing a similar role to Coulomb's law in electrostatics. When magnetostatics does not apply, the BiotSavart law should be replaced by Jefimenko's equations.

BiotSavart law

Constant uniform current

In the special case of a steady constant current I, the magnetic field B is

i.e. the current can be taken out the integral.

Point charge at constant velocity

In the case of a point charged particle q moving at a constant velocity v, then Maxwell's equations give the following expression for the electric field and magnetic field:[5]

where r is the vector pointing from the current (non-retarded) position of the particle to the point at which the field is being measured, and is the angle between v and r. When v2 c2, the electric field and magnetic field can be approximated as[5]

These equations are called the "BiotSavart law for a point charge"[6] due to its closely analogous form to the "standard" BiotSavart law given previously. These equations were first derived by Oliver Heaviside in 1888.

Magnetic responses applications

The BiotSavart law can be used in the calculation of magnetic responses even at the atomic or molecular level, e.g. chemical shieldings or magnetic susceptibilities, provided that the current density can be obtained from a quantum mechanical calculation or theory.

Aerodynamics applications
The BiotSavart law is also used in aerodynamic theory to calculate the velocity induced by vortex lines. In the aerodynamic application, the roles of vorticity and current are reversed as when compared to the magnetic application. In Maxwell's 1861 paper 'On Physical Lines of Force',[7] magnetic field strength H was directly equated with pure vorticity (spin), whereas B was a weighted vorticity that was weighted for the density of the vortex sea. Maxwell considered magnetic permeability to be a measure of the density of the vortex sea. Hence the relationship, 1. Magnetic induction current

The figure shows the velocity ( strength .

) induced at a ) of

point P by an element of vortex filament (

was essentially a rotational analogy to the linear electric current relationship, 2. Electric convection current

BiotSavart law

where is electric charge density. B was seen as a kind of magnetic current of vortices aligned in their axial planes, with H being the circumferential velocity of the vortices. The electric current equation can be viewed as a convective current of electric charge that involves linear motion. By analogy, the magnetic equation is an inductive current involving spin. There is no linear motion in the inductive current along the direction of the B vector. The magnetic inductive current represents lines of force. In particular, it represents lines of inverse square law force. In aerodynamics the induced air currents are forming solenoidal rings around a vortex axis that is playing the role that electric current plays in magnetism. This puts the air currents of aerodynamics into the equivalent role of the magnetic induction vector B in electromagnetism. In electromagnetism the B lines form solenoidal rings around the source electric current, whereas in aerodynamics, the air currents form solenoidal rings around the source vortex axis. Hence in electromagnetism, the vortex plays the role of 'effect' whereas in aerodynamics, the vortex plays the role of 'cause'. Yet when we look at the B lines in isolation, we see exactly the aerodynamic scenario in so much as that B is the vortex axis and H is the circumferential velocity as in Maxwell's 1861 paper. For a vortex line of infinite length, the induced velocity at a point is given by

where is the strength of the vortex and r is the perpendicular distance between the point and the vortex line. This is a limiting case of the formula for vortex segments of finite length:

where A and B are the (signed) angles between the line and the two ends of the segment.

The BiotSavart law, Ampre's circuital law, and Gauss's law for magnetism
The magnetic field B as calculated from the BiotSavart law will always satisfy Ampre's circuital law and Gauss's law for magnetism.[8]
Outline of proof that a magnetic field calculated by the BiotSavart law will always satisfy Gauss's law for magnetism and Ampre's [8] law. Starting with the BiotSavart law:

Substituting the relation

[8] and using the product rule for curls, as well as the fact that J does not depend on the unprimed coordinates, this equation can be rewritten as

Since the divergence of a curl is always zero, this establishes Gauss's law for magnetism. Next, taking the curl of both sides, using the formula for [8] the curl of a curl, and again using the fact that J does not depend on the unprimed coordinates, we eventually get the result

Finally, plugging in the relations

[8]

BiotSavart law

(where is the Dirac delta function), using the fact that the divergence of J is zero (due to the assumption of magnetostatics), and performing an [8] integration by parts, the result turns out to be

i.e. Ampre's law (without Maxwell's correction, the displacement current.).

Notes
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] (http:/ / dictionary. reference. com/ browse/ biot+ savart+ law?qsrc=2446) Jackson, John David (1999). Classical Electrodynamics (3rd ed. ed.). New York: Wiley. Chapter 5. ISBN0-471-30932-X. Electromagnetism (2nd Edition), I.S. Grant, W.R. Phillips, Manchester Physics, John Wiley & Sons, 2008, ISBN 978-0-471-92712-9 The superposition principle holds for the electric and magnetic fields because they are the solution to a set of linear differential equations, namely Maxwell's equations, where the current is one of the "source terms". Griffiths, David J. (1998). Introduction to Electrodynamics (3rd ed.). Prentice Hall. pp.222224, 435440. ISBN0-13-805326-X. http:/ / maxwell. ucdavis. edu/ ~electro/ magnetic_field/ pointcharge. html Maxwell, J. C.. "On Physical Lines of Force" (http:/ / commons. wikimedia. org/ wiki/ File:On_Physical_Lines_of_Force. pdf). Wikimedia commons. . Retrieved 25 December 2011. See Jackson, page 17879 or Griffiths p. 22224. The presentation in Griffiths is particularly thorough, with all the details spelled out.

References
Griffiths, David J. (1998). Introduction to Electrodynamics (3rd ed. ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN0-13-805326-X. Feynman, Richard (1966). The Feynman Lectures on Physics (2nd ed. ed.). Addison-Wesley. ISBN0-63-20717.

Further reading
Electricity and Modern Physics (2nd Edition), G.A.G. Bennet, Edward Arnold (UK), 1974, ISBN 0-7131-2459-8 Essential Principles of Physics, P.M. Whelan, M.J. Hodgeson, 2nd Edition, 1978, John Murray, ISBN 0-7195-3382-1 The Cambridge Handbook of Physics Formulas, G. Woan, Cambridge University Press, 2010, ISBN 978-0-521-57507-2. Physics for Scientists and Engineers - with Modern Physics (6th Edition), P. A. Tipler, G. Mosca, Freeman, 2008, ISBN 0-7167-8964-7 Encyclopaedia of Physics (2nd Edition), R.G. Lerner, G.L. Trigg, VHC publishers, 1991, ISBN (Verlagsgesellschaft) 3-527-26954-1, ISBN (VHC Inc.) 0-89573-752-3 McGraw Hill Encyclopaedia of Physics (2nd Edition), C.B. Parker, 1994, ISBN 0-07-051400-3

External links
Electromagnetism (http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/0sn/ch11/ch11.html), B. Crowell, Fullerton College MISN-0-125 The AmpreLaplaceBiotSavart Law (http://physnet2.pa.msu.edu/home/modules/pdf_modules/ m125.pdf) by Orilla McHarris and Peter Signell for Project PHYSNET (http://www.physnet.org).

Classical electromagnetism and special relativity

Classical electromagnetism and special relativity

The theory of special relativity plays an important role in the modern theory of classical electromagnetism. First of all, it gives formulas for how electromagnetic objects, in particular the electric and magnetic fields, are altered under a Lorentz transformation from one inertial frame of reference to another. Secondly, it sheds light on the relationship between electricity and magnetism, showing that frame of reference determines if an observation follows electrostatic or magnetic laws. Third, it motivates a compact and convenient notation for the laws of electromagnetism, namely the "manifestly covariant" tensor form. Maxwell's equations, when they were first stated in their complete form in 1865, would turn out to be compatible with special relativity.[1] Moreover, the apparent coincidences in which the same effect was observed due to different physical phenomena by two different observers would be shown to be not coincidental in the least by special relativity. In fact, half of Einstein's 1905 first paper on special relativity, "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies," explains how to transform Maxwell's equations.

Transformation of the fields between inertial frames

The E and B fields
This equation, also called the Joules-Bernoulli equation, considers two inertial frames. As notation, the field variables in one frame are unprimed, and in a frame moving relative to the unprimed frame at velocity v, the fields are denoted with primes. In addition, the fields parallel to the velocity v are denoted by while the fields perpendicular to v are denoted as are related by:[2] . In these two frames moving at relative velocity v, the E-fields and B-fields

where

is called the Lorentz factor and c is the speed of light in free space. The inverse transformations are the same except v v. An equivalent, alternative expression is:[3]

where v is the velocity unit vector. If one of the fields is zero in one frame of reference, that doesn't necessarily mean it is zero in all other frames of reference. This can be seen by, for instance, making the unprimed electric field zero in the transformation to the primed electric field. In this case, depending on the orientation of the magnetic field, the primed system could see an electric field, even though there is none in the unprimed system. This does not mean two completely different sets of events are seen in the two frames, but that the same sequence of events is described in two different ways (see Moving magnet and conductor problem below).

Classical electromagnetism and special relativity If a particle of charge q moves with velocity u with respect to frame S, then the Lorentz force in frame S is:

In frame S', the Lorentz force is: If S and S' have aligned axes then[4]:

A derivation for the transformation of the Lorentz force for the particular case u = 0 is given here.[5] A more general one can be seen here.[6] Component by component, for relative motion along the x-axis, this works out to be the following, in SI units:

and in Gaussian-cgs units, the transformation is given by:[7]

where

The transformations in this form can be made more compact by introducing the electromagnetic tensor (defined below), which is a covariant tensor.

The D and H fields

For the electric displacement D and magnetic intensity H, using the constitutive relations and the result for c2:

gives

Analogously for E and B, the D and H form the electromagnetic displacement tensor.

Classical electromagnetism and special relativity

The and A fields

An alternative simpler transformation of the EM field uses the electromagnetic potentials - the electric potential and magnetic potential A:[8]

where

is the parallel component of A to the direction of relative velocity between frames v, and

is the

perpendicular component. These transparently resemble the characteristic form of other Lorentz transformations (like time-position and energy-momentum), while the transformations of E and B above are slightly more complicated. The components can be collected together as:

The and J fields

Analogously for the charge density and current density J,[8]

Collecting components together:

Non-relativistic approximations
For speeds v c, the relativistic factor 1, which yields:

so that there is no need to distinguish between the spatial and temporal coordinates in Maxwell's equations.

Classical electromagnetism and special relativity

10

Relationship between electricity and magnetism

One part of the force between moving charges we call the magnetic force. It is really one aspect of an electrical effect.

[9]

Richard Feynman

Deriving magnetism from electrostatics

The chosen reference frame determines if an electromagnetic phenomenon is viewed as an effect of electrostatics or magnetism. Authors usually derive magnetism from electrostatics when special relativity and charge invariance are taken into account. The Feynman Lectures on Physics (vol. 2, ch. 13-6) uses this method to derive the "magnetic" force on a moving charge next to a current-carrying wire. See also Haskell,[10] Landau,[11] and Field.[12]

Fields intermix in different frames

The above transformation rules show that the electric field in one frame contributes to the magnetic field in another frame, and vice versa.[13] This is often described by saying that the electric field and magnetic field are two interrelated aspects of a single object, called the electromagnetic field. Indeed, the entire electromagnetic field can be encoded in a single rank-2 tensor called the electromagnetic tensor; see below.

Moving magnet and conductor problem

A famous example of the intermixing of electric and magnetic phenomena in different frames of reference is called the "moving magnet and conductor problem", cited by Einstein in his 1905 paper on Special Relativity. If a conductor moves with a constant velocity through the field of a stationary magnet, eddy currents will be produced due to a magnetic force on the electrons in the conductor. In the rest frame of the conductor, on the other hand, the magnet will be moving and the conductor stationary. Classical electromagnetic theory predicts that precisely the same microscopic eddy currents will be produced, but they will be due to an electric force.[14]

Covariant formulation in vacuum

The laws and mathematical objects in classical electromagnetism can be written in a form which is manifestly covariant. Here, this is only done so for vacuum (or for the microscopic Maxwell equations, not using macroscopic descriptions of materials such as electric permittivity), and uses SI units. This section uses Einstein notation, including Einstein summation convention. See also Ricci calculus for a summary of tensor index notations, and raising and lowering indices for definition of superscript and subscript indices, and how to switch between them. The Minkowski metric tensor here has metric signature (+).

Field tensor and 4-current

The above relativistic transformations suggest the electric and magnetic fields are coupled together, in a mathematical object with 6 components: an antisymmetric second-rank tensor, or a bivector. This is called the electromagnetic field tensor, usually written as F. In matrix form:[15]

where c the speed of light - in natural units c = 1.

Classical electromagnetism and special relativity There is another way of merging the electric and magnetic fields into an antisymmetric tensor, by replacing E/c B and B E/c, to get the dual tensor G.

11

In the context of special relativity, both of these transform according to the Lorentz transformation according to , where the Lorentz transformation tensor for a change from one reference frame to another. The same tensor is used twice in the summation. The charge and current density, the sources of the fields, also combine into the four-vector is

called the four-current.

Maxwell's equations in tensor form

Using these tensors, Maxwell's equations reduce to:[15]

Maxwell's equations (Covariant formulation)

where the partial derivatives may be written in various ways, see 4-gradient. The first equation listed above corresponds to both Gauss's Law (for = 0) and the Ampre-Maxwell Law (for = 1, 2, 3). The second equation corresponds to the two remaining equations, Gauss's law for magnetism (for = 0) and Faraday's Law ( for = 1, 2, 3). These tensor equations are manifestly-covariant, meaning the equations can be seen to be covariant by the index positions. This short form of writing Maxwell's equations illustrates an idea shared amongst some physicists, namely that the laws of physics take on a simpler form when written using tensors. By lowering the indices on F to obtain F (see raising and lowering indices): the second equation can be written in terms of F as:

where .

is the contravariant Levi-Civita symbol. Notice the cyclic permutation of indices in this equation:

Another covariant electromagnetic object is the electromagnetic stress-energy tensor, a covariant rank-2 tensor which includes the Poynting vector, Maxwell stress tensor, and electromagnetic energy density.

Classical electromagnetism and special relativity

12

4-potential
The EM field tensor can also be written[16]

where

is the four-potential and

is the four-position. Using the 4-potential in the Lorenz gauge, an alternative manifestly-covariant formulation can be found in a single equation (a generalization of an equation due to Bernhard Riemann by Arnold Sommerfeld, known as the RiemannSommerfeld equation,[17] or the covariant form of the Maxwell equations[18]):
Maxwell's equations (Covariant Lorenz gauge formulation)

where

is the d'Alembertian operator, or four-Laplacian. For a more comprehensive presentation of these topics,

see Covariant formulation of classical electromagnetism.

Footnotes
[1] Questions remain about the treatment of accelerating charges: Haskell, " Special relativity and Maxwell's equations. (http:/ / www. cse. secs. oakland. edu/ haskell/ SpecialRelativity. htm)" [2] Tai L. Chow (2006). Electromagnetic theory (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=dpnpMhw1zo8C& pg=PA153& dq=isbn:0763738271#PPA368,M1). Sudbury MA: Jones and Bartlett. p.Chapter 10.21; p. 402403 ff. ISBN0-7637-3827-1. . [3] Daniel, Herbert (1997), "4.5.1" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=8vAC8YG41goC), Physik: Elektrodynamik, relativistische Physik, Walter de Gruyter, pp.360361, ISBN3-11-015777-2, , Extract of pages 360-361 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=8vAC8YG41goC& pg=PA360) [4] R.C.Tolman "Relativity Thermodynamics and Cosmology" pp25 [5] Force Laws and Maxwell's Equations http:/ / www. mathpages. com/ rr/ s2-02/ 2-02. htm at MathPages [6] http:/ / www. hep. princeton. edu/ ~mcdonald/ examples/ EM/ ganley_ajp_31_510_62. pdf [7] Jackson, John D. (1998). Classical Electrodynamics (3rd ed.). Wiley. ISBN 0-471-30932-X [8] The Cambridge Handbook of Physics Formulas, G. Woan, Cambridge University Press, 2010, ISBN 978-0-521-57507-2. [9] Feynman Lectures vol. 2, ch. 1-1 [10] http:/ / www. cse. secs. oakland. edu/ haskell/ SpecialRelativity. htm [11] E M Lifshitz, L D Landau (1980). The classical theory of fields (http:/ / worldcat. org/ isbn/ 0750627689). Course of Theoretical Physics. Vol. 2 (Fourth Edition ed.). Oxford UK: Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN0-7506-2768-9. . [12] J H Field (2006) "Classical electromagnetism as a consequence of Coulomb's law, special relativity and Hamilton's principle and its relationship to quantum electrodynamics". Phys. Scr. 74 702-717 [13] Tai L. Chow (2006). Electromagnetic theory (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=dpnpMhw1zo8C& pg=PA153& dq=isbn:0763738271#PPR6,M1). Sudbury MA: Jones and Bartlett. p.395. ISBN0-7637-3827-1. . [14] David J Griffiths (1999). Introduction to electrodynamics (http:/ / worldcat. org/ isbn/ 013805326X) (Third Edition ed.). Prentice Hall. pp.4789. ISBN0-13-805326-X. . [15] Griffiths, David J. (1998). Introduction to Electrodynamics (3rd ed.). Prentice Hall. p.557. ISBN0-13-805326-X. [16] DJ Griffiths (1999). Introduction to electrodynamics. Saddle River NJ: Pearson/Addison-Wesley. p.541. ISBN0-13-805326-X. [17] Carver A. Mead (2002-08-07). Collective Electrodynamics: Quantum Foundations of Electromagnetism (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=GkDR4e2lo2MC& pg=PA37& dq=Riemann+ Summerfeld). MIT Press. pp.3738. ISBN978-0-262-63260-7. . [18] Frederic V. Hartemann (2002). High-field electrodynamics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=tIkflVrfkG0C& pg=PA102& dq=d'Alembertian+ covariant-form+ maxwell-lorentz). CRC Press. p.102. ISBN978-0-8493-2378-2. .

Coercivity

13

Coercivity
In materials science, the coercivity, also called the coercive field or coercive force, of a ferromagnetic material is the intensity of the applied magnetic field required to reduce the magnetization of that material to zero after the magnetization of the sample has been driven to saturation. Thus coercivity measures the resistance of a ferromagnetic material to becoming demagnetized. Coercivity is usually measured in oersted or ampere/meter units and is denoted HC. It can be measured using a B-H Analyzer or magnetometer.

Ferromagnetic materials with high coercivity are called magnetically hard materials, and are used to make permanent magnets. Permanent magnets find application in electric motors, magnetic recording media (e.g. hard drives, floppy disks, or magnetic tape) and magnetic separation. Materials with low coercivity are said to be magnetically soft. They are used in transformer and inductor cores, recording heads, microwave devices, and magnetic shielding.

A family of hysteresis loops for grain-oriented electrical steel (BR denotes remanence and HC is the coercivity).

Experimental determination
Typically the coercivity of a magnetic material is determined by measurement of the hysteresis loop, also called the magnetization curve, as illustrated in the figure. The apparatus used to acquire the data is typically a vibrating-sample or alternating-gradient magnetometer. The applied field where the data line crosses zero is the coercivity. If an antiferromagnet is present in the sample, the coercivities measured in increasing and decreasing fields may be unequal as a result of the exchange bias effect.
The coercivity is a horizontal intercept of the hysteresis loop.

Coercivities of soft and hard magnets: hardness grows as crystal (domain) size and strew, shrinks as smoothness or glassiness
Material Coercivity [Oe (A/m)] 0.002 0.01 0.05 [1] (0.16) [3] (0.8-80) (4-37,000)

[.1Mn:]6Fe:27Ni:Mo, Supermalloy Fe:4Ni, Permalloy .9995 ironfilings 11Fe:Si, silicon iron Raw iron (1896) .99 Nickel

[2] [1]

470 [5]

[4]

0.40.9 2 [6]

(32-72)

(160) 290 [7] (56-23,000)

0.7

[4]

Coercivity
[8]

14
ZnxFeNi1-xO3, ferrite for magnetron 2Fe:Co [9] , Iron pole

15200 [4]

(1200-16,000)

240 10

(19,000) 900 [10] (800-72,000) (51,000-1.6*105)

>.99 cobalt 6Al:18Fe:8Co:Cu:6Ni 3Ti:8Al:20Fe:20Co:2Cu:8Ni, alnico 59, fridge magnet and stronger Cr:Co:Pt, disk drive recording media 2Nd:14Fe:B, neodymium-iron-boron 12Fe:13Pt, Fe48Pt52 ?(Dy,Nb,Ga,Co):2Nd:14Fe:B

[10]

640

[11]

2000

[12]

1700

[13]

(1.4*105) [15] ((8-9.5)*105)

10,000

[14]

12,000

12,300+ 25,600

[16]

(9.8*105) [18] (2*106)

[17]

26,300

2Sm:17Fe:3N, samarium-iron-nitrogen (10 K) <500 [19]35,000 [20] (40,000-2.8*106) Sm:5Co, samarium-cobalt 40,000 [21] (3.2*106)

The coercivity of a material depends on the time scale over which a magnetization curve is measured. The magnetization of a material measured at an applied reversed field which is nominally smaller than the coercivity may, over a long time scale, slowly relax to zero. Relaxation occurs when reversal of magnetization by domain wall motion is thermally activated and is dominated by magnetic viscosity.[22] The increasing value of coercivity at high frequencies is a serious obstacle to the increase of data rates in high-bandwidth magnetic recording, compounded by the fact that increased storage density typically requires a higher coercivity in the media.

Theory
At the coercive field, the vector component of the magnetization of a ferromagnet measured along the applied field direction is zero. There are two primary modes of magnetization reversal: single-domain rotation and domain wall motion. When the magnetization of a material reverses by rotation, the magnetization component along the applied field is zero because the vector points in a direction orthogonal to the applied field. When the magnetization reverses by domain wall motion, the net magnetization is small in every vector direction because the moments of all the individual domains sum to zero. Magnetization curves dominated by rotation and magnetocrystalline anisotropy are found in relatively perfect magnetic materials used in fundamental research.[23] Domain wall motion is a more important reversal mechanism in real engineering materials since defects like grain boundaries and impurities serve as nucleation sites for reversed-magnetization domains. The role of domain walls in determining coercivity is complex since defects may pin domain walls in addition to nucleating them. The dynamics of domain walls in ferromagnets is similar to that of grain boundaries and plasticity in metallurgy since both domain walls and grain boundaries are planar defects.

Significance
As with any hysteretic process, the area inside the magnetization curve during one cycle represents the work that is performed on the material by the external field in reversing the magnetization, and is dissipated as heat. Common dissipative processes in magnetic materials include magnetostriction and domain wall motion. The coercivity is a measure of the degree of magnetic hysteresis and therefore characterizes the lossiness of soft magnetic materials for their common applications.

Coercivity The squareness (saturation remanence divided by saturation magnetization) and coercivity are figures of merit for hard magnets although energy product (saturation magnetization times coercivity) is most commonly quoted. The 1980s saw the development of rare earth magnets with high energy products but undesirably low Curie temperatures. Since the 1990s new exchange spring hard magnets with high coercivities have been developed.[24]

15

References
[1] http:/ / mysite. du. edu/ ~jcalvert/ phys/ iron. htm#Magn [2] http:/ / www. science. upd. edu. ph/ nip/ images/ pdfs/ magnetism%20and%20magneto-impedance%20of%20electroplated%20ni-fe%20permalloy%20thin%20films. pdf [3] http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1063/ 1. 365100 [4] http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ Hbase/ tables/ magprop. html [5] http:/ / cartech. ides. com/ datasheet. aspx?E=193~192~191~190~189& CK=1967748 [6] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=G0cOAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA133 [7] http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1063/ 1. 355560 [8] http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1109/ 20. 619559 [9] http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=y0FF19lud5YC& pg=PA142 [10] http:/ / pubs. acs. org/ doi/ abs/ 10. 1021/ jp045554t [11] http:/ / www. dextermag. com/ uploadedFiles/ Alnico_Data_Sheet. pdf [12] http:/ / ieeexplore. ieee. org/ xpl/ abs_free. jsp?arNumber=1066731 [13] http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1109/ 20. 278737 [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1063/ 1. 353563 http:/ / wondermagnet. com/ magfaq. html Chen & Nikles 2002 http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j. jmmm. 2006. 04. 029 http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ S0304-8853(01)00017-8 http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1109/ TJMJ. 1992. 4565502 http:/ / cat. inist. fr?aModele=afficheN& cpsidt=4841321 http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1063/ 1. 368075 Gaunt 1986 Genish et al. 2004 Kneller & Hawig 1991

Chen, Min; Nikles, David E. (2002). "Synthesis, self-assembly, and magnetic properties of FexCoyPt100-x-y nanoparticles". Nano Letters 2 (3): 211214. doi:10.1021/nl015649w. Gaunt, P. (1986). "Magnetic viscosity and thermal activation energy". Journal of Applied Physics 59 (12): 41294132. Bibcode1986JAP....59.4129G. doi:10.1063/1.336671. Genish, Isaschar; Kats, Yevgeny; Klein, Lior; Reiner, James W.; Beasley, M. R. (2004). "Local measurements of magnetization reversal in thin films of SrRbO3". physica status solidi (c) 1 (12): 34403442. doi:10.1002/pssc.200405476. Kneller, E. F.; Hawig, R. (1991). "The exchange-spring magnet: a new material principle for permanent magnets". IEEE Transactions on Magnetics 27 (4): 35883560. Bibcode1991ITM....27.3588K. doi:10.1109/20.102931. Livingston, J. D. (1981). "A review of coercivity mechanisms". Journal of Applied Physics 52 (3): 25412545. Bibcode1981JAP....52.2544L. doi:10.1063/1.328996.

Coercivity

16

External links
Magnetization reversal applet (coherent rotation) (http://www.bama.ua.edu/~tmewes/Java/Reversal/reversal. shtml) For a table of coercivities of various magnetic recording media, see " Degaussing Data Storage Tape Magnetic Media (http://www.fujifilmusa.com/shared/bin/Degauss_Data_Tape.pdf)" (PDF), at fujifilmusa.com. ml-Coercivity

Diamagnetism
Diamagnetism is the property of an object or material which causes it to create a magnetic field in opposition to an externally applied magnetic field. Unlike a ferromagnet, a diamagnet is not a permanent magnet. Diamagnetism is believed to be due to quantum mechanics (and is understood in terms of Landau levels[1]) and occurs because the external field alters the orbital velocity of electrons around their nuclei, thus changing the magnetic dipole moment. According to Lenz's law, the field of these electrons will oppose the magnetic field changes provided by the applied field. The magnetic permeability of diamagnets is less than (a relative permeability less than1). In most materials diamagnetism is a weak effect, but in a superconductor a strong quantum effect repels the magnetic field entirely, apart from a thin layer at the surface. Diamagnets were first discovered when Sebald Justinus Brugmans observed in 1778 that bismuth and antimony were repelled by Levitating pyrolytic carbon magnetic fields. The term diamagnetism was coined by Michael Faraday in September 1845, when he realized that every material responded (in either a diamagnetic or paramagnetic way) to an applied magnetic field.

Diamagnetic materials
Notable diamagnetic materials[2]
Material Superconductor Pyrolytic carbon Bismuth Mercury Silver v (105) 105 40.0 16.6 2.9 2.6

Carbon (diamond) 2.1 Lead 1.8

Carbon (graphite) 1.6

Diamagnetism

17
Copper Water 1.0 0.91

Diamagnetism, to a greater or lesser degree, is a property of all materials and will always make a weak contribution to the material's response to a magnetic field. However, for materials that show some other form of magnetism (such as ferromagnetism or paramagnetism), the diamagnetic contribution becomes negligible. Substances that mostly display diamagnetic behaviour are termed diamagnetic materials, or diamagnets. Materials that are said to be diamagnetic are those that are usually considered by non-physicists to be non-magnetic, and include water, wood, most organic compounds such as petroleum and some plastics, and many metals including copper, particularly the heavy ones with many core electrons, such as mercury, gold and bismuth. The magnetic susceptibility of various molecular fragments are called Pascal's constants. Diamagnetic materials have a relative magnetic permeability that is less than or equal to 1, and therefore a magnetic susceptibility which is less than 0 since susceptibility is defined as v=v1. This means that diamagnetic materials are repelled by magnetic fields. However, since diamagnetism is such a weak property its effects are not observable in everyday life. For example, the magnetic susceptibility of diamagnets such as water is v = 9.05106. The most strongly diamagnetic material is bismuth, v = 1.66104, although pyrolytic carbon may have a susceptibility of v = 4.00104 in one plane. Nevertheless, these values are orders of magnitudes smaller than the magnetism exhibited by paramagnets and ferromagnets. Note that because v is derived from the ratio of the internal magnetic field to the applied field, it is a dimensionless value. All conductors exhibit an effective diamagnetism when they experience a changing magnetic field. The Lorentz force on electrons causes them to circulate around forming eddy currents. The eddy currents then produce an induced magnetic field which opposes the applied field, resisting the conductor's motion. Superconductors may be considered to be perfect diamagnets (v = 1), since they expel all fields (except in a thin surface layer) due to the Meissner effect. However this effect is not due to eddy currents, as in ordinary diamagnetic materials (see the article on superconductivity).

Demonstrations of diamagnetism
Curving water surfaces
A superconductor acts as an essentially perfect diamagnetic material when placed in a magnetic field and it excludes the field, and the flux lines avoid the region

If a powerful magnet (such as a supermagnet) is covered with a layer of water (that is thin compared to the diameter of the magnet) then the field of the magnet significantly repels the water. This causes a slight dimple in the water's surface that may be seen by its reflection.[3][4]

Diamagnetism

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Diamagnetic levitation
Diamagnets may be levitated in stable equilibrium in a magnetic field, with no power consumption. Earnshaw's theorem seems to preclude the possibility of static magnetic levitation. However, Earnshaw's theorem only applies to objects with positive moments, such as ferromagnets (which have a permanent positive moment) and paramagnets (which induce a positive moment). These are attracted to field maxima, which do not exist in free space. Diamagnets (which induce a negative moment) are attracted to field minima, and there can be a field minimum in free space. A thin slice of pyrolytic graphite, which is an unusually strong diamagnetic material, can be stably floated in a magnetic field, such as that from rare earth permanent magnets. This can be done with all components at room temperature, making a visually effective demonstration of diamagnetism.

The Radboud University Nijmegen, the Netherlands, has conducted experiments where water and other substances were successfully levitated. Most spectacularly, a live frog (see figure) was levitated.[6] In September 2009, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California announced they had successfully levitated mice using a superconducting magnet,[7] an important step forward since mice are closer biologically to humans than frogs.[8] They hope to perform experiments regarding the effects of microgravity on bone and muscle mass. Recent experiments studying the growth of protein crystals has led to a technique using powerful magnets to allow growth in ways that counteract Earth's gravity.[9] A simple homemade device for demonstration can be constructed out of bismuth plates and a few permanent magnets that will levitate a permanent magnet.[10]

A live frog levitates inside a 32 mm diameter vertical bore of a Bitter solenoid in a magnetic field of about 16 teslas at the Nijmegen High Field Magnet [5] Laboratory.

Theory of diamagnetism
The Bohrvan Leeuwen theorem proves that there cannot be any diamagnetism or paramagnetism in a purely classical system. Yet the classical theory for Langevin diamagnetism gives the same prediction as the quantum theory.[11] The classical theory is given below.

Langevin diamagnetism
The Langevin theory of diamagnetism applies to materials containing atoms with closed shells (see dielectrics). A field with intensity B, applied to an electron with charge e and mass m, gives rise to Larmor precession with frequency = eB / 2m. The number of revolutions per unit time is / 2, so the current for an atom with Z electrons is (in SI units)[11]

The magnetic moment of a current loop is equal to the current times the area of the loop. Suppose the field is aligned with the z axis. The average loop area can be given as , where is the mean square distance of the electrons perpendicular to the z axis. The magnetic moment is therefore

Diamagnetism If the distribution of charge is spherically symmetric, we can suppose that the distribution of x,y,z coordinates are independent and identically distributed. Then , where is the mean square distance of the electrons from the nucleus. Therefore volume, the diamagnetic susceptibility is . If is the number of atoms per unit

19

Diamagnetism in metals
The Langevin theory does not apply to metals because they have non-localized electrons. The theory for the diamagnetism of a free electron gas is called Landau diamagnetism, and instead considers the weak counter-acting field that forms when their trajectories are curved due to the Lorentz force. Landau diamagnetism, however, should be contrasted with Pauli paramagnetism, an effect associated with the polarization of delocalized electrons' spins.[12]

References
[1] http:/ / physics. ucsc. edu/ ~peter/ 231/ magnetic_field/ node5. html [2] Nave, Carl L.. "Magnetic Properties of Solids" (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ Hbase/ tables/ magprop. html). Hyper Physics. . Retrieved 2008-11-09. [3] Beatty, Bill (2005). "Neodymium supermagnets: Some demonstrationsDiamagnetic water" (http:/ / amasci. com/ amateur/ neodymium. html#water). Science Hobbyist. . Retrieved September 2011. [4] Quit007 (2011). "Diamagnetism Gallery" (http:/ / quit007. deviantart. com/ gallery/ 23787987). DeviantART. . Retrieved September 2011. [5] "The Frog That Learned to Fly" (http:/ / www. ru. nl/ hfml/ research/ levitation/ diamagnetic/ ). High Field Laboratory. Radboud University Nijmegen. 2011. . Retrieved September 2011. [6] "The Real Levitation" (http:/ / www. ru. nl/ hfml/ research/ levitation/ diamagnetic/ ). High Field Laboratory. Radboud University Nijmegen. 2011. . Retrieved September 2011. [7] Liu, Yuanming; Zhu, Da-Ming; Strayer, Donald M.; Israelsson, Ulf E. (2010). "Magnetic levitation of large water droplets and mice". Advances in Space Research 45 (1): 208213. Bibcode2010AdSpR..45..208L. doi:10.1016/j.asr.2009.08.033. [8] Choi, Charles Q. (09-09-2009). "Mice levitated in lab" (http:/ / www. livescience. com/ animals/ 090909-mouse-levitation. html). Live Science. . Retrieved September 2011. [9] Kleiner, Kurt (08-10-2007). "Magnetic gravity trick grows perfect crystals" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article/ dn12467-magnetic-gravity-trick-grows-perfect-crystals. html). New Scientist. . Retrieved September 2011. [10] "Fun with diamagnetic levitation" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080212011654/ http:/ / www. fieldlines. com/ other/ diamag1. html). ForceField. 02-12-2008. . Retrieved September 2011. [11] Kittel, Charles (1986). Introduction to Solid State Physics (6th ed.). John Wiley & Sons. pp.299302. ISBN0-471-87474-4. [12] Chang, M. C.. "Diamagnetism and paramagnetism" (http:/ / phy. ntnu. edu. tw/ ~changmc/ Teach/ SS/ SS_note/ chap11. pdf). NTNU lecture notes. . Retrieved 2011-02-24.

External links
Video of a museum-style magnetic elevation train model which makes use of diamagnetism (http://www. youtube.com/watch?v=8tFsrGRwOOM) Videos of frogs and other diamagnets levitated in a strong magnetic field (http://www.ru.nl/hfml/research/ levitation/diamagnetic/) Video of levitating pyrolytic graphite (http://www.grand-illusions.com/images/articles/toyshop/ diamagnetic_levitation_2/diamagnetic_levitation_2.wmv) Video of Meissner-Ochsenfeld effect involving liquid nitrogen (http://www.science.tv/watch/ e257e44aa9d5bade97ba/liquid-nitrogen-and-superconductor) Video of a piece of neodymium magnet levitating between blocks of bismuth. (http://netti.nic.fi/~054028/ images/LevitorMK1.0-1.mpg) Website about this device, with images (in Finnish). (http://netti.nic.fi/~054028/)

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Electromagnet
An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic field is produced by the flow of electric current. The magnetic field disappears when the current is turned off. Electromagnets are widely used as components of other electrical devices, such as motors, generators, relays, loudspeakers, hard disks, MRI machines, scientific instruments, and magnetic separation equipment, as well as being employed as industrial lifting electromagnets for picking up and moving heavy iron objects like scrap iron. An electric current flowing in a wire creates a magnetic field around the wire (see drawing below). To concentrate the magnetic field, in an electromagnet the wire is wound into a coil with many turns of wire lying side by side. The magnetic field of all the turns of wire passes through the center of the coil, creating a strong magnetic field there. A coil forming the shape of a straight tube (a helix) is called a solenoid. Much stronger magnetic fields can be produced if a "core" of ferromagnetic material, such as soft iron, is placed inside the coil. The ferromagnetic core increases the magnetic field to thousands of times the strength of the field of the coil alone, due to the high magnetic permeability of the ferromagnetic material. This is called a ferromagnetic-core or iron-core electromagnet.

A simple electromagnet consisting of a coil of insulated wire wrapped around an iron core. The strength of magnetic field generated is proportional to the amount of current.

Current (I) through a wire produces a magnetic field (B). The field is oriented according to the right-hand rule.

The direction of the magnetic field through a coil of wire can be found from a form of the right-hand rule.[1][2][3][4][5][6] If the fingers of the right hand are curled around the coil in the direction of current flow (conventional current, flow of positive charge) through the windings, the thumb points in the direction of the field inside the coil. The side of the magnet that the field lines emerge from is defined to be the north pole. The main advantage of an electromagnet over a permanent magnet is that the magnetic field can be rapidly manipulated over a wide range by controlling the amount of electric current. However, a continuous supply of electrical energy is required to maintain the field.

Magnetic field produced by a solenoid (coil of wire). This drawing shows a cross section through the center of the coil. The crosses are wires in which current is moving into the page; the dots are wires in which current is moving up out of the page.

Electromagnet

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How the iron core works

The material of the core of the magnet (usually iron) is composed of small regions called magnetic domains that act like tiny magnets (see ferromagnetism). Before the current in the electromagnet is turned on, the domains in the iron core point in random directions, so their tiny magnetic fields cancel each other out, and the iron has no large scale magnetic field. When a current is passed through the wire wrapped around the iron, its magnetic field penetrates the iron, and causes the domains to turn, aligning parallel to the magnetic field, so their tiny magnetic fields add to the wire's field, creating a large magnetic field that extends into the space around the magnet. The larger the current passed through the wire coil, the more the domains align, and the stronger the magnetic field is. Finally all the domains are lined up, and further increases in current only cause slight increases in the magnetic field: this phenomenon is called saturation. When the current in the coil is turned off, most of the domains lose alignment and return to a random state and the field disappears. However some of the alignment persists, because the domains have difficulty turning their direction of magnetization, leaving the core a weak permanent magnet. This phenomenon is called hysteresis and the remaining magnetic field is called remanent magnetism. The residual magnetization of the core can be removed by degaussing.

Electromagnet used in the Tevatron particle accelerator, Fermilab, USA

Laboratory electromagnet used in physics experiments, around 1910

Magnet in a mass spectrometer

AC electromagnet on the stator of an electric motor

Magnets in an electric bell

Electromagnet

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History
Danish scientist Hans Christian rsted discovered in 1820 that electric currents create magnetic fields. British scientist William Sturgeon invented the electromagnet in 1824.[7][8] His first electromagnet was a horseshoe-shaped piece of iron that was wrapped with about 18 turns of bare copper wire (insulated wire didn't exist yet). The iron was varnished to insulate it from the windings. When a current was passed through the coil, the iron became magnetized and attracted other pieces of iron; when the current was stopped, it lost magnetization. Sturgeon displayed its power by showing that although it only weighed seven ounces (roughly 200 grams), it could lift nine pounds (roughly 4 kilos) when the current of a single-cell battery was applied. However, Sturgeon's magnets were weak because the uninsulated wire he used could only be wrapped in a single spaced out layer around the core, limiting the number of turns. Beginning in 1827, US scientist Joseph Henry systematically improved and popularized the Sturgeon's electromagnet, 1824 electromagnet.[9] By using wire insulated by silk thread he was able to wind multiple layers of wire on cores, creating powerful magnets with thousands of turns of wire, including one that could support 2063lb (unknown operator: u'strong'kg). The first major use for electromagnets was in telegraph sounders. The magnetic domain theory of how ferromagnetic cores work was first proposed in 1906 by French physicist Pierre-Ernest Weiss, and the detailed modern quantum mechanical theory of ferromagnetism was worked out in the 1920s by Werner Heisenberg, Lev Landau, Felix Bloch and others.

Uses of electromagnets
Electromagnets are very widely used in electric and electromechanical devices, including: Motors and generators Transformers Relays, including reed relays originally used in telephone exchanges Electric bells Loudspeakers Magnetic recording and data storage equipment: tape recorders, VCRs, hard disks Scientific instruments such as MRI machines and mass spectrometers Particle accelerators Magnetic locks Magnetic separation of material Industrial lifting magnets Electromagnetic suspension used for MAGLEV trains

Industrial electromagnet lifting scrap iron, 1914

Electromagnet

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Analysis of ferromagnetic electromagnets

For definitions of the variables below, see box at end of article. The magnetic field of electromagnets in the general case is given by Ampere's Law:

which says that the integral of the magnetizing field H around any closed loop of the field is equal to the sum of the current flowing through the loop. Another equation used, that gives the magnetic field due to each small segment of current, is the Biot-Savart law. Computing the magnetic field and force exerted by ferromagnetic materials is difficult for two reasons. First, because the strength of the field varies from point to point in a complicated way, particularly outside the core and in air gaps, where fringing fields and leakage flux must be considered. Second, because the magnetic field B and force are nonlinear functions of the current, depending on the nonlinear relation between B and H for the particular core material used. For precise calculations, computer programs that can produce a model of the magnetic field using the finite element method are employed.

Magnetic circuit the constant B field approximation

In many practical applications of electromagnets, such as motors, generators, transformers, lifting magnets, and loudspeakers, the iron core is in the form of a loop or magnetic circuit, possibly broken by a few narrow air gaps. This is because iron presents much less "resistance" (reluctance) to the magnetic field than air, so a stronger field can be obtained if most of the magnetic field's path is within the core. Since most of the magnetic field is confined within the outlines of the core loop, this allows a simplification of the mathematical analysis. See the drawing at right. A common simplifying assumption satisfied by many electromagnets, which will be used in this section, is that the magnetic field strength B is constant around the magnetic circuit and zero outside it. Most of the magnetic field will be concentrated in the core material (C). Within the core the magnetic field (B) will be approximately uniform across any cross section, so if in addition the core has roughly constant area throughout its length, the field in the core will be constant. This just leaves the air gaps (G),

Magnetic field (green) of a typical electromagnet, with the iron core C forming a closed loop with two air gaps G in it. Most of the magnetic field B is concentrated in the core. However some of the field lines BL, called the "leakage flux", do not follow the full core circuit and so do not contribute to the force exerted by the electromagnet. In the gaps G the field lines spread out beyond the boundaries of the core in "fringing fields" BF. This increases the "resistance" (reluctance) of the magnetic circuit, decreasing the total magnetic flux in the core. Both the leakage flux and the fringing fields get larger as the gaps are increased, reducing the force exerted by the magnet. Line L shows the average length of the magnetic circuit, used in equation (1) below. It is the sum of the length Lcore in the iron core and the length Lgap in the air gaps

Electromagnet if any, between core sections. In the gaps the magnetic field lines are no longer confined by the core, so they 'bulge' out beyond the outlines of the core before curving back to enter the next piece of core material, reducing the field strength in the gap. The bulges (BF) are called fringing fields. However, as long as the length of the gap is smaller than the cross section dimensions of the core, the field in the gap will be approximately the same as in the core. In addition, some of the magnetic field lines (BL) will take 'short cuts' and not pass through the entire core circuit, and thus will not contribute to the force exerted by the magnet. This also includes field lines that encircle the wire windings but do not enter the core. This is called leakage flux. Therefore the equations in this section are valid for electromagnets for which: 1. the magnetic circuit is a single loop of core material, possibly broken by a few air gaps 2. the core has roughly the same cross sectional area throughout its length. 3. any air gaps between sections of core material are not large compared with the cross sectional dimensions of the core. 4. there is negligible leakage flux The main nonlinear feature of ferromagnetic materials is that the B field saturates at a certain value, which is around 1.6 teslas (T) for most high permeability core steels. The B field increases quickly with increasing current up to that value, but above that value the field levels off and becomes almost constant, regardless of how much current is sent through the windings. So the strength of the magnetic field possible from an iron core electromagnet is limited to around 1.6 to 2 T.

24

Magnetic field created by a current

The magnetic field created by an electromagnet is proportional to both the number of turns in the winding, N, and the current in the wire, I, hence this product, NI, in ampere-turns, is given the name magnetomotive force. For an electromagnet with a single magnetic circuit, of which length Lcore is in the core material and length Lgap is in air gaps, Ampere's Law reduces to:[10][11]

where is the permeability of free space (or air); note that in this definition is

amperes. This is a nonlinear equation, because the permeability of the core, , varies with the magnetic field B. For an exact solution, the value of at the B value used must be obtained from the core material hysteresis curve. If B is unknown, the equation must be solved by numerical methods. However, if the magnetomotive force is well above saturation, so the core material is in saturation, the magnetic field will be approximately the saturation value Bsat for the material, and won't vary much with changes in NI. For a closed magnetic circuit (no air gap) most core materials saturate at a magnetomotive force of roughly 800 ampere-turns per meter of flux path. For most core materials, .[11] So in equation (1) above, the second term dominates.

Therefore, in magnetic circuits with an air gap, the strength of the magnetic field B depends strongly on the length of the air gap, and the length of the flux path in the core doesn't matter much.

Electromagnet

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Force exerted by magnetic field

The force exerted by an electromagnet on a section of core material is:

The 1.6 T limit on the field mentioned above sets a limit on the maximum force per unit core area, or pressure, an iron-core electromagnet can exert; roughly:

In more intuitive units it's useful to remember that at 1T the magnetic pressure is approximately 4 atmospheres, or kg/cm2. Given a core geometry, the B field needed for a given force can be calculated from (2); if it comes out to much more than 1.6 T, a larger core must be used.

Closed magnetic circuit

For a closed magnetic circuit (no air gap), such as would be found in an electromagnet lifting a piece of iron bridged across its poles, equation (1) becomes:

Substituting into (2), the force is:

It can be seen that to maximize the force, a core with a short flux path L and a wide cross sectional area A is preferred. To achieve this, in applications like lifting magnets (see photo above) and loudspeakers a flat cylindrical design is often used. The winding is wrapped around a short wide cylindrical core that forms one pole, and a thick metal housing that wraps around the outside of the windings forms the other part of the magnetic circuit, bringing the magnetic field to the front to form the other pole.

Cross section of lifting electromagnet like that in above photo, showing cylindrical construction. The windings (C) are flat copper strips to withstand the Lorentz force of the magnetic field. The core is formed by the thick iron housing (D) that wraps around the windings.

Force between electromagnets

The above methods are inapplicable when most of the magnetic field path is outside the core. For electromagnets (or permanent magnets) with well defined 'poles' where the field lines emerge from the core, the force between two electromagnets can be found using the 'Gilbert model' which assumes the magnetic field is produced by fictitious 'magnetic charges' on the surface of the poles, with pole strength m and units of Ampere-turn meter. Magnetic pole strength of electromagnets can be found from:

The force between two poles is:

This model doesn't give the correct magnetic field inside the core, and thus gives incorrect results if the pole of one magnet gets too close to another magnet.

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Side effects in large electromagnets

There are several side effects which become important in large electromagnets and must be provided for in their design:

Ohmic heating
The only power consumed in a DC electromagnet is due to the resistance of the windings, and is dissipated as heat. Some large electromagnets require cooling water circulating through pipes in the windings to carry off the waste heat. Since the magnetic field is proportional to the product NI, the number of turns in the windings N and the current I can be chosen to minimize heat losses, as long as their product is constant. Since the power dissipation, P = I2R, increases with the square of the current but only increases approximately linearly with the number of windings, the power lost in the windings can be minimized by reducing I and increasing the number of turns N proportionally. For example halving I and doubling N halves the power loss. This is one reason most electromagnets have windings with many turns of wire. However, the limit to increasing N is that the larger number of windings takes up more room between the magnet's core pieces. If the area available for the windings is filled up, more turns require going to a smaller diameter of wire, which has higher resistance, which cancels the advantage of using more turns. So in large magnets there is a minimum amount of heat loss that can't be reduced. This increases with the square of the magnetic flux B2.

Large aluminum busbars carrying current into the electromagnets at the LNCMI (Laboratoire National des Champs Magntiques Intenses) high field laboratory.

Inductive voltage spikes

An electromagnet is a large inductor, and resists changes in the current through its windings. Any sudden changes in the winding current cause large voltage spikes across the windings. This is because when the current through the magnet is increased, such as when it is turned on, energy from the circuit must be stored in the magnetic field. When it is turned off the energy in the field is returned to the circuit. If an ordinary switch is used to control the winding current, this can cause sparks at the terminals of the switch. This doesn't occur when the magnet is switched on, because the voltage is limited to the power supply voltage. But when it is switched off, the energy in the magnetic field is suddenly returned to the circuit, causing a large voltage spike and an arc across the switch contacts, which can damage them. With small electromagnets a capacitor is often used across the contacts, which reduces arcing by temporarily storing the current. More often a diode is used to prevent voltage spikes by providing a path for the current to recirculate through the winding until the energy is dissipated as heat. The diode is connected across the winding, oriented so it is reverse-biased during steady state operation and doesn't conduct. When the supply voltage is removed, the voltage spike forward-biases the diode and the reactive current continues to flow through the winding, through the diode and back into the winding. A diode used in this way is called a flyback diode. Large electromagnets are usually powered by variable current electronic power supplies, controlled by a microprocessor, which prevent voltage spikes by accomplishing current changes slowly, in gentle ramps. It may take several minutes to energize or deenergize a large magnet.

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Lorentz forces
In powerful electromagnets, the magnetic field exerts a force on each turn of the windings, due to the Lorentz force acting on the moving charges within the wire. The Lorentz force is perpendicular to both the axis of the wire and the magnetic field. It can be visualized as a pressure between the magnetic field lines, pushing them apart. It has two effects on an electromagnet's windings: The field lines within the axis of the coil exert a radial force on each turn of the windings, tending to push them outward in all directions. This causes a tensile stress in the wire. The leakage field lines between each turn of the coil exert a repulsive force between adjacent turns, tending to push them apart. The Lorentz forces increase with B2. In large electromagnets the windings must be firmly clamped in place, to prevent motion on power-up and power-down from causing metal fatigue in the windings. In the Bitter design, below, used in very high field research magnets, the windings are constructed as flat disks to resist the radial forces, and clamped in an axial direction to resist the axial ones.

Core losses
In alternating current (AC) electromagnets, used in transformers, inductors, and AC motors and generators, the magnetic field is constantly changing. This causes energy losses in their magnetic cores that are dissipated as heat in the core. The losses stem from two processes: Eddy currents: From Faraday's law of induction, the changing magnetic field induces circulating electric currents inside nearby conductors, called eddy currents. The energy in these currents is dissipated as heat in the electrical resistance of the conductor, so they are a cause of energy loss. Since the magnet's iron core is conductive, and most of the magnetic field is concentrated there, eddy currents in the core are the major problem. Eddy currents are closed loops of current that flow in planes perpendicular to the magnetic field. The energy dissipated is proportional to the area enclosed by the loop. To prevent them, the cores of AC electromagnets are made of stacks of thin steel sheets, or laminations, oriented parallel to the magnetic field, with an insulating coating on the surface. The insulation layers prevent eddy current from flowing between the sheets. Any remaining eddy currents must flow within the cross section of each individual lamination, which reduces losses greatly. Another alternative is to use a ferrite core, which is a nonconductor. Hysteresis losses: Reversing the direction of magnetization of the magnetic domains in the core material each cycle causes energy loss, because of the coercivity of the material. These losses are called hysteresis. The energy lost per cycle is proportional to the area of the hysteresis loop in the BH graph. To minimize this loss, magnetic cores used in transformers and other AC electromagnets are made of "soft" low coercivity materials, such as silicon steel or soft ferrite. The energy loss per cycle of the AC current is constant for each of these processes, so the power loss increases linearly with frequency.

Electromagnet

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High field electromagnets

Superconducting electromagnets
When a magnetic field higher than the ferromagnetic limit of 1.6 T is needed, superconducting electromagnets can be used. Instead of using ferromagnetic materials, these use superconducting windings cooled with liquid helium, which conduct current without electrical resistance. These allow enormous currents to flow, which generate intense magnetic fields. Superconducting magnets are limited by the field strength at which the winding material ceases to be superconducting. Current designs are limited to 1020 T, with the current (2009) record of 33.8 T.[12] The necessary refrigeration equipment and cryostat make them much more expensive than ordinary electromagnets. However, in high power applications this can be offset by lower operating costs, since after startup no power is required for the windings, since no energy is lost to ohmic heating. They are used in particle accelerators, MRI machines, and research.

Bitter electromagnets

Both iron-core and superconducting electromagnets have limits to the field they can produce. Therefore the most powerful man-made magnetic fields have been generated by air-core nonsuperconducting electromagnets of a design invented by Francis Bitter in 1933, called Bitter electromagnets.[13] Instead of wire windings, a Bitter magnet consists of a solenoid made of a stack of conducting disks, arranged so that the current moves in a helical path through them. This design has the mechanical strength to withstand the extreme Lorentz forces of the field, which increase with B2. The disks are pierced with holes through which cooling water passes to carry away the heat caused by the high current. The strongest continuous field achieved with a resistive magnet is currently (2008) 35 T, produced by a Bitter electromagnet.[12] The strongest continuous magnetic field, 45 T,[13] was achieved with a hybrid device consisting of a Bitter magnet inside a superconducting magnet.

The most powerful electromagnet in the world, the 45 T hybrid Bitter-superconducting magnet at the US National High Magnetic Field Laboratory, Tallahassee, Florida, USA

Exploding electromagnets
The factor limiting the strength of electromagnets is the inability to dissipate the enormous waste heat, so more powerful fields, up to 100 T,[12] have been obtained from resistive magnets by sending brief pulses of current through them. The most powerful manmade magnetic fields have been created by using explosives to compress the magnetic field inside an electromagnet as it is pulsed. The implosion compresses the magnetic field to values of around 1000 T[13] for a few microseconds. While this method may seem very destructive there are methods to control the blast so that neither the experiment nor the magnetic structure are harmed, by redirecting the brunt of the force radially outwards. These devices are known as destructive pulsed electromagnets. They are used in physics and materials science research to study the properties of materials at high magnetic fields.

Electromagnet

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Definition of terms
square meter tesla newton ampere per meter ampere meter meter meter ampere meter cross sectional area of core Magnetic field (Magnetic flux density) Force exerted by magnetic field Magnetizing field Current in the winding wire Total length of the magnetic field path Length of the magnetic field path in the core material Length of the magnetic field path in air gaps Pole strength of the electromagnet

newton per square ampere Permeability of the electromagnet core material newton per square ampere Permeability of free space (or air) = 4(107) meter Relative permeability of the electromagnet core material Number of turns of wire on the electromagnet Distance between the poles of two electromagnets

References
[1] Olson, Andrew (2008). "Right hand rules" (http:/ / www. ece. unb. ca/ Courses/ EE2683/ AW/ hand_rules. pdf). Science fair project resources. Science Buddies. . Retrieved 2008-08-11. [2] Wilson, Adam (2008). "Hand Rules" (http:/ / www. ece. unb. ca/ Courses/ EE2683/ AW/ hand_rules. pdf). Course outline, EE2683 Electric Circuits and Machines. Faculty of Engineering, Univ. of New Brunswick. . Retrieved 2008-08-11. [3] Gussow, Milton (1983). Schaum's Outline of Theory and Problems of Basic Electricity (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=T8t4MwtiLioC& pg=PA166). New York: McGraw-Hill. pp.166. ISBN978-0-07-025240-0. . [4] Millikin, Robert; Edwin Bishop (1917). Elements of Electricity (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=dZM3AAAAMAAJ& pg=PA125). Chicago: American Technical Society. pp.125. . [5] Fleming, John Ambrose (1892). Short Lectures to Electrical Artisans, 4th Ed. (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=wzdHAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA38). London: E.& F. N. Spon. pp.3840. . [6] Fleming, John Ambrose (1902). Magnets and Electric Currents, 2nd Edition (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=ASUYAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA173). London: E.& F. N. Spon. pp.173174. . [7] Sturgeon, W. (1825). "Improved Electro Magnetic Apparatus". Trans. Royal Society of Arts, Manufactures, & Commerce (London) 43: 3752. cited in Miller, T.J.E (2001). Electronic Control of Switched Reluctance Machines (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=E8VroIWyjB8C& pg=PA7). Newnes. pp.7. ISBN0-7506-5073-7. . [8] Windelspecht, Michael. Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the 19th Century (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=hX1jPbJVSu4C& pg=PR22& lpg=PR22& dq="William+ Sturgeon"+ electromagnet+ 1825& source=web& ots=BhXj3j9j4t& sig=6gI6QNC-Yc5YMCY5RpEE43eIfgU& hl=en& sa=X& oi=book_result& resnum=9& ct=result#PPR22,M1), xxii, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2003, ISBN 0-313-31969-3. [9] Sherman, Roger (2007). "Joseph Henry's contributions to the electromagnet and the electric motor" (http:/ / siarchives. si. edu/ history/ jhp/ joseph21. htm). The Joseph Henry Papers. The Smithsonian Institution. . Retrieved 2008-08-27. [10] Feynmann, Richard P. (1963). Lectures on Physics, Vol. 2. New York: Addison-Wesley. pp.369 to 3611. ISBN0-201-02117-XP., eq. 36-26 [11] Fitzgerald, A.; Charles Kingsley, Alexander Kusko (1971). Electric Machinery, 3rd Ed.. USA: McGraw-Hill. pp.35. ISBN07021140X. [12] "Mag Lab World Records" (http:/ / www. magnet. fsu. edu/ mediacenter/ factsheets/ records. html). Media Center. National High Magnetic Field Laboratory, USA. 2008. . Retrieved 2008-08-31. [13] Coyne, Kristin (2008). "Magnets: from Mini to Mighty" (http:/ / www. magnet. fsu. edu/ education/ tutorials/ magnetacademy/ magnets/ fullarticle. html). Magnet Lab U. National High Magnetic Field Laboratory. . Retrieved 2008-08-31.

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External links
Magnets from Mini to Mighty: Primer on electromagnets and other magnets (http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/ education/tutorials/magnetacademy/magnets/) National High Magnetic Field Laboratory Magnetic Fields and Forces (http://instruct.tri-c.edu/fgram/web/mdipole.htm) Cuyahoga Community College Fundamental Relationships (http://geophysics.ou.edu/solid_earth/notes/mag_basic/mag_basic.html) School of Geology and Geophysics, University of Oklahoma

Ferrimagnetism
Not to be confused with Ferromagnetism; for an overview see Magnetism In physics, a ferrimagnetic material is one in which the magnetic moments of the atoms on different sublattices are opposed, as in antiferromagnetism; however, in ferrimagnetic materials, the opposing moments are unequal and a spontaneous magnetization remains. This happens when the sublattices consist of different materials or ions (such as Fe2+ and Fe3+). Ferrimagnetism is exhibited by ferrites and magnetic garnets. The oldest-known magnetic substance, magnetite (iron(II,III) oxide; Fe3O4), is a ferrimagnet; it was originally classified as a ferromagnet before Nel's discovery of ferrimagnetism and antiferromagnetism in 1948.[1] Some ferrimagnetic materials are YIG (yttrium iron garnet) and ferrites composed of iron oxides and other elements such as aluminum, cobalt, nickel, manganese and zinc.
Ferrimagnetic ordering

Effects of temperature
Ferrimagnetic materials are like ferromagnets in that they hold a spontaneous magnetization below the Curie temperature, and show no magnetic order (are paramagnetic) above this temperature. However, there is sometimes a temperature below the Curie temperature at which the two sublattices have equal moments, resulting in a net magnetic moment of zero; this is called the magnetization compensation point. This compensation point is observed easily in garnets and rare earth - transition metal alloys (RE-TM). Furthermore, ferrimagnets may also exhibit an angular momentum compensation point at which the angular momentum of the magnetic sublattices is compensated. This compensation point is a crucial point for achieving high speed magnetization reversal in magnetic memory devices.[2]

Properties

Below the magnetization compensation point, ferrimagnetic material is magnetic. At the compensation point, the magnetic components cancel each other and the total magnetic moment is zero. Above the Curie point, material loses magnetism.

Ferrimagnetic materials have high resistivity and have anisotropic properties. The anisotropy is actually induced by an external applied field. When this applied field aligns with the magnetic dipoles it causes a net magnetic dipole moment and causes the magnetic dipoles to precess at a frequency controlled by the applied field, called Larmor or precession frequency. As a particular example, a microwave signal circularly polarized in the same direction as this precession strongly interacts with the magnetic dipole moments; when it is polarized in the opposite direction the

Ferrimagnetism interaction is very low. When the interaction is strong, the microwave signal can pass through the material. This directional property is used in the construction of microwave devices like isolators, circulators and gyrators. Ferrimagnetic materials are also used to produce optical isolators and circulators.

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Molecular ferrimagnets
Ferrimagnetism can also occur in molecular magnets. A classic example is a dodecanuclear Manganese molecule with an effective spin of S = 10 derived from antiferromagnetic interaction on Mn(IV) metal centres with Mn(III) and Mn(II) metal centres.[3]

References
[1] L. Nel, Proprites magntiques des ferrites; Frrimagntisme et antiferromagntisme, Annales de Physique (Paris) 3, 137-198 (1948). [2] C. D. Stanciu, A. V. Kimel, F. Hansteen, A. Tsukamoto, A. Itoh, A. Kirilyuk, and Th. Rasing, Ultrafast spin dynamics across compensation points in ferrimagnetic GdFeCo: The role of angular momentum compensation, Phys. Rev. B 73, 220402(R) (2006). [3] Sessoli, Roberta; Tsai, Hui Lien ; Schake, Ann R. ; Wang, Sheyi; Vincent, John B.; Folting, Kirsten; Gatteschi, Dante; Christou, George; Hendrickson, David N. (1993). "High-spin molecules: [Mn12O12(O2CR)16(H2O)4]". J. Am. Chem. Soc., 115 (5): 18041816. doi:10.1021/ja00058a027.

Ferromagnetism
Not to be confused with Ferrimagnetism; for an overview see Magnetism Ferromagnetism is the basic mechanism by which certain materials (such as iron) form permanent magnets, or are attracted to magnets. In physics, several different types of magnetism are distinguished. Ferromagnetism (including ferrimagnetism)[1] is the strongest type; it is the only type that creates forces strong enough to be felt, and is responsible for the common phenomena of magnetism encountered in everyday life. Other substances respond weakly to magnetic fields with two other types of magnetism, paramagnetism and diamagnetism, but the forces are so weak that they can only be detected by sensitive instruments in a laboratory. An everyday example of ferromagnetism is a refrigerator magnet used to hold notes on a refrigerator door. The attraction between a magnet and ferromagnetic material is "the quality of magnetism first apparent to the ancient world, and to us today".[2]

Permanent magnets (materials that can be magnetized by an external magnetic field and remain magnetized after the external field is removed) are either ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic, as are other materials that are noticeably attracted to them. Only a few substances are ferromagnetic. The common ones are iron, nickel, cobalt and most of their alloys, some compounds of rare earth metals, and a few naturally-occurring minerals such as lodestone. Ferromagnetism is very important in industry and modern technology, and is the basis for many electrical and electromechanical devices such as electromagnets, electric motors, generators, transformers, and magnetic storage such as tape recorders, and hard disks.

A magnet made of alnico, an iron alloy. Ferromagnetism is the physical theory which explains how materials become magnets.

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History and distinction from ferrimagnetism

Historically, the term ferromagnet was used for any material that could exhibit spontaneous magnetization: a net magnetic moment in the absence of an external magnetic field. This general definition is still in common use. More recently, however, different classes of spontaneous magnetization have been identified when there is more than one magnetic ion per primitive cell of the material, leading to a stricter definition of "ferromagnetism" that is often used to distinguish it from ferrimagnetism. In particular, a material is "ferromagnetic" in this narrower sense only if all of its magnetic ions add a positive contribution to the net magnetization. If some of the magnetic ions subtract from the net magnetization (if they are partially anti-aligned), then the material is "ferrimagnetic".[3] If the moments of the aligned and anti-aligned ions balance completely so as to have zero net magnetization, despite the magnetic ordering, then it is an antiferromagnet. These alignment effects only occur at temperatures below a certain critical temperature, called the Curie temperature (for ferromagnets and ferrimagnets) or the Nel temperature (for antiferromagnets). Among the first investigations of ferromagnetism are the pioneering works of Aleksandr Stoletov on measurement of the magnetic permeability of ferromagnetics, known as the Stoletov curve.

Ferromagnetic materials
Curie temperatures for some crystalline ferromagnetic (*=ferrimagnetic) materials[4]
Material Curie temp. (K) 1388 1043 948 858 858

Co Fe Fe2O3* FeOFe2O3* NiOFe2O3*

CuOFe2O3* 728 MgOFe2O3* 713 MnBi Ni MnSb 630 627 587

MnOFe2O3* 573 Y3Fe5O12* CrO2 MnAs Gd Dy EuO 560 386 318 292 88 69

The table on the right lists a selection of ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic compounds, along with the temperature above which they cease to exhibit spontaneous magnetization (see Curie temperature). Ferromagnetism is a property not just of the chemical make-up of a material, but of its crystalline structure and microscopic organization. There are ferromagnetic metal alloys whose constituents are not themselves

Ferromagnetism ferromagnetic, called Heusler alloys, named after Fritz Heusler. Conversely there are non-magnetic alloys, such as types of stainless steel, composed almost exclusively of ferromagnetic metals. One can also make amorphous (non-crystalline) ferromagnetic metallic alloys by very rapid quenching (cooling) of a liquid alloy. These have the advantage that their properties are nearly isotropic (not aligned along a crystal axis); this results in low coercivity, low hysteresis loss, high permeability, and high electrical resistivity. One such typical material is a transition metal-metalloid alloy, made from about 80% transition metal (usually Fe, Co, or Ni) and a metalloid component (B, C, Si, P, or Al) that lowers the melting point. A relatively new class of exceptionally strong ferromagnetic materials are the rare-earth magnets. They contain lanthanide elements that are known for their ability to carry large magnetic moments in well-localized f-orbitals.

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Actinide ferromagnets
A number of actinide compounds are ferromagnets at room temperature or become ferromagnets below the Curie temperature (TC). PuP is one actinide pnictide that is a paramagnet and has cubic symmetry at room temperature, but upon cooling undergoes a lattice distortion to tetragonal when cooled to below its Tc = 125K. PuP has an easy axis of <100>,[5] so that

at 5K.[6] The lattice distortion is presumably a consequence of strain induced by the magnetoelastic interactions as the magnetic moments aligned parallel within magnetic domains. In NpFe2 the easy axis is <111>.[7] Above TC ~500 K NpFe2 is also paramagnetic and cubic. Cooling below the Curie temperature produces a rhombohedral distortion wherein the rhombohedral angle changes from 60 (cubic phase) to 60.53. An alternate description of this distortion is to consider the length c along the unique trigonal axis (after the distortion has begun) and a as the distance in the plane perpendicular to c. In the cubic phase this reduces to = 1.00. Below the Curie temperature

which is the largest strain in any actinide compound.[6] NpNi2 undergoes a similar lattice distortion below TC = 32K, with a strain of (435) 104.[6] NpCo2 is a ferrimagnet below 15K.

Lithium gas
In 2009, a team of MIT physicists demonstrated that a lithium gas cooled to less than one Kelvin can exhibit ferromagnetism.[8] The team cooled fermionic lithium-6 to less than 150 billionths of one Kelvin above absolute zero using infrared laser cooling. This demonstration is the first time that ferromagnetism has been demonstrated in a gas.

Explanation
The Bohrvan Leeuwen theorem shows that magnetism cannot occur in purely classical solids. Without quantum mechanics, there would be no diamagnetism, paramagnetism or ferromagnetism. The property of ferromagnetism is due to the direct influence of two effects from quantum mechanics: spin and the Pauli exclusion principle.[9]

Ferromagnetism

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Origin of magnetism
One of the fundamental properties of an electron (besides that it carries charge) is that it has a dipole moment, i.e. it behaves itself as a tiny magnet. This dipole moment comes from the more fundamental property of the electron that it has quantum mechanical spin. The quantum mechanical nature of this spin causes the electron to only be able to be in two states, with the magnetic field either pointing "up" or "down" (for any choice of up and down). The spin of the electrons in atoms is the main source of ferromagnetism, although there is also a contribution from the orbital angular momentum of the electron about the nucleus. When these tiny magnetic dipoles are aligned in the same direction, their individual magnetic fields add together to create a measurable macroscopic field. However in materials with a filled electron shell, the total dipole moment of the electrons is zero because the spins are in up/down pairs. Only atoms with partially filled shells (i.e., unpaired spins) can have a net magnetic moment, so ferromagnetism only occurs in materials with partially filled shells. Because of Hund's rules, the first few electrons in a shell tend to have the same spin, thereby increasing the total dipole moment. These unpaired dipoles (often called simply "spins" even though they also generally include angular momentum) tend to align in parallel to an external magnetic field, an effect called paramagnetism. Ferromagnetism involves an additional phenomenon, however: the dipoles tend to align spontaneously, giving rise to a spontaneous magnetization, even when there is no applied field.

Exchange interaction
According to classical electromagnetism, two nearby magnetic dipoles will tend to align in opposite directions, so their magnetic fields will oppose one another and cancel out. However, this effect is very weak, because the magnetic fields generated by individual spins are small and the resulting alignment is easily destroyed by thermal fluctuations. In a few materials, a much stronger interaction between spins arises because the change in the direction of the spin leads to a change in electrostatic repulsion between neighboring electrons, due to a particular quantum mechanical effect called the exchange interaction. At short distances, the exchange interaction is much stronger than the dipole-dipole magnetic interaction. As a result, in a few materials, the ferromagnetic ones, nearby spins tend to align in the same direction. The exchange interaction is related to the Pauli exclusion principle, which says that two electrons with the same spin cannot also have the same "position". Therefore, under certain conditions, when the orbitals of the unpaired outer valence electrons from adjacent atoms overlap, the distributions of their electric charge in space are further apart when the electrons have parallel spins than when they have opposite spins. This reduces the electrostatic energy of the electrons when their spins are parallel compared to their energy when the spins are anti-parallel, so the parallel-spin state is more stable. In simple terms, the electrons, which repel one another, can move "further apart" by aligning their spins, so the spins of these electrons tend to line up. This difference in energy is called the exchange energy. The materials in which the exchange interaction is much stronger than the competing dipole-dipole interaction are frequently called magnetic materials. For instance, in iron (Fe) the exchange force is about 1000 times stronger than the dipole interaction. Therefore below the Curie temperature virtually all of the dipoles in a ferromagnetic material will be aligned. The exchange interaction is also responsible for the other types of spontaneous ordering of atomic magnetic moments occurring in magnetic solids, antiferromagnetism and ferrimagnetism. There are different exchange interaction mechanisms which create the magnetism in different ferromagnetic, ferrimagnetic, and antiferromagnetic substances. These mechanisms include direct exchange, RKKY exchange, double exchange, and superexchange.

Ferromagnetism

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Magnetic anisotropy
Although the exchange interaction keeps spins aligned, it does not align them in a particular direction. Without magnetic anisotropy, the spins in a magnet randomly change direction in response to thermal fluctuations and the magnet is superparamagnetic. There are several kinds of magnetic anisotropy, the most common of which is magnetocrystalline anisotropy. This is a dependence of the energy on the direction of magnetization relative to the crystallographic lattice. Another common source of anisotropy, inverse magnetostriction, is induced by internal strains. Single-domain magnets also can have a shape anisotropy due to the magnetostatic effects of the particle shape. As the temperature of a magnet increases, the anisotropy tends to decrease, and there is often a blocking temperature at which a transition to superparamagnetism occurs.[10]

Magnetic domains
The above would seem to suggest that every piece of ferromagnetic material should have a strong magnetic field, since all the spins are aligned, yet iron and other ferromagnets are often found in an "unmagnetized" state. The reason for this is that a bulk piece of ferromagnetic material is divided into tiny magnetic domains[11] (also known as Weiss domains). Within each domain, the spins are aligned, but (if the bulk material is in its lowest energy configuration, i.e. unmagnetized), the spins of separate domains point in different directions and their magnetic fields cancel out, so the object has no net large scale magnetic field. Ferromagnetic materials spontaneously divide into magnetic domains because the exchange interaction is a short-range force, so over long distances of many atoms the tendency of the magnetic dipoles to reduce their energy by orienting in opposite directions wins out. If all the dipoles in a piece of ferromagnetic material are aligned parallel, it Weiss domains microstructure creates a large magnetic field extending into the space around it. This contains a lot of magnetostatic energy. The material can reduce this energy by splitting into many domains pointing in different directions, so the magnetic field is confined to small local fields in the material, reducing the volume of the field. The domains are separated by thin domain walls a number of molecules thick, in which the direction of magnetization of the dipoles rotates smoothly from one domain's direction to the other. Thus, a piece of iron in its lowest energy state ("unmagnetized") generally has little or no net magnetic field. However, if it is placed in a strong enough external magnetic field, the domain walls will move, reorienting the domains so more of the dipoles are aligned with the external field. The domains will remain aligned when the external field is removed, creating a magnetic field of their own extending into the space around the material, thus creating a "permanent" magnet. The domains do not go back to their original minimum energy configuration when the field is removed because the domain walls tend to become 'pinned' or 'snagged' on defects in the crystal lattice, preserving their parallel orientation. This is shown by the Barkhausen effect: as the magnetizing field is changed, the magnetization changes in thousands of tiny discontinuous jumps as the domain walls suddenly "snap" past defects. This magnetization as a function of the external field is described by a hysteresis curve. Although this state of aligned domains found in a piece of magnetized ferromagnetic material is not a minimal-energy configuration, it is metastable, and can persist for long periods, as shown by samples of magnetite from the sea floor which have maintained their magnetization for millions of years. Alloys used for the strongest permanent magnets are "hard" alloys made with many defects in their crystal structure where the domain walls "catch" and stabilize. The net magnetization can be destroyed by heating and then cooling (annealing) the material without an external field, however. The thermal motion allows the domain boundaries to

Ferromagnetism move, releasing them from any defects, to return to their low-energy unaligned state.

36

Curie temperature
As the temperature increases, thermal motion, or entropy, competes with the ferromagnetic tendency for dipoles to align. When the temperature rises beyond a certain point, called the Curie temperature, there is a second-order phase transition and the system can no longer maintain a spontaneous magnetization, although it still responds paramagnetically to an external field. Below that temperature, there is a spontaneous symmetry breaking and random domains form (in the absence of an external field). The Curie temperature itself is a critical point, where the magnetic susceptibility is theoretically infinite and, although there is no net magnetization, domain-like spin correlations fluctuate at all length scales. The study of ferromagnetic phase transitions, especially via the simplified Ising spin model, had an important impact on the development of statistical physics. There, it was first clearly shown that mean field theory approaches failed to predict the correct behavior at the critical point (which was found to fall under a universality class that includes many other systems, such as liquid-gas transitions), and had to be replaced by renormalization group theory.

References
[1] Chikazumi 2009, p.118 [2] Richard M. Bozorth, Ferromagnetism, first published 1951, reprinted 1993 by IEEE Press, New York as a "Classic Reissue." ISBN 0-7803-1032-2. [3] Herrera, J. M.; Bachschmidt, A, Villain, F, Bleuzen, A, Marvaud, V, Wernsdorfer, W, Verdaguer, M (13 January 2008). "Mixed valency and magnetism in cyanometallates and Prussian blue analogues". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 366 (1862): 127138. doi:10.1098/rsta.2007.2145. [4] Kittel, Charles (1986). Introduction to Solid State Physics (sixth ed.). John Wiley and Sons. ISBN0-471-87474-4. [5] Lander GH, Lam DJ (1976). "Neutron diffraction study of PuP: The electronic ground state". Phys Rev B. 14 (9): 40647. Bibcode1976PhRvB..14.4064L. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.14.4064. [6] Mueller MH, Lander GH, Hoff HA, Knott HW, Reddy JF (Apr 1979). "Lattice distortions measured in actinide ferromagnets PuP, NpFe2, and NpNi2" (http:/ / hal. archives-ouvertes. fr/ docs/ 00/ 21/ 88/ 17/ PDF/ ajp-jphyscol197940C421. pdf). J Phys Colloque C4, supplement 40 (4): C468C469. . [7] Aldred AT, Dunlap BD, Lam DJ, Lander GH, Mueller MH, Nowik I (1975). "Magnetic properties of neptunium Laves phases: NpMn2, NpFe2, NpCo2, and NpNi2". Phys Rev B. 11 (1): 53044. Bibcode1975PhRvB..11..530A. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.11.530. [8] G-B Jo, Y-R Lee, J-H Choi, C. A. Christensen, T. H. Kim, J. H. Thywissen, D. E. Pritchard, and W. Ketterle (2009). "Itinerant Ferromagnetism in a Fermi Gas of Ultracold Atoms". Science 325 (5947): 15211524. Bibcode2009Sci...325.1521J. doi:10.1126/science.1177112. PMID19762638. [9] Feynman, Richard P.; Robert Leighton, Matthew Sands (1963). The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Vol.2. USA: Addison-Wesley. pp.Ch. 37. ISBN0-201-02011-4H. [10] Aharoni, Amikam (1996). Introduction to the Theory of Ferromagnetism (http:/ / www. oup. com/ us/ catalog/ general/ subject/ Physics/ ElectricityMagnetism/ ?view=usa& ci=9780198508090). Clarendon Press. ISBN0-19-851791-2. . [11] Feynman, Richard P.; Robert B. Leighton, Matthew Sands (1963). The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Vol. I (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=bDF-uoUmttUC& pg=SA4-PA4& dq="inclined+ plane"+ + "conservation+ of+ energy"& hl=en& sa=X& ei=gQtdT6iLCanSiAK22tCsCw& ved=0CGwQ6AEwBg#v=onepage& q="inclined plane" "conservation of energy"& f=false). USA: California Inst. of Technology. pp.37.5-37.6. ISBN0-201-02117-XP. .

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Bibliography
Ashcroft, Neil W.; Mermin, N. David (1977). Solid state physics (27. repr. ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. ISBN978-0-03-083993-1. Chikazumi, Sshin (2009). Physics of ferromagnetism. English edition prepared with the assistance of C.D. Graham, Jr (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN9780199564811. Jackson, John David (1998). Classical electrodynamics (3rd ed.). New York: Wiley. ISBN978-0-471-30932-1. E. P. Wohlfarth, ed., Ferromagnetic Materials (North-Holland, 1980). "Heusler alloy," Encyclopdia Britannica Online, retrieved Jan. 23, 2005. F. Heusler, W. Stark, and E. Haupt, Verh. der Phys. Ges. 5, 219 (1903). S. Vonsovsky Magnetism of elementary particles (Mir Publishers, Moscow, 1975). Tyablikov S. V. (1995): Methods in the Quantum Theory of Magnetism. Springer; 1st edition. ISBN 0-306-30263-2.

External links
Electromagnetism (http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/0sn/ch11/ch11.html) - a chapter from an online textbook Sandeman, Karl (January 2008). "Ferromagnetic Materials" (http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/doitpoms/tlplib/ ferromagnetic/printall.php). DoITPoMS. Dept. of Materials Sci. and Metallurgy, Univ. of Cambridge. Retrieved 2008-08-27. Detailed nonmathematical description of ferromagnetic materials with animated illustrations

History of electromagnetic theory

The history of electromagnetism (including its use) dates back over several thousand years. In the history of electromagnetic theory, the ancients would have been acquainted with the effects of atmospheric electricity, in particular lightning[1] as thunderstorms in most southern latitudes are common, and they also knew of St. Elmo's fire. They however had little understanding of electricity, and were unable to scientifically explain those phenomena.[2] Electricity is treated jointly with magnetism, because both generally appear together; wherever electricity is in motion, magnetism is also present.[3] The phenomenon of magnetism was observed early in the history of magnetism, but was not explained in contemporary understanding until the idea of magnetic induction was developed.[4] The phenomenon of electricity was observed early in the history of electricity, but was not fully explained in contemporary understanding until the idea of electric charge was fully developed.

History of electromagnetic theory

38

Ancient and classical history

The knowledge of static electricity dates back to the earliest civilizations, but for millennia it remained merely an interesting and mystifying phenomenon, without a theory to explain its behavior and often confused with magnetism. The ancients were acquainted with rather curious properties possessed by two minerals, amber () and magnetic iron ore. Amber, when rubbed, attracts light bodies; magnetic iron ore has the power of attracting iron.[5] Based on his find of an Olmec hematite artifact in Central America, the American astronomer John Carlson has suggested that "the Olmec may have discovered and used the geomagnetic lodestone compass earlier than 1000 BC". If true, this "predates the Chinese discovery of the geomagnetic lodestone compass by more than a millennium".[6][7] Carlson speculates that the Olmecs may have used similar artifacts as a directional device for astrological or geomantic purposes, or to orient their temples, the dwellings of the living or the interments of the dead. The earliest Chinese literature reference to magnetism lies in a 4th century BC book called Book of the Devil Valley Master ( ): "The lodestone makes iron come or it attracts it."[8] The discovery of amber and other similar substances[9] in the ancient times The discovery of the property of suggests the possible perception of it by pre-historic man.[10][11] The magnets. Magnets were first found in a natural accidental rubbing against the skins with which he clothed himself may have state; certain iron oxides were discovered caused an attraction by the resin, thus electrified, of the light fur in in various parts of the world, notably in [12] sufficiently marked degree to arrest his attention. Between such a mere Magnesia in Asia Minor, that had the observation of the fact, however and the making of any deduction from it, property of attracting small pieces of iron, which is shown here. vast periods may have elapsed; but there came a time at last, when the amber was looked upon as a strange inanimate substance which could influence or even draw to itself other things; and this by its own apparent capacity and not through any mechanical bond or connection extending from it to them; when it was recognized, in brief, that nature held a lifeless thing showing an attribute of life.[12] Long before any knowledge of electromagnetism existed, people were indirectly aware of the effects of electricity. Lightning and certain other manifestations of electricity were known in ancient times, but it was not understood that these phenomena had a common origin.[13] Ancient Egyptians were aware of shocks when interacting with electric fish (such as the electric catfish) or other animals (such as electric eels).[14] The shocks from animals Electric catfish are found in tropical were apparent to observers since pre-history by a variety of peoples that came Africa and the Nile River. into contact with them. Texts from 2750 BC by the ancient Egyptians referred to these fish as "thunderer of the Nile" and saw them as the "protectors" of all the other fish.[5] Another possible approach to the discovery of the identity of lightning and electricity from any other source, is to be attributed to the Arabs, who before the 15th century used the same Arabic word for lightning (barq) and the electric ray.[13] Thales of Miletus, writing at around 600 BC, noted that rubbing fur on various substances, such as amber would cause them to attract specks of dust and other light objects.[15] Thales wrote on the effect now known as static electricity. The Greeks noted that if they rubbed the amber for long enough they could even get an electric spark to jump. The electrostatic phenomena was again reported millennia later by Roman and Arabic naturalists and physicians.[16] Several ancient writers, such as Pliny the Elder and Scribonius Largus, attested to the numbing effect of electric

History of electromagnetic theory shocks delivered by catfish and torpedo rays. Pliny in his books writes: "The ancient Tuscans by their learning hold that there are nine gods that send forth lightning and those of eleven sorts." This was in general the early pagan idea of lightning.[13] The ancients held some concept that shocks could travel along conducting objects.[17] Patients suffering from ailments such as gout or headache were directed to touch electric fish in the hope that the powerful jolt might cure them.[18] A number of objects found in Iraq in 1938 dated to the early centuries AD (Sassanid Mesopotamia), called the Baghdad Battery, resembles a galvanic cell and is believed by some to have been used for electroplating.[19] The claims are controversial because of supporting evidence and theories for the uses of the artifacts,[20][21] physical evidence on the objects conducive for electrical functions,[22] and if they were electrical in nature. As a result the nature of these objects is based on speculation, and the function of these artifacts remains in doubt.[23]

39

Middle Ages and the Renaissance

The attempt to account for magnetic attraction as the working of a soul in the stone led to the first attack of human reason upon superstition and the foundation of philosophy. After the lapse of centuries, a new capacity of the lodestone became revealed in its polarity, or the appearance of opposite effects at opposite ends; then came the first utilization of the knowledge thus far gained, in the mariner's compass, leading to the discovery of the New World, and the throwing wide of all the portals of the Old to trade and civilization.[12] In the 11th century, the Chinese scientist Shen Kuo (10311095) was the first person to write of the magnetic needle compass and that it improved the accuracy of navigation by employing the astronomical concept of true north (Dream Pool Essays, AD 1088 ), and by the 12th century the Chinese were known to use the lodestone compass for navigation. In 1187, Alexander Neckam was the first in Europe to describe the compass and its use for navigation. Magnetism was one of the few sciences which progressed in medieval Europe; for in the thirteenth century Peter Peregrinus, a native of Maricourt in Shen Kua wrote Dream Pool Essays ( Picardy, made a discovery of fundamental importance.[24] The French 13th ); Shen also first described the magnetic needle. century scholar conducted experiments on magnetism and wrote the first extant treatise describing the properties of magnets and pivoting compass needles.[5] The dry compass was invented around 1300 by Italian inventor Flavio Gioja.[25] Archbishop Eustathius of Thessalonica, Greek scholar and writer of the 12th century, records that Woliver, king of the Goths, was able to draw sparks from his body. The same writer states that a certain philosopher was able while dressing to draw sparks from his clothes, a result seemingly akin to that obtained by Robert Symmer in his silk stocking experiments, a careful account of which may be found in the 'Philosophical Transactions,' 1759.[13] Italian physician Gerolamo Cardano wrote about electricity in De Subtilitate (1550) distinguishing, perhaps for the first time, between electrical and magnetic forces. Toward the late 16th century, a physician of Queen Elizabeth's time, Dr. William Gilbert, in De Magnete, expanded on Cardano's work and invented the New Latin word electricus from (elektron), the Greek word for "amber". Gilbert, a native of Colchester, Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, and sometime President of the College of Physicians, was one of the earliest and most distinguished English men of science a man whose work Galileo thought enviably great. He was appointed Court physician, and a pension was settled on him to set him free to continue his researches in Physics and Chemistry.[26] Gilbert undertook a number of careful electrical experiments, in the course of which he discovered that many substances other than amber, such as sulphur, wax, glass, etc.,[27] were capable of manifesting electrical properties. Gilbert also discovered that a heated body lost its electricity and that moisture prevented the electrification of all

History of electromagnetic theory bodies, due to the now well-known fact that moisture impaired the insulation of such bodies. He also noticed that electrified substances attracted all other substances indiscriminately, whereas a magnet only attracted iron. The many discoveries of this nature earned for Gilbert the title of founder of the electrical science.[13] By investigating the forces on a light metallic needle, balanced on a point, he extended the list of electric bodies, and found also that many substances, including metals and natural magnets, showed no attractive forces when rubbed. He noticed that dry weather with north or east wind was the most favourable atmospheric condition for exhibiting electric phenomenaan observation liable to misconception till the difference between conductor and insulator was understood.[26] Gilbert's work was followed up by Robert Boyle (16271691), the famous natural philosopher who was once described as "father of Chemistry, and uncle of the Earl of Cork." Boyle was one of the founders of the Royal Society when it met privately in Oxford, and became a member of the Council after the Society was incorporated by Charles II. in 1663. He worked frequently at the new science of electricity, and added several substances to Gilbert's list of electrics. He left a detailed account of his researches under the title of Experiments on the Origin of Electricity.[26] Boyle, in 1675, stated that electric attraction and repulsion can act across a vacuum. One of his important discoveries was that electrified bodies in a vacuum would attract light substances, this indicating that the electrical effect did not depend upon the air as a medium. He also added resin to the then known list of electrics.[13][28][29][30]

40

Robert Boyle.

This was followed in 1660 by Otto von Guericke, who invented an early electrostatic generator. By the end of the 17th Century, researchers had developed practical means of generating electricity by friction with an electrostatic generator, but the development of electrostatic machines did not begin in earnest until the 18th century, when they became fundamental instruments in the studies about the new science of electricity. The first usage of the word electricity is ascribed to Sir Thomas Browne in his 1646 work, Pseudodoxia Epidemica.

History of electromagnetic theory

41

18th century
Improving the electric machine
The electric machine was subsequently improved by Francis Hauksbee, Litzendorf, and by Prof. Georg Matthias Bose, about 1750. Litzendorf substituted a glass ball for the sulphur ball of Guericke. Boze was the first to employ the "prime conductor" in such machines, this consisting of an iron rod held in the hand of a person whose body was insulated by standing on a block of resin. Ingenhousz, during 1746, invented electric machines made of plate glass.[32] Experiments with the electric machine were largely aided by the discovery of the property of a glass plate, when coated on both sides with tinfoil, of accumulating a charge of electricity when connected with a source of electromotive force. The electric machine was soon further improved by Andrew Gordon, a Scotsman, Professor at Erfurt, who substituted a glass cylinder in place of a glass globe; and by Giessing of Leipzig who added a "rubber" consisting of a cushion of woollen material. The collector, consisting of a series of metal points, was added to the machine by Benjamin Wilson about 1746, and in 1762, John Canton of England (also the inventor of the first pith-ball electroscope) improved the efficiency of electric machines by sprinkling an amalgam of tin over the surface of the rubber.[13]

Generator built by Francis Hauksbee.

[31]

Electrics and non-electrics

In 1729, Stephen Gray conducted a series of experiments that demonstrated the difference between conductors and non-conductors (insulators), showing amongst other things that a metal wire and even pack thread conducted electricity, whereas silk did not. In one of his experiments he sent an electric current through 800 feet of hempen thread which was suspended at intervals by loops of silk thread. When he tried to conduct the same experiment substituting the silk for finely spun brass wire, he found that the electric current was no longer carried throughout the hemp cord, but instead seemed to vanish into the brass wire. From this experiment he classified substances into two categories: "electrics" like glass, resin and silk and "non-electrics" like metal and water. "Electrics" conducted charges while "non-electrics" held the charge.[13][33]

Vitreous and resinous

Intrigued by Gray's results, in 1732, C. F. du Fay began to conduct several experiments. In his first experiment, Du Fay concluded that all objects except metals, animals, and liquids could be electrified by rubbing and that metals, animals and liquids could be electrified by means of an electric machine, thus discrediting Gray's "electrics" and "non-electrics" classification of substances. In 1737 Du Fay and Hauksbee independently discovered what they believed to be two kinds of frictional electricity; one generated from rubbing glass, the other from rubbing resin. From this, Du Fay theorized that electricity consists of two electrical fluids, "vitreous" and "resinous", that are separated by friction and that neutralize each other when combined.[34] This two-fluid theory would later give rise to the concept of positive and negative electrical charges devised by Benjamin Franklin.[13]

History of electromagnetic theory

42

Leyden jar
The Leyden jar, a type of capacitor for electrical energy in large quantities, was invented independently by Ewald Georg von Kleist on 11 October 1744 and by Pieter van Musschenbroek in 17451746 at Leiden University (the latter location giving the device its name).[35] William Watson, when experimenting with the Leyden jar, discovered in 1747 that a discharge of static electricity was equivalent to an electric current. Capacitance was first observed by Von Kleist of Leyden in 1754.[36] Von Kleist happened to hold, near his electric machine, a small bottle, in the neck of which there was an iron nail. Touching the iron nail accidentally with his other hand he received a severe electric shock. In much the same way Musschenbroeck assisted by Cunaens received a more severe shock from a somewhat similar glass bottle. Sir William Watson of England greatly improved this device, by covering the Pieter van Musschenbroek bottle, or jar, outside and in with tinfoil. This piece of electrical apparatus will be easily recognized as the well-known Leyden jar, so called by the Abbot Nollet of Paris, after the place of its discovery.[13] In 1741, John Ellicott "proposed to measure the strength of electrification by its power to raise a weight in one scale of a balance while the other was held over the electrified body and pulled to it by its attractive power". The Sir William Watson already mentioned conducted numerous experiments, about 1749, to ascertain the velocity of electricity in a wire. These experiments, although perhaps not so intended, also demonstrated the possibility of transmitting signals to a distance by electricity. In these experiments, the signal appeared to travel the 12,276-foot length of the insulated wire instantaneously. Le Monnier in France had previously made somewhat similar experiments, sending shocks through an iron wire 1,319 feet long.[13] About 1750, first experiments in electrotherapeutics were made. Various experimenters made tests to ascertain the physiological and therapeutical effects of electricity. Demainbray in Edinburgh examined the effects of electricity upon plants and concluded that the growth of two myrtle trees was quickened by electrification. These myrtles were electrified "during the whole month of October, 1746, and they put forth branches and blossoms sooner than other shrubs of the same kind not electrified.".[37] Abb Mnon in France tried the effects of a continued application of electricity upon men and birds and found that the subjects experimented on lost weight, thus apparently showing that electricity quickened the excretions. The efficacy of electric shocks in cases of paralysis was tested in the county hospital at Shrewsbury, England, with rather poor success.[38]

History of electromagnetic theory

43

Late 18th century

In 1752, Benjamin Franklin is frequently confused as the key luminary behind electricity. William Watson and Benjamin Franklin share the discovery of electrical potentials. Benjamin Franklin promoted his investigations of electricity and theories through the famous, though extremely dangerous, experiment of flying a kite through a storm-threatened sky. A key attached to the kite string sparked and charged a Leyden jar, thus establishing the link between lightning and electricity.[39] Following these experiments he invented a lightning rod. It is either Franklin (more frequently) or Ebenezer Kinnersley of Philadelphia (less frequently) who is considered as the establisher of the convention of positive and negative electricity. Theories regarding the nature of electricity were quite vague at this period, and those prevalent were more or less conflicting. Franklin considered that electricity was an imponderable fluid pervading everything, and which, in its Benjamin Franklin normal condition, was uniformly distributed in all substances. He assumed that the electrical manifestations obtained by rubbing glass were due to the production of an excess of the electric fluid in that substance and that the manifestations produced by rubbing wax were due to a deficit of the fluid. This theory was opposed by the "Two-fluid" theory due to Robert Symmer, 1759. By Symmer's theory the vitreous and resinous electricities were regarded as imponderable fluids, each fluid being composed of mutually repellent particles while the particles of the opposite electricities arc mutually attractive. When the two fluids unite by reason of their attraction for one another, their effect upon external objects is neutralized. The act of rubbing a body decomposes the fluids one of which remains in excess on the body and manifests itself as vitreous or resinous electricity.[13] Up to the time of Franklin's historic kite experiment[40] the identity of the electricity developed by rubbing and by electrostatic machines (frictional electricity), with lightning had not been generally established Dr. Wall,[41] Abbot Nollet, Hauksbee,[42] Stephen Gray[43] and John Henry Winkler[44] had indeed suggested the resemblance between the phenomena of "electricity" and "lightning," Gray having intimated that they only differed in degree. It was doubtless Franklin, however, who first proposed tests to determine the sameness of the phenomena. In a letter to Peter Comlinson, London, 19 October 1752. Franklin, referring to his kite experiment, wrote, "At this key the phial (Leyden jar) may be charged; and from the electric fire thus obtained spirits may be kindled, and all the other electric experiments be formed which are usually done by the help of a rubbed glass globe or tube, and thereby the sameness of the electric matter with that of lightning be completely demonstrated."[45] Thomas-Franois Dalibard, at Marley, near Paris, on 10 May 1742, by means of a vertical iron rod 40 feet long, obtained results corresponding to those recorded by Franklin and somewhat prior to the date of Franklin's experiment. Franklin's important demonstration of the sameness of frictional electricity and lightning doubtless added zest to the efforts of the many experimenters in this field in the last half of the 18th century, to advance the progress of the science.[13] Franklin's observations aided later scientists such as Michael Faraday, Luigi Galvani, Alessandro Volta, Andr-Marie Ampre, and Georg Simon Ohm whose work provided the basis for modern electrical technology. The work of Faraday, Volta, Ampere, and Ohm is honored by society, in that fundamental units of electrical measurement are named after them. Others would also advance the field of knowledge including those workers William Watson, Boze, Smeaton, Louis Guillaume Le Monnier, Jacques de Romas, Jean Jallabert, Beccaria, Tiberius Cavallo, John Canton, Robert Symmer, Abbot Nollet, John Henry Winkler, Richman, Dr. Wilson, Kinnersley, Joseph Priestley, Franz Aepinus, Edward Hussey Dlavai, Henry Cavendish, and Charles-Augustin de Coulomb. A

History of electromagnetic theory description of many of the experiments and discoveries of these early workers in the fields of electrical science and art will be found in the scientific publications of the time; notably the 'Philosophical Transactions', 'Philosophical Magazine', Cambridge Mathematical Journal, Young's Natural Philosophy,' Priestley's 'History of Electricity,' ' Franklin's 'Experiments and Observations on Electricity,' Cavalli's 'Treatise on Electricity,' De la Rive's 'Treatise on Electricity.'[13] Henry Elles was one of the first people to suggest links between electricity and magnetism. In 1757 he claimed that he had written to the Royal Society in 1755 about the links between electricity and magnetism, asserting that "there are some things in the power of magnetism very similar to those of electricity" but he did "not by any means think them the same". In 1760 he similarly claimed that in 1750 he had been the first "to think how the electric fire may be the cause of thunder".[46] Among the more important of the electrical experiments and researches at this period were those of Franz Aepinus, a noted German scholar (17241802) and Henry Cavendish of London, England.[13] To Aepinus is accorded the credit of having been the first to conceive the view of the reciprocal relationship of electricity and magnetism. In his work 'Tentamen Theoria Electricitatis et Magnetism,'[47] published in Saint Petersburg, 1759. he gives the following amplification of Franklin's theory, which in some of its features is measurably in accord with present day views: "The particles of the electric fluid repel each other, attract and are attracted by the particles of all bodies with a force that decreases in proportion as the distance increases; the electric fluid exists in the pores of bodies; it moves unobstructedly through non-electric (conductors), but moves with difficulty in insulators; the manifestations of electricity are due to the unequal distribution of the fluid in a body, or to the approach of bodies unequally charged with the fluid." Aepinus formulated a corresponding theory of magnetism excepting that in the case of magnetic phenomena the fluids only acted on the particles of iron. He also made numerous electrical experiments, amongst others those apparently showing that in order to manifest electrical effects tourmaline requires to be heated to a temperature between 37.5 and 100C. In fact, tourmaline remains unelectrified when its temperature is uniform, but manifests electrical properties when its temperature is rising or falling. Crystals which manifest electrical properties in this way are termed pyro-electrics, amongst which, besides tourmaline, are sulphate of quinine and quartz.[13] Cavendish independently conceived a theory of electricity nearly akin to that of Aepinus.[48] He also (1784) was perhaps the first to utilize the electric spark to produce the explosion of hydrogen and oxygen in the proper proportions to produce pure water. The same philosopher also discovered the inductive capacity of dielectrics (insulators) and as early as 1778 measured the specific inductive capacity for beeswax and other substances by comparison with an air condenser. About 1784 C. A. Coulomb, after whom is named the electrical unit of quantity, devised the torsion balance, by means of which he discovered what is known as Coulomb's law; The force exerted between two small electrified bodies varies inversely as the square of the distance; not as Aepinus in his theory of electricity had assumed, merely inversely as the distance. According to the theory advanced by Cavendish "the particles attract and are attracted inversely as some less power of the distance than the cube."[13] A large part of the domain of electricity became virtually annexed by Coulomb's discovery of the law of inverse squares. With the discovery, by the experiments of Watson and others, that electricity could be transmitted to a distance, the idea of making practical use of this phenomenon began, about 1753, to engross the minds of "inquisitive" persons, and to this end suggestions looking to the employment of electricity in the transmission of intelligence were made. The first of the methods

44

Drawing of Coulomb's torsion balance. From Plate 13 of his 1785 memoir.

History of electromagnetic theory devised for this purpose was probably that, due to Georges Lesage (1774).[49][50][51] This method consisted in the employment of 24 wires, insulated from one another and each of which had a pith ball connected to its distant end. Each wire represented a letter of the alphabet. To send a message, a desired wire was charged momentarily with electricity from an electric machine, whereupon the pith ball connected to that wire would fly out; and in this way messages were transmitted. Other methods of telegraphing in which frictional electricity was employed were also tried, some of which are described in the history on the telegraph.[13] Hitherto the only electricity known was that developed by friction or rubbing, which was therefore termed frictional electricity. We now come to the era of galvanic or voltaic electricity. Volta discovered that chemical reactions could be used to create positively charged anodes and negatively charged cathodes. When a conductor was attached between these, the difference in the electrical potential (also known as voltage) drove a current between them through the conductor. The potential difference between two points is measured in units of volts in recognition of Volta's work.[13] The first mention of voltaic electricity, although not recognized as such at the time, was probably made by Sulzer in 1767, who on placing a small disc of zinc under his tongue and a small disc of copper over it, observed a peculiar taste when the respective metals touched at their edges. Sulzer assumed that when the metals came together they were set into vibration, this acting upon the nerves of the tongue, producing the effects noticed. In 1790 Prof. Luigi Alyisio Galvani of Bologna on one occasion, while conducting experiments on "animal electricity," as he termed it, to which his attention had been turned by the twitching of a frog's legs in the presence of an electric machine, observed that the muscles of a frog which was suspended on an iron balustrade by a copper hook that passed through its dorsal column underwent lively convulsions without any extraneous cause; the electric machine being at this time absent.[13] To account for this phenomenon Galvani assumed that electricity of opposite kinds existed in the nerves and muscles of the frog; the muscles and nerves constituting the charged coatings of a Leyden jar. Galvani published the results of his discoveries, together with his hypothesis, which at once engrossed the attention of the physicists of that time; the most prominent of whom, Alexander Volta, professor of physics at Pavia, contended that the results observed by Galvani were due to the two metals, copper and iron, acting as "electromotors," and that the muscles of the frog played the part of a conductor, completing the circuit. This precipitated a long discussion between the adherents of the conflicting views; one set of adherents holding with Volta that the electric current was the result of an electromotive force of contact at the two metals; the other set adopting a modification of Galvani's view and asserting that the current was due to a chemical affinity between the metals and the acids in the pile. Michael Faraday wrote in the preface to his Experimental Researches, relative to the question whether metallic contact is or is not productive of a part of the electricity of the voltaic pile: I see no reason as yet to alter the opinion I have given; ... but the point itself is of such great importance that I intend at the first opportunity renewing the inquiry, and, if I can, rendering the proofs either on the one side or the other, undeniable to all."[13] Even Faraday himself, however, did not settle the controversy, and while the views of the advocates on both sides of the question have undergone modifications, as subsequent investigations and discoveries demanded, up to 1918 diversity of opinion on these points continued to crop out. Volta made numerous experiments in support of his theory and ultimately developed the pile or battery,[52] which was the precursor of all subsequent chemical batteries, and possessed the distinguishing merit of being the first means by which a prolonged continuous current of electricity was obtainable. Volta communicated a description of his pile to the Royal Society of London and shortly thereafter Nicholson and Cavendish (1780) produced the decomposition of water by means of the electric current, using Volta's pile as the source of electromotive force.[13]

45

History of electromagnetic theory

46

19th century
Early 19th century
In 1800 Alessandro Volta constructed the first device to produce a large electric current, later known as the electric battery. Napoleon, informed of his works, summoned him in 1801 for a command performance of his experiments. He received many medals and decorations, including the Lgion d'honneur. Davy in 1806, employing a voltaic pile of approximately 250 cells, or couples, decomposed potash and soda, showing that these substances were respectively the oxides of potassium and sodium, which metals previously had been unknown. These experiments were the beginning of Alessandro Volta electrochemistry, the investigation of which Faraday took up, and concerning which in 1833 he announced his important law of electrochemical equivalents, viz.: "The same quantity of electricity that is, the same electric current decomposes chemically equivalent quantities of all the bodies which it traverses; hence the weights of elements separated in these electrolytes are to each other as their chemical equivalents." Employing a battery of 2,000 elements of a voltaic pile Humphry Davy in 1809 gave the first public demonstration of the electric arc light, using for the purpose charcoal enclosed in a vacuum.[13] Somewhat important to note, it was not until many years after the discovery of the voltaic pile that the sameness of annual and frictional electricity with voltaic electricity was clearly recognized and demonstrated. Thus as late as January 1833 we find Faraday writing[53] in a paper on the electricity of the electric ray. "After an examination of the experiments of Walsh,[54][55] Ingenhousz, Henry Cavendish, Sir H. Davy, and Dr. Davy, no doubt remains on my mind as to the identity of the electricity of the torpedo with common (frictional) and voltaic electricity; and I presume that so little will remain on the mind of others as to justify my refraining from entering at length into the philosophical proof of that identity. The doubts raised by Sir Humphry Davy have been removed by his brother, Dr. Davy; the results of the latter being the reverse of those of the former. ... The general conclusion which must, I think, be drawn from this collection of facts (a table showing the similarity, of properties of the diversely named electricities) is, that electricity, whatever may be its source, is identical in its nature."[13] It is proper to state, however, that prior to Faraday's time the similarity of electricity derived from different sources was more than suspected. Thus, William Hyde Wollaston,[56] wrote in 1801:[57] "This similarity in the means by which both electricity and galvanism (voltaic electricity) appear to be excited in addition to the resemblance that has been traced between their effects shows that they are both essentially the same and confirm an opinion that has already been advanced by others, that all the differences discoverable in the effects of the latter may be owing to its being less intense, but produced in much larger quantity." In the same paper Wollaston describes certain experiments in which he uses very fine wire in a solution of sulphate of copper through which he passed electric currents from an electric machine. This is interesting in connection with the later day use of almost similarly arranged fine wires in electrolytic receivers in wireless, or radio-telegraphy.[13]

History of electromagnetic theory

47

In the first half of the 19th century many very important additions were made to the world's knowledge concerning electricity and magnetism. For example, in 1819 Hans Christian rsted of Copenhagen discovered the deflecting effect of an electric current traversing a wire upon- a suspended magnetic needle.[13] This discovery gave a clue to the subsequently proved intimate relationship between electricity and magnetism which was promptly followed up by Ampre who shortly thereafter (1821) announced his celebrated theory of electrodynamics, relating to the force that one current exerts upon another, by its electro-magnetic effects, namely[13] 1. Two parallel portions of a circuit attract one another if the currents in them are flowing in the same direction, and repel one another if the currents flow in the opposite direction. Hans Christian rsted 2. Two portions of circuits crossing one another obliquely attract one another if both the currents flow either towards or from the point of crossing, and repel one another if one flows to and the other from that point. 3. When an element of a circuit exerts a force on another element of a circuit, that force always tends to urge the second one in a direction at right angles to its own direction. Ampere brought a multitude of phenomena into theory by his investigations of the mechanical forces between conductors supporting currents and magnets. Professor Seebeck, of Berlin, in 1821 discovered that when heat is applied to the junction of two metals that had been soldered together an electric current is set up. This is termed Thermo-Electricity. Seebeck's device consists of a strip of copper bent at each end and soldered to a plate of bismuth. A magnetic needle is placed parallel with the copper strip. When the heat of a lamp is applied to the junction of the copper and bismuth an electric current is set up which deflects the needle.[13] Around this time, Simon Denis Poisson attacked the difficult problem of induced magnetization, and his results, though differently expressed, are still the theory, as a most important first approximation. It was in the application of mathematics to physics that his services to science were performed. Perhaps the most original, and certainly the most permanent in their influence, were his memoirs on the theory of electricity and magnetism, which virtually created a new branch of mathematical physics. George Green wrote An Essay on the Application of Mathematical Analysis to the Theories of Electricity and Magnetism in 1828. The essay introduced several important concepts, among them a theorem similar to the modern Green's theorem, the idea of potential functions as currently used in physics, and the concept of what are now called Green's functions. George Green was the first person to create a mathematical theory of electricity and magnetism and his theory formed the foundation for the work of other scientists such as James Clerk Maxwell, William Thomson, and others. Peltier in 1834 discovered an effect opposite to Thermo-Electricity, namely, that when a current is passed through a couple of dissimilar metals the temperature is lowered or raised at the junction of the metals, depending on the direction of the current. This is termed the Peltier "effect". The variations of temperature are found to be proportional to the strength of the current and not to the square of the strength of the current as in the case of heat due to the ordinary resistance of a conductor. This second law is the C^2R law,[58] discovered experimentally in 1841 by the English physicist Joule. In other words, this important law is that the heat generated in any part of an electric circuit is directly proportional to the product of the resistance of this part of the circuit and to the square of the strength of current flowing in the circuit.[13] In 1822 Johann Schweigger devised the first galvanometer. This instrument was subsequently much improved by Wilhelm Weber (1833). In 1825 William Sturgeon of Woolwich, England, invented the horseshoe and straight bar

History of electromagnetic theory electromagnet, receiving therefor the silver medal of the Society of Arts.[59] In 1837 Gauss and Weber (both noted workers of this period) jointly invented a reflecting galvanometer for telegraph purposes. This was the forerunner of the Thomson reflecting and other exceedingly sensitive galvanometers once used in submarine signaling and still widely employed in electrical measurements. Arago in 1824 made the important discovery that when a copper disc is rotated in its own plane, and if a magnetic needle be freely suspended on a pivot over the disc, the needle will rotate with the disc. If on the other hand the needle is fixed it will tend to retard the motion of the disc. This effect was termed Arago's rotations.[13][60][61] Futile attempts were made by Charles Babbage, Peter Barlow, John Herschel and others to explain this phenomenon. The true explanation was reserved for Faraday, namely, that electric currents are induced in the copper disc by the cutting of the magnetic lines of force of the needle, which currents in turn react on the needle. Georg Simon Ohm did his work on resistance in the years 1825 and 1826, and published his results in 1827 as the book Die galvanische Kette, mathematisch bearbeitet.[62][63] He drew considerable inspiration from Fourier's work on heat conduction in the theoretical explanation of his work. For experiments, he initially used voltaic piles, but later used a thermocouple as this provided a more stable voltage source in terms of internal resistance and constant potential difference. He used a galvanometer to measure current, and knew that the voltage between the thermocouple terminals was proportional to the junction temperature. He then added test wires of varying Georg Simon Ohm length, diameter, and material to complete the circuit. He found that his data could be modeled through a simple equation with variable composed of the reading from a galvanometer, the length of the test conductor, thermocouple junction temperature, and a constant of the entire setup. From this, Ohm determined his law of proportionality and published his results. In 1827, he announced the now famous law that bears his name, that is: Electromotive force = Current Resistance[64] Ohm brought into order a host of puzzling facts connecting electromotive force and electric current in conductors, which all previous electricians had only succeeded in loosely binding together qualitatively under some rather vague statements. Ohm found that the results could be summed up in such a simple law and by Ohm's discovery a large part of the domain of electricity became annexed to theory.

48

Faraday and Henry

History of electromagnetic theory

49 The discovery of electromagnetic induction was made almost simultaneously, although independently, by Michael Faraday and Joseph Henry. While Faraday's early results preceded those of Henry, Henry was first in his use of the transformer principle. Henry's discovery of self-induction and his work on spiral conductors using a copper coil were made public in 1835, just before those of Faraday.[65][66][67] In 1831 began the epoch-making researches of Michael Faraday, the famous pupil and successor of Humphry Davy at the head of the Royal Institution, London, relating to electric and electromagnetic induction. The remarkable researches of Faraday, the prince of experimentalists, on electrostatics and electrodynamics and the induction of currents. These were rather long in being brought from the crude experimental state to a compact system, expressing the real essence. Faraday was not a competent mathematician,[68][69][70] but had he been one, he would have been greatly assisted in his researches, have saved himself much useless speculation, and would have anticipated much later work. He would, for instance, knowing Ampere's theory, by his own results have readily been led to Neumann's theory, and the connected work of Helmholtz and Thomson. Faraday's studies and researches extended from 1831 to 1855 and a detailed description of his experiments, deductions and speculations are to be found in his compiled papers, entitled Experimental Researches in Electricity.' Faraday was by profession a chemist. He was not in the remotest degree a mathematician in the ordinary sense indeed it is a question if in all his writings there is a single mathematical formula.[13]

Joseph Henry

The experiment which led Faraday to the discovery of electric induction was made as follows: He constructed what is now and was then termed an induction coil, the primary and secondary wires of which were wound on a Michael Faraday wooden bobbin, side by side, and insulated from one another. In the circuit of the primary wire he placed a battery of approximately 100 cells. In the secondary wire he inserted a galvanometer. On making his first test he observed no results, the galvanometer remaining quiescent, but on increasing the length of the wires he noticed a deflection of the galvanometer in the secondary wire when the circuit of the primary wire was made and broken. This was the first observed instance of the development of electromotive force by electromagnetic induction.[13] He also discovered that induced currents are established in a second closed circuit when the current strength is varied in the first wire, and that the direction of the current in the secondary circuit is opposite to that in the first circuit. Also that a current is induced in a secondary circuit when another circuit carrying a current is moved to and from the first circuit, and that the approach or withdrawal of a magnet to or from a closed circuit induces momentary currents in the latter. In short, within the space of a few months Faraday discovered by experiment virtually all the laws and facts now known concerning electro-magnetic induction and magneto-electric induction. Upon these discoveries, with scarcely an exception, depends the operation of the telephone, the dynamo machine, and incidental to the dynamo electric machine practically all the gigantic electrical industries of the world, including electric lighting, electric traction, the operation of electric motors for power purposes, and electro-plating, electrotyping, etc.[13] In his investigations of the peculiar manner in which iron filings arrange themselves on a cardboard or glass in proximity to the poles of a magnet, Faraday conceived the idea of magnetic "lines of force" extending from pole to pole of the magnet and along which the filings tend to place themselves. On the discovery being made that magnetic

History of electromagnetic theory effects accompany the passage of an electric current in a wire, it was also assumed that similar magnetic lines of force whirled around the wire. For convenience and to account for induced electricity it was then assumed that when these lines of force are "cut" by a wire in passing across them or when the lines of force in rising and falling cut the wire, a current of electricity is developed, or to be more exact, an electromotive force is developed in the wire that sets up a current in a closed circuit. Faraday advanced what has been termed the molecular theory of electricity[71] which assumes that electricity is the manifestation of a peculiar condition of the molecule of the body rubbed or the ether surrounding the body. Faraday also, by experiment, discovered paramagnetism and diamagnetism, namely, that all solids and liquids are either attracted or repelled by a magnet. For example, iron, nickel, cobalt, manganese, chromium, etc., are paramagnetic (attracted by magnetism), whilst other substances, such as bismuth, phosphorus, antimony, zinc, etc., are repelled by magnetism or are diamagnetic.[13][72] Brugans of Leyden in 1778 and Le Baillif and Becquerel in 1827[73] had previously discovered diamagnetism in the case of bismuth and antimony. Faraday also rediscovered specific inductive capacity in 1837, the results of the experiments by Cavendish not having been published at that time. He also predicted[74] the retardation of signals on long submarine cables due to the inductive effect of the insulation of the cable, in other words, the static capacity of the cable.[13] The 25 years immediately following Faraday's discoveries of electric induction were fruitful in the promulgation of laws and facts relating to induced currents and to magnetism. In 1834 Heinrich Lenz and Moritz von Jacobi independently demonstrated the now familiar fact that the currents induced in a coil are proportional to the number of turns in the coil. Lenz also announced at that time his important law that, in all cases of electromagnetic induction the induced currents have such a direction that their reaction tends to stop the motion that produces them, a law that was perhaps deducible from Faraday's explanation of Arago's rotations.[13][75] The induction coil was first designed by Nicholas Callan in 1836. In 1845 Joseph Henry, the American physicist, published an account of his valuable and interesting experiments with induced currents of a high order, showing that currents could be induced from the secondary of an induction coil to the primary of a second coil, thence to its secondary wire, and so on to the primary of a third coil, etc.[76] Heinrich Daniel Ruhmkorff further developes the induction coil, the Ruhmkorff coil was patented in 1851,[77] and he utilized long windings of copper wire to achieve a spark of approximately 2inches (50mm) in length. In 1857, after examining a greatly improved version made by an American inventor, Edward Samuel Ritchie,[78][79] Ruhmkorff improved his design (as did other engineers), using glass insulation and other innovations to allow the production of sparks more than 300 millimetres (unknown operator: u'strong'in) long.[80]

50

Middle 19th century

The electromagnetic theory of light adds to the old undulatory theory an enormous province of transcendent interest and importance; it demands of us not merely an explanation of all the phenomena of light and radiant heat by transverse vibrations of an elastic solid called ether, but also the inclusion of electric currents, of the permanent magnetism of steel and lodestone, of magnetic force, and of electrostatic force, in a comprehensive ethereal dynamics." Lord Kelvin

[81]

Up to the middle of the 19th century, indeed up to about 1870, electrical science was, it may be said, a sealed book to the majority of electrical workers. Prior to this time a number of handbooks had been published on electricity and magnetism, notably Auguste de La Rive's exhaustive ' Treatise on Electricity,'[82] in 1851 (French) and 1853 (English); August Beer's Einleitung in die Elektrostatik, die Lehre vom Magnetismus und die Elektrodynamik,[83] Wiedemann's ' Galvanismus,' and Reiss'[84] 'Reibungsal-elektricitat.' But these works consisted in the main in details of experiments with electricity and magnetism, and but little with the laws and facts of those phenomena. Henry d'Abria[85][86] published the results of some researches into the laws of induced currents, but owing to their complexity of the investigation it was not productive of very notable results.[87] Around the mid-19th century,

History of electromagnetic theory Fleeming Jenkin's work on ' Electricity and Magnetism[88] ' and Clerk Maxwell's ' Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism ' were published.[13] These books were departures from the beaten path. As Jenkin states in the preface to his work the science of the schools was so dissimilar from that of the practical electrician that it was quite impossible to give students sufficient, or even approximately sufficient, textbooks. A student he said might have mastered de la Rive's large and valuable treatise and yet feel as if in an unknown country and listening to an unknown tongue in the company of practical men. As another writer has said, with the coming of Jenkin's and Maxwell's books all impediments in the way of electrical students were removed, "the full meaning of Ohm's law becomes clear; electromotive force, difference of potential, resistance, current, capacity, lines of force, magnetization and chemical affinity were measurable, and could be reasoned about, and calculations could be made about them with as much certainty as calculations in dynamics".[13][89] About 1850 Kirchhoff published his laws relating to branched or divided circuits. He also showed mathematically that according to the then prevailing electrodynamic theory, electricity would be propagated along a perfectly conducting wire with the velocity of light. Helmholtz investigated mathematically the effects of induction upon the strength of a current and deduced therefrom equations, which experiment confirmed, showing amongst other important points the retarding effect of self-induction under certain conditions of the circuit.[13][90] In 1853 Sir William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin) predicted as a result of mathematical calculations the oscillatory nature of the electric discharge of a condenser circuit. To Henry, however, belongs the credit of discerning as a result of his experiments in 1842 the oscillatory nature of the Leyden jar discharge. He wrote:[91] The phenomena require us to admit the existence of a principal discharge in one direction, and then several reflex actions backward and forward, each more feeble than the preceding, until the equilibrium is obtained. These oscillations were subsequently observed by B. W. Feddersen (1857)[92][93] who using a rotating concave mirror projected an image of the electric spark upon a sensitive plate, thereby obtaining a photograph of the spark which plainly indicated the alternating nature of the discharge. Sir William Thomson was also the discoverer of the electric Sir William Thomson convection of heat (the "Thomson" effect). He designed for electrical measurements of precision his quadrant and absolute electrometers. The reflecting galvanometer and siphon recorder, as applied to submarine cable signaling, are also due to him.[13] About 1876 Prof. H. A. Rowland of Baltimore demonstrated the important fact that a static charge carried around produces the same magnetic effects as an electric current.[94][95] The Importance of this discovery consists in that it may afford a plausible theory of magnetism, namely, that magnetism may be the result of directed motion of rows of molecules carrying static charges.[13] After Faraday's discovery that electric currents could be developed in a wire by causing it to cut across the lines of force of a magnet, it was to be expected that attempts would be made to construct machines to avail of this fact in the development of voltaic currents.[96] The first machine of this kind was due to Hippolyte Pixii, 1832. It consisted of two bobbins of iron wire, opposite which the poles of a horseshoe magnet were caused to rotate. As this produced in the coils of the wire an alternating current, Pixii arranged a commutating device (commutator) that converted the alternating current of the coils or armature into a direct current in the external circuit. This machine was followed by improved forms of magneto-electric machines due to RItchie, Saxton, Clarke 1834, Stohrer 1843, Nollet 1849, Shepperd 1856, Van Maldern, Siemens, Wilde and others.[13] A notable advance in the art of dynamo construction was made by Mr. S. A. Varley in 1866[97] and by Dr. Charles William Siemens and Mr. Charles Wheatstone,[98] who independently discovered that when a coil of wire, or armature, of the dynamo machine is rotated between the poles (or in the "field") of an electromagnet, a weak current

51

History of electromagnetic theory is set up in the coil due to residual magnetism in the iron of the electromagnet, and that if the circuit of the armature be connected with the circuit of the electromagnet, the weak current developed in the armature increases the magnetism in the field. This further increases the magnetic lines of force in which the armature rotates, which still further increases the current in the electromagnet, thereby producing a corresponding increase in the field magnetism, and so on, until the maximum electromotive force which the machine is capable of developing is reached. By means of this principle the dynamo machine develops its own magnetic field, thereby much increasing its efficiency and economical operation. Not by any means, however, was the dynamo electric machine perfected at the time mentioned.[13] In 1860 an important improvement had been made by Dr. Antonio Pacinotti of Pisa who devised the first electric machine with a ring armature. This machine was first used as an electric motor, but afterward as a generator of electricity. The discovery of the principle of the reversibility of the dynamo electric machine (variously attributed to Walenn 1860; Pacinotti 1864 ; Fontaine, Gramme 1873; Deprez 1881, and others) whereby it may be used as an electric motor or as a generator of electricity has been termed one of the greatest discoveries of the 19th century.[13] In 1872 the drum armature was devised by Hefner-Alteneck. This machine in a modified form was subsequently known as the Siemens dynamo. These machines were presently followed by the Schuckert, Gulcher,[99] Fein,[100][101] Brush, Hochhausen, Edison and the dynamo machines of numerous other inventors. In the early days of dynamo machine construction the machines were mainly arranged as direct current generators, and perhaps the most important application of such machines at that time was in electro-plating, for which purpose machines of low voltage and large current strength were employed.[13][102] Beginning about 1887 alternating current generators came into extensive operation and the commercial development of the transformer, by means of which currents of low voltage and high current strength are transformed to currents of high voltage and low current strength, and vice-versa, in time revolutionized the transmission of electric power to long distances. Likewise the introduction of the rotary converter (in connection with the "step-down" transformer) which converts alternating currents into direct currents (and vice-versa) has effected large economies in the operation of electric power systems.[13][103] Before the introduction of dynamo electric machines, voltaic, or primary, batteries were extensively used for electro-plating and in telegraphy. There are two distinct types of voltaic cells, namely, the "open" and the "closed," or "constant," type. The open type in brief is that type which operated on closed circuit becomes, after a short time, polarized; that is, gases are liberated in the cell which settle on the negative plate and establish a resistance that reduces the current strength. After a brief interval of open circuit these gases are eliminated or absorbed and the cell is again ready for operation. Closed circuit cells are those in which the gases in the cells are absorbed as quickly as liberated and hence the output of the cell is practically uniform. The Leclanch and Daniell cells, respectively, are familiar examples of the "open" and "closed" type of voltaic cell. The "open" cells are used very extensively at present, especially in the dry cell form, and in annunciator and other open circuit signal systems. Batteries of the Daniell or "gravity" type were employed almost generally in the United States and Canada as the source of electromotive force in telegraphy before the dynamo machine became available, and still are largely used for this service or as "local" cells. Batteries of the "gravity" and the Edison-Lalande types are still much used in "closed circuit" systems.[13] In the late 19th century, the term luminiferous aether, meaning light-bearing aether, was the term used to describe a medium for the propagation of light.[104] The word aether stems via Latin from the Greek , from a root meaning to kindle, burn, or shine. It signifies the substance which was thought in ancient times to fill the upper regions of space, beyond the clouds.

52

History of electromagnetic theory

53

Maxwell, Hertz, and Tesla

In 1864 James Clerk Maxwell of Edinburgh announced his electromagnetic theory of light, which was perhaps the greatest single step in the world's knowledge of electricity.[105] Maxwell had studied and commented on the field of electricity and magnetism as early as 1855/6 when On Faraday's lines of force[106] was read to the Cambridge Philosophical Society. The paper presented a simplified model of Faraday's work, and how the two phenomena were related. He reduced all of the current knowledge into a linked set of differential equations with 20 equations in 20 variables. This work was later published as On Physical Lines of Force in March 1861.[107] In order to determine the force which is acting on any part of the machine we must find its momentum, and then calculate the rate at which this momentum is being changed. This rate of change will give us the force. The method of calculation James Clerk Maxwell which it is necessary to employ was first given by Lagrange, and afterwards developed, with some modifications, by Hamilton's equations. It is usually referred to as Hamilton's principle; when the equations in the original form are used they are known as Lagrange's equations. Now Maxwell logically showed how these methods of calculation could be applied to the electro-magnetic field.[108] The energy of a dynamical system is partly kinetic, partly potential. Maxwell supposes that the magnetic energy of the field is kinetic energy, the electric energy potential.[109] Around 1862, while lecturing at King's College, Maxwell calculated that the speed of propagation of an electromagnetic field is approximately that of the speed of light. He considered this to be more than just a coincidence, and commented "We can scarcely avoid the conclusion that light consists in the transverse undulations of the same medium which is the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena."[110] Working on the problem further, Maxwell showed that the equations predict the existence of waves of oscillating electric and magnetic fields that travel through empty space at a speed that could be predicted from simple electrical experiments; using the data available at the time, Maxwell obtained a velocity of 310,740,000 m/s. In his 1864 paper A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field, Maxwell wrote, The agreement of the results seems to show that light and magnetism are affections of the same substance, and that light is an electromagnetic disturbance propagated through the field according to electromagnetic laws.[111] As already noted herein Faraday, and before him, Ampre and others, had inklings that the luminiferous ether of space was also the medium for electric action. It was known by calculation and experiment that the velocity of electricity was approximately 186,000 miles per second; that is, equal to the velocity of light, which in itself suggests the idea of a relationship between -electricity and "light." A number of the earlier philosophers or mathematicians, as Maxwell terms them, of the 19th century, held the view that electromagnetic phenomena were explainable by action at a distance. Maxwell, following Faraday, contended that the seat of the phenomena was in the medium. The methods of the mathematicians in arriving at their results were synthetical while Faraday's methods were analytical. Faraday in his mind's eye saw lines of force traversing all space where the mathematicians saw centres of force attracting at a distance. Faraday sought the seat of the phenomena in real actions going on in the medium; they were satisfied that they had found it in a power of action at a distance on the electric fluids.[112] Both of these methods, as Maxwell points out, had succeeded in explaining the propagation of light as an electromagnetic phenomenon while at the same time the fundamental conceptions of what the quantities concerned are, radically differed. The mathematicians assumed that insulators were barriers to electric currents; that, for instance, in a Leyden jar or electric condenser the electricity was accumulated at one plate and that by some occult action at a distance electricity of an opposite kind was attracted to the other plate.

History of electromagnetic theory Maxwell, looking further than Faraday, reasoned that if light is an electromagnetic phenomenon and is transmissible through dielectrics such as glass, the phenomenon must be in the nature of electromagnetic currents in the dielectrics. He therefore contended that in the charging of a condenser, for instance, the action did not stop at the insulator, but that some "displacement" currents are set up in the insulating medium, which currents continue until the resisting force of the medium equals that of the charging force. In a closed conductor circuit, an electric current is also a displacement of electricity. The conductor offers a certain resistance, akin to friction, to the displacement of electricity, and heat is developed in the conductor, proportional to the square of the current(as already stated herein), which current flows as long as the impelling electric force continues. This resistance may be likened to that met with by a ship as it displaces in the water in its progress. The resistance of the dielectric is of a different nature and has been compared to the compression of multitudes of springs, which, under compression, yield with an increasing back pressure, up to a point where the total back pressure equals the initial pressure. When the initial pressure is withdrawn the energy expended in compressing the "springs" is returned to the circuit, concurrently with the return of the springs to their original condition, this producing a reaction in the opposite direction. Consequently the current due to the displacement of electricity in a conductor may be continuous, while the displacement currents in a dielectric are momentary and, in a circuit or medium which contains but little resistance compared with capacity or inductance reaction, the currents of discharge are of an oscillatory or alternating nature.[113] Maxwell extended this view of displacement currents in dielectrics to the ether of free space. Assuming light to be the manifestation of alterations of electric currents in the ether, and vibrating at the rate of light vibrations, these vibrations by induction set up corresponding vibrations in adjoining portions of the ether, and in this way the undulations corresponding to those of light are propagated as an electromagnetic effect in the ether. Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light obviously involved the existence of electric waves in free space, and his followers set themselves the task of experimentally demonstrating the truth of the theory. By 1871, he presented the Remarks on the mathematical classification of physical quantities.[114] In 1887, Prof. Heinrich Hertz in a series of experiments proved the actual existence of such waves. The discovery of electric waves in space naturally led to the discovery and introduction in the closing years of the 19th century of wireless telegraphy, various systems of which are now in successful use on shipboard, lighthouses and shore and inland stations throughout the world, by means of which intelligence is transmitted across the widest oceans and large parts of continents. In 1891, notable additions to our knowledge of the phenomena of electromagnetic frequency and high potential current were contributed by Nikola Tesla.[115] Amongst the novel experiments performed by Tesla was to take in his hand a glass tube from which the air had been exhausted, then bringing his body into contact with a wire carrying currents of high potential, the tube was suffused with a pleasing bright glow. Another experiment was to grasp a bulb that was suspended from a single wire attached to a high potential, high frequency current circuit, when a platinum button within the bulb was brought to vivid incandescence, the experimenter at this time standing on an insulating platform. The frequency and potential involved in the experiments made by Tesla at this time were of the order of one or more million cycles and volts. For further information relative to these experiments the reader may be referred to Tesla's Experiments with Alternate Currents of High Potential and High Frequency.[13]

54

Nikola Tesla, c. 1896

History of electromagnetic theory

55

End of the 19th century

The electron as a unit of charge in electrochemistry was posited by G. Johnstone Stoney in 1874, who also coined the term electron in 1894. Plasma was first identified in a Crookes tube, and so described by Sir William Crookes in 1879 (he called it "radiant matter").[116] The place of electricity in leading up to the discovery of those beautiful phenomena of the Crookes Tube (due to Sir William Crookes), viz., Cathode rays,[117] and later to the discovery of Roentgen or X-rays, must not be overlooked, since without electricity as the excitant of the tube the discovery of the rays might have been postponed indefinitely. It has been noted herein that Dr. William Gilbert was termed the founder of electrical science. This must, however, be regarded as a comparative statement.[13] Oliver Heaviside was a self-taught scholar who reformulated Maxwell's field equations in terms of electric and magnetic forces and energy flux, and independently co-formulated vector analysis. His series of articles continued the work entitled "Electromagnetic Induction and its Propagation," commenced in The Electrician in 1885 to dearly 1887 (ed., the latter part of the work dealing with the propagation of electromagnetic waves along wires through the dielectric surrounding them), when the great pressure on space and the want of readers appeared to necessitate its abrupt discontinuance.[118] (A straggler piece appeared December 31, 1887.) He wrote an interpretation of the transcendental formulae of electromagnetism. Following the real object of true naturalists[119] when they employ mathematics to assist them, he wrote to find out the connections of known phenomena, and by deductive reasoning, to obtain a knowledge of electromagnetic phenomena. Although at odds with the scientific establishment for most of his life, Heaviside changed the face of mathematics and science for years to come. Of the changes in the field of electromagnetic theory, certain conclusions from Electro-Magnetic Theory[120] by Heaviside are, if not drawn, at least indicated in this book. Two of them may be stated as follows:

William Crookes

Oliver Heaviside

1. That magnetism is a phenomenon of motion and not a statical phenomenon; also that this motion is more likely to be translational than vortical. 2. That all electric currents are phenomena consequent upon the emission of electro-magnetic wave disturbances in the aether, and that the proper treatment of all the phenomena of currents and magnetic flux should be considered as the consequence, and not as the cause, of electro-magnetic waves. The ultimate results of his work are twofold. (1) The first ultimate result is purely mathematical, which is important only to those who study mathematical physics. The system of vectorial algebra[121] as developed by Mr. Heaviside was used because of ease for physical investigations to the methods of quaternions. (2) The second ultimate result is physical. It consists in more closely uniting the more recondite problems of telegraphy, telephony, Teslaic phenomena and Hertzian phenomena with the fundamental properties of the aether. In elucidating this connection, the merit of the book appears most prominently as a stepping-stone to the goal in the full view of all physical analysis, namely, the resolution of all physical phenomena to the activities of the aether, and of matter in the aether, under the laws of dynamics.[122] During the late 1890s a number of physicists proposed that electricity, as observed in studies of electrical conduction in conductors, electrolytes, and cathode ray tubes, consisted of discrete units, which were given a variety of names,

History of electromagnetic theory but the reality of these units had not been confirmed in a compelling way. However, there were also indications that the cathode rays had wavelike properties.[13] Faraday, Weber, Helmholtz, Clifford and others had glimpses of this view; and the experimental works of Zeeman, Goldstein, Crookes, J. J. Thomson and others had greatly strengthened this view. Weber predicted that electrical phenomena were due to the existence of electrical atoms, the influence of which on one another depended on their position and relative accelerations and velocities. Helmholtz and others also contended that the existence of electrical atoms followed from Faraday's laws of electrolysis, and Johnstone Stoney, to whom is due the term "electron," showed that each chemical ion of the decomposed electrolyte carries a definite and constant quantity of electricity, and inasmuch as these charged ions are separated on the electrodes as neutral substances there must be an instant, however brief, when the charges must be capable of existing separately as electrical atoms; while in 1887, Clifford wrote: "There is great reason to believe that every material atom carries upon it a small electric current, if it does not wholly consist of this current."[13] In 1896 J.J. Thomson performed experiments indicating that cathode rays really were particles, found an accurate value for their charge-to-mass ratio e/m, and found that e/m was independent of cathode material. He made good estimates of both the charge e and the mass m, finding that cathode ray particles, which he called "corpuscles", had perhaps one thousandth of the mass of the least massive ion known (hydrogen). He further showed that the negatively charged particles produced by radioactive materials, by heated materials, and by illuminated materials, were universal. The nature of the Crookes tube "cathode ray" matter was identified by Thomson in 1897.[123] In the late 19th century, the Michelson-Morley experiment was performed by Albert Michelson and Edward Morley at what is now Case Western Reserve University. It is generally considered to be the evidence against the theory of J.J. Thomson a luminiferous aether. The experiment has also been referred to as "the kicking-off point for the theoretical aspects of the Second Scientific Revolution."[124] Primarily for this work, Albert Michelson was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1907. Dayton Miller continued with experiments, conducting thousands of measurements and eventually developing the most accurate interferometer in the world at that time. Miller and others, such as Morley, continue observations and experiments dealing with the concepts.[125] A range of proposed aether-dragging theories could explain the null result but these were more complex, and tended to use arbitrary-looking coefficients and physical assumptions.[13] By the end of the 19th century electrical engineers had become a distinct profession, separate from physicists and inventors. They created companies that investigated, developed and perfected the techniques of electricity transmission, and gained support from governments all over the world for starting the first worldwide electrical telecommunication network, the telegraph network. Pioneers in this field included Werner von Siemens, founder of Siemens AG in 1847, and John Pender, founder of Cable & Wireless. The late 19th century produced such giants of electrical engineering as Nikola Tesla, inventor of the polyphase induction motor. The first public demonstration of a "alternator system" took place in 1886.[126][127] Large two-phase alternating current generators were built by a British electrician, J.E.H. Gordon, in 1882. Lord Kelvin and Sebastian Ferranti also developed early alternators, producing frequencies between 100 and 300 hertz. In 1891, Nikola Tesla patented a practical "high-frequency" alternator (which operated around 15,000 hertz).[128] After 1891, polyphase alternators were introduced to supply currents of multiple differing phases.[129] Later alternators were designed for varying alternating-current frequencies between sixteen and about one hundred hertz, for use with arc lighting, incandescent lighting and electric motors.[130] The possibility of obtaining the electric current in large quantities, and economically, by means of dynamo electric machines gave impetus to the development of incandescent and arc lighting. Until these machines had attained a

56

History of electromagnetic theory commercial basis voltaic batteries were the only available source of current for electric lighting and power. The cost of these batteries, however, and the difficulties of maintaining them in reliable operation were prohibitory of their use for practical lighting purposes. The date of the employment of arc and incandescent lamps may be set at about 1877.[13] Even in 1880, however, but little headway had been made toward the general use of these illuminants; the rapid subsequent growth of this industry is a matter of general knowledge.[131] The employment of storage batteries, which were originally termed secondary batteries or accumulators, began about 1879. Such batteries are now utilized on a large scale as auxiliaries to the dynamo machine in electric power-houses and substations, in electric automobiles and in immense numbers in automobile ignition and starting systems, also in fire alarm telegraphy and other signal systems.[13] In 1893, the World's Columbian International Exposition was held in a building which was devoted to electrical exhibits. General Electric Company (backed by Edison and J.P. Morgan) had proposed to power the electric exhibits with direct current at the cost of one million dollars. However, Westinghouse, armed with Tesla's alternating current system, proposed to illuminate the Columbian Exposition in Chicago World's Fair Tesla presentation for half that price, and Westinghouse won the bid. It was an historical moment and the beginning of a revolution, as Nikola Tesla and George Westinghouse introduced the public to electrical power by illuminating the Exposition.

57

Second Industrial Revolution

The AC motor helped usher in the Second Industrial Revolution. The rapid advance of electrical technology in the latter 19th and early 20th centuries led to commercial rivalries. In the War of Currents in the late 1880s, George Westinghouse and Thomas Edison became adversaries due to Edison's promotion of direct current (DC) for electric power distribution over alternating current (AC) advocated by Westinghouse and Nikola Tesla. Tesla's patents and theoretical work formed the basis of modern alternating current electric power (AC) systems, including the polyphase power distribution systems.[132][133] Several inventors helped develop commercial systems. Samuel Morse, inventor of a long-range telegraph; Thomas Edison, inventor of the first commercial electrical energy distribution network; George Westinghouse, inventor of the electric locomotive; Alexander Graham Bell, the inventor of the telephone and founder of a successful telephone business.
Thomas Edison In 1871 the electric telegraph had grown to large proportions and was in use in every civilized country in the world, its lines forming a network in all directions over the surface of the land. The system most generally in use was the electromagnetic telegraph due to S. F. B. Morse of New York, or modifications of his system.[134] Submarine cables[135] connecting the Eastern and Western hemispheres were also in successful operation at that time.[13]

When, however, in 1918 one views the vast applications of electricity to electric light, electric railways, electric power and other purposes (all it may be repeated made possible and practicable by the perfection of the dynamo machine), it is difficult to believe that no longer ago than 1871 the author of a book published in that year, in referring to the state of the art of applied electricity at that time, could have truthfully written: "The most important

History of electromagnetic theory and remarkable of the uses which have been made of electricity consists in its application to telegraph purposes".[136] The statement was, however, quite accurate and perhaps the time could have been carried forward to the year 1876 without material modification of the remarks. In that year the telephone, due to Alexander Graham Bell, was invented, but it was not until several years thereafter that its commercial employment began in earnest. Since that time also the sister branches of electricity just mentioned have advanced and are advancing with such gigantic strides in every direction that it is difficult to place a limit upon their progress. Electrical devices account of the use of electricity in the arts and industries.[13] AC replaced DC for central station power generation and power distribution, enormously extending the range and improving the safety and efficiency of power distribution. Edison's low-voltage distribution system using DC ultimately lost to AC devices proposed by others: primarily Tesla's polyphase systems, and also other contributors, such as Charles Proteus Steinmetz (in 1888, he was working in Pittsburgh for Westinghouse[137]). The successful Niagara Falls system was a turning point in the acceptance of alternating current. Eventually, the General Electric company (formed by a merger between Edison's companies and the AC-based rival Thomson-Houston) began manufacture of AC machines. Centralized power generation became Charles Proteus Steinmetz, theoretician possible when it was recognized that alternating current electric power lines of alternating current. can transport electricity at low costs across great distances by taking advantage of the ability to change voltage across the distribution path using power transformers. The voltage is raised at the point of generation (a representative number is a generator voltage in the low kilovolt range) to a much higher voltage (tens of thousands to several hundred thousand volts) for primary transmission, followed to several downward transformations, to as low as that used in residential domestic use.[13] The International Electro-Technical Exhibition of 1891 featuring the long distance transmission of high-power, three-phase electric current. It was held between 16 May and 19 October on the disused site of the three former "Westbahnhfe" (Western Railway Stations) in Frankfurt am Main. The exhibition featured the first long distance transmission of high-power, three-phase electric current, which was generated 175km away at Lauffen am Neckar. As a result of this successful field trial, three-phase current became established for electrical transmission networks throughout the world.[13] Much was done in the direction in the improvement of railroad terminal facilities, and it is difficult to find one steam railroad engineer who would have denied that all the important steam railroads of this country were not to be operated electrically. In other directions the progress of events as to the utilization of electric power was expected to be equally rapid. In every part of the world the power of falling water, nature's perpetual motion machine, which has been going to waste since the world began, is now being converted into electricity and transmitted by wire hundreds of miles to points where it is usefully and economically employed.[13][138] The first windmill for electricity production was built in Scotland in July 1887 by Prof James Blyth of Anderson's College, Glasgow (the precursor of Strathclyde University.[139] Across the Atlantic, in Cleveland, Ohio a larger and heavily engineered machine was designed and constructed in 1887-1888 by Charles F. Brush,[140] this was built by his engineering company at his home and operated from 1886 until 1900.[141] The Brush wind turbine had a rotor 56 feet (unknown operator: u'strong'm) in diameter and was mounted on a 60-foot (18 m) tower. Although large by today's standards, the machine was only rated at 12kW; it turned relatively slowly since it had 144 blades. The connected dynamo was used either to charge a bank of batteries or to operate up to 100 incandescent light bulbs, three arc lamps, and various motors in Brush's laboratory. The machine fell into disuse after 1900 when electricity became available from Cleveland's central stations, and was abandoned in 1908.[142]

58

History of electromagnetic theory

59

20th century
Various units of electricity and magnetism have been adopted and named by representatives of the electrical engineering institutes of the world, which units and names have been confirmed and legalized by the governments of the United States and other countries. Thus the volt, from the Italian Volta, has been adopted as the practical unit of electromotive force, the ohm, from the enunciator of Ohm's law, as the practical unit of resistance; the ampere, after the eminent French scientist of that name, as the practical unit of current strength, the henry as the practical unit of inductance, after Joseph Henry and in recognition of his early and important experimental work in mutual induction.[143] Dewar and John Ambrose Fleming predicted that at absolute zero, pure metals would become perfect electromagnetic conductors (though, later, Dewar altered his opinion on the disappearance of resistance believing that there would always be some resistance). Walther Hermann Nernst developed the third law of thermodynamics and stated that absolute zero was unattainable. Carl von Linde and William Hampson, both commercial researchers, nearly at the same time filed for patents on the Joule-Thomson effect. Linde's patent was the climax of 20 years of systematic investigation of established facts, using a regenerative counterflow method. Hampson's design was also of a regenerative method. The combined process became known as the Linde-Hampson liquefaction process. Heike Kamerlingh Onnes purchased a Linde machine for his research. On March 21, 1900, Tesla was granted a US patent for the means for increasing the intensity of electrical oscillations by lowering temperature, which was caused by lowered resistance, a phenomenon previously observed by Olszewski and Wroblewski. Within this patent it describes the increase intensity and duration of electric oscillations of a low temperature resonating circuit. It is believed that Tesla had intended that Linde's machine would be used to attain the cooling agents. A milestone was achieved on 10 July 1908 when Onnes at the Leiden University in Leiden produced, for the first time, liquified helium and achieved superconductivity. In 1900, William Du Bois Duddell develops the Singing Arc and produced melodic sounds, from a low to a high-tones, from this arc lamp.

Lorentz and Poincar

Between 1900 and 1910, many scientists like Wilhelm Wien, Max Abraham, Hermann Minkowski, or Gustav Mie believed that all forces of nature are of electromagnetic origin (the so called "electromagnetic world view"). This was connected with the electron theory developed between 1892 and 1904 by Hendrik Lorentz. Lorentz introduced a strict separation between matter (electrons) and ether, whereby in his model the ether is completely motionless, and it won't be set in motion in the neighborhood of ponderable matter. Contrary to other electron models before, the electromagnetic field of the ether appears as a mediator between the electrons, and changes in this field can propagate not faster than the speed of light. In 1896, three years after submitting his thesis on the Kerr effect, Pieter Zeeman disobeyed the direct orders of his supervisor and used laboratory equipment to measure the splitting of spectral lines by a strong magnetic Hendrik Lorentz field. Lorentz theoretically explained the Zeeman effect on the basis of his theory, for which both received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1902. A fundamental concept of Lorentz's theory in 1895 was the "theorem of corresponding states" for terms of order v/c. This theorem states that a moving observer (relative to the ether) in his "fictitious" field makes the same observations as a resting observers in his "real" field. This theorem was extended for terms of all orders by Lorentz in 1904. Lorentz noticed, that it was necessary to change the space-time variables when changing frames and introduced

History of electromagnetic theory concepts like physical length contraction (1892) to explain the Michelson-Morley experiment, and the mathematical concept of local time (1895) to explain the aberration of light and the Fizeau experiment. That resulted in the formulation of the so called Lorentz transformation by Joseph Larmor (1897, 1900) and Lorentz (1899, 1904).[144][145][146] Continuing the work of Lorentz, Henri Poincar between 1895 and 1905 formulated on many occasions the Principle of Relativity and tried to harmonize it with electrodynamics. He declared simultaneity only a convenient convention which depends on the speed of light, whereby the constancy of the speed of light would be a useful postulate for making the laws of nature as simple as possible. In 1900 he interpreted Lorentz's local time as the result of clock synchronization by light signals, and introduced the electromagnetic momentum by ascribing to electromagnetic energy the "fictitious" mass . And finally in June and July 1905 he declared the relativity principle a general law of nature, including gravitation. He corrected some mistakes of Lorentz and proved the Lorentz covariance of the electromagnetic equations. Poincar also found out that there exist non-electrical forces to stabilize the electron configuration and asserted that Henri Poincar gravitation is a non-electrical force as well. So the electromagnetic world view was shown by Poincar to be invalid. However, he remained the notion of an ether and still distinguished between "apparent" and "real" time and therefore failed to invent what is now called special relativity.[146][147][148][149][150][151]

60

Einstein's Annus Mirabilis

In 1905, while he was working in the patent office, Albert Einstein had four papers published in the Annalen der Physik, the leading German physics journal. These are the papers that history has come to call the Annus Mirabilis Papers: His paper on the particulate nature of light put forward the idea that certain experimental results, notably the photoelectric effect, could be simply understood from the postulate that light interacts with matter as discrete "packets" (quanta) of energy, an idea that had been introduced by Max Planck in 1900 as a purely mathematical manipulation, and which seemed to contradict contemporary wave theories of light (Einstein 1905a). This was the only work of Einstein's that he himself called "revolutionary." His paper on Brownian motion explained the random movement of very small objects as direct evidence of molecular action, thus supporting the atomic theory. (Einstein 1905b)
Albert Einstein, 1905

His paper on the electrodynamics of moving bodies introduced the radical theory of special relativity, which showed that the observed independence of the speed of light on the observer's state of motion required fundamental changes to the notion of simultaneity. Consequences of this include the time-space frame of a moving body slowing down and contracting (in the direction of motion) relative to the frame of the observer. This paper also argued that the idea of a luminiferous aetherone of the leading theoretical entities in physics at the timewas superfluous. (Einstein 1905c) In his paper on massenergy equivalence (previously considered to be distinct concepts), Einstein deduced from his equations of special relativity what later became the well-known expression: , suggesting that tiny

History of electromagnetic theory amounts of mass could be converted into huge amounts of energy. (Einstein 1905d) All four papers are today recognized as tremendous achievementsand hence 1905 is known as Einstein's "Wonderful Year". At the time, however, they were not noticed by most physicists as being important, and many of those who did notice them rejected them outright. Some of this worksuch as the theory of light quantaremained controversial for years.[152][153] Einstein establishes a new concept of the aether,[154] through relativation, and was the outcome of the Lorentzian aether.[155]

61

Latter half of the 20th Century

The first formulation of a quantum theory describing radiation and matter interaction is due to Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac, who, during 1920, was first able to compute the coefficient of spontaneous emission of an atom.[156] Paul Dirac described the quantization of the electromagnetic field as an ensemble of harmonic oscillators with the introduction of the concept of creation and annihilation operators of particles. In the following years, with contributions from Wolfgang Pauli, Eugene Wigner, Pascual Jordan, Werner Heisenberg and an elegant formulation of quantum electrodynamics due to Enrico Fermi,[157] physicists came to believe that, in principle, it would be possible to perform any computation for any physical process involving photons and charged particles. However, further studies by Felix Bloch with Arnold Nordsieck,[158] and Victor Weisskopf,[159] in 1937 and 1939, revealed that such computations were reliable only at a first order of perturbation theory, a problem already pointed out by Robert Oppenheimer.[160] At higher orders in Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac the series infinities emerged, making such computations meaningless and casting serious doubts on the internal consistency of the theory itself. With no solution for this problem known at the time, it appeared that a fundamental incompatibility existed between special relativity and quantum mechanics. In December 1938, the German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann sent a manuscript to Naturwissenschaften reporting they had detected the element barium after bombarding uranium with neutrons;[161] simultaneously, they communicated these results to Lise Meitner. Meitner, and her nephew Otto Robert Frisch, correctly interpreted these results as being nuclear fission.[162] Frisch confirmed this experimentally on 13January 1939.[163] In 1944, Hahn received the Nobel Prize for Chemistry for the discovery of nuclear fission. Some historians who have documented the history of the discovery of nuclear fission believe Meitner should have been awarded the Nobel Prize with Hahn.[164][165][166] Difficulties with the Quantum theory increased through the end of 1940. Improvements in microwave technology made it possible to take more precise measurements of the shift of the levels of a hydrogen atom,[167] now known as the Lamb shift and magnetic moment of the electron.[168] These experiments unequivocally exposed discrepancies which the theory was unable to explain. With the invention of bubble chambers and spark chambers in the 1950s, experimental particle physics discovered a large and ever-growing number of particles called hadrons. It seemed that such a large number of particles could not all be fundamental. Shortly after the end of the war in 1945, Bell Labs formed a Solid State Physics Group, led by William Shockley and chemist Stanley Morgan; other personnel including John Bardeen and Walter Brattain, physicist Gerald Pearson, chemist Robert Gibney, electronics expert Hilbert Moore and several technicians. Their assignment was to seek a solid-state alternative to fragile glass vacuum tube amplifiers. Their first attempts were based on Shockley's ideas about using an external electrical field on a semiconductor to affect its conductivity. These experiments failed every time in all sorts of configurations and materials. The group was at a standstill until Bardeen suggested a theory that invoked surface states that prevented the field from penetrating the semiconductor. The group changed its focus to study these surface states and they met almost daily to discuss the work. The rapport of the group was excellent, and

History of electromagnetic theory ideas were freely exchanged.[169] As to the problems in the electron experiments, a path to a solution was given by Hans Bethe. In 1947, while he was traveling by train to reach Schenectady from New York,[170] after giving a talk at the conference at Shelter Island on the subject, Bethe completed the first non-relativistic computation of the shift of the lines of the hydrogen atom as measured by Lamb and Retherford.[171] Despite the limitations of the computation, agreement was excellent. The idea was simply to attach infinities to corrections at mass and charge that were actually fixed to a finite value by experiments. In this way, the infinities get absorbed in those constants and yield a finite result in good agreement with experiments. This procedure was named renormalization. Based on Bethe's intuition and fundamental papers on the subject by Sin-Itiro Tomonaga,[172] Julian Schwinger,[173][174] Richard Feynman[175][176][177] and Freeman Dyson,[178][179] it was finally possible to get fully covariant formulations that were finite at any order in a perturbation series of quantum electrodynamics. Sin-Itiro Tomonaga, Julian Schwinger and Richard Feynman were jointly awarded with a Nobel prize in physics in 1965 for their work in this area.[180] Their contributions, and those of Freeman Dyson, were about covariant and gauge invariant formulations of quantum electrodynamics that allow computations of observables at any order of perturbation theory. Feynman's mathematical technique, based on his diagrams, initially seemed very different from the field-theoretic, operator-based approach of Schwinger Richard Feynman and Tomonaga, but Freeman Dyson later showed that the two approaches were equivalent.[178] Renormalization, the need to attach a physical meaning at certain divergences appearing in the theory through integrals, has subsequently become one of the fundamental aspects of quantum field theory and has come to be seen as a criterion for a theory's general acceptability. Even though renormalization works very well in practice, Feynman was never entirely comfortable with its mathematical validity, even referring to renormalization as a "shell game" and "hocus pocus".[181] QED has served as the model and template for all subsequent quantum field theories. Peter Higgs, Jeffrey Goldstone, and others, Sheldon Glashow, Steven Weinberg and Abdus Salam independently showed how the weak nuclear force and quantum electrodynamics could be merged into a single electroweak force. Robert Noyce credited Kurt Lehovec for the principle of p-n junction isolation caused by the action of a biased p-n junction (the diode) as a key concept behind the integrated circuit.[182] Jack Kilby recorded his initial ideas concerning the integrated circuit in July 1958 and successfully demonstrated the first working integrated circuit on September 12, 1958.[183] In his patent application of February 6, 1959, Kilby described his new device as "a body of semiconductor material ... wherein all the components of the electronic circuit are completely integrated."[184] Kilby won the 2000 Nobel Prize in Physics for his part of the invention of the integrated circuit.[185] Robert Noyce also came up with his own idea of an integrated circuit half a year later than Kilby. Noyce's chip solved many practical problems that Kilby's had not. Noyce's chip, made at Fairchild Semiconductor, was made of silicon, whereas Kilby's chip was made of germanium. Philo Farnsworth developed the FarnsworthHirsch Fusor, or simply fusor, is an apparatus designed by Farnsworth to create nuclear fusion. Unlike most controlled fusion systems, which slowly heat a magnetically confined plasma, the fusor injects high temperature ions directly into a reaction chamber, thereby avoiding a considerable amount of complexity. When the Farnsworth-Hirsch Fusor was first introduced to the fusion research world in the late 1960s, the Fusor was the first device that could clearly demonstrate it was producing fusion reactions at all. Hopes at the time were high that it could be quickly developed into a practical power source. However, as with other fusion experiments, development into a power source has proven difficult. Nevertheless, the fusor has since become a practical neutron source and is produced commercially for this role.[186]

62

History of electromagnetic theory The first step towards the Standard Model was Sheldon Glashow's discovery, in 1960, of a way to combine the electromagnetic and weak interactions.[187] In 1967, Steven Weinberg[188] and Abdus Salam[189] incorporated the Higgs mechanism[190][191][192] into Glashow's electroweak theory, giving it is's modern form. The Higgs mechanism is believed to give rise to the masses of all the elementary particles in the Standard Model. This includes the masses of the W and Z bosons, and the masses of the fermions - i.e. the quarks and leptons. After the neutral weak currents caused by Z boson exchange were discovered at CERN in 1973,[193][194][195][196] the electroweak theory became widely accepted and Glashow, Salam, and Weinberg shared the 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics for discovering it. The W and Z bosons were discovered experimentally in 1981, and their masses were found to be as the Standard Model predicted. The theory of the strong interaction, to which many contributed, acquired its modern form around 197374, when experiments confirmed that the hadrons were composed of fractionally charged quarks. With the establishment of quantum chromodynamics in the 1970s finalized a set of fundamental and exchange particles, which allowed for the establishment of a "standard model" based on the mathematics of gauge invariance, which successfully described all forces except for gravity, and which remains generally accepted within the domain to which it is designed to be applied. The 'standard model' groups the electroweak interaction theory and quantum chromodynamics into a structure denoted by the gauge group SU(3)SU(2)U(1). The formulation of the unification of the electromagnetic and weak interactions in the standard model is due to Abdus Salam, Steven Weinberg and, subsequently, Sheldon Glashow. After the discovery, made at CERN, of the existence of neutral weak currents,[197][198][199][200] mediated by the Z boson foreseen in the standard model, the physicists Salam, Glashow and Weinberg received the 1979 Nobel Prize in Physics for their electroweak theory.[201] Since then, discoveries of the bottom quark (1977), the top quark (1995) and the tau neutrino (2000) have given credence to the standard model. Because of its success in explaining a wide variety of experimental results. The first superstring theory revolution lead to important discoveries roughly between 1984 and 1986. It was realised that string theory was capable of describing all elementary particles as well as the interactions between them. Hundreds of physicists started to work on string theory as the most promising idea to unify physical theories. The revolution was started by a discovery of anomaly cancellation in type I string theory via the Green-Schwarz mechanism in 1984. Several other ground-breaking discoveries, such as the heterotic string, were made in 1985. It was also realised in 1985 that to obtain supersymmetry, the six small extra dimensions need to be compactified on a Calabi-Yau manifold.

63

Electrodynamic tethers
Before the turn of the 20th to 21st century, the electrodynamic tether[202] being oriented at an angle to the local vertical between the object and a planet with a magnetic field cut the Earth's magnetic field and generated a current; thereby it converted some of the orbiting body's kinetic energy to electrical energy. The tether's far end can be left bare, making electrical contact with the ionosphere, creating a generator. As part of a tether propulsion system, crafts can use long, strong conductors[203] to change the orbits of spacecraft. It has the potential to make space travel significantly cheaper. It is a simplified, very low-budget magnetic sail. It can be used either to accelerate or brake an orbiting spacecraft. When direct current is pumped through the tether, it exerts a force against the magnetic field, and the tether accelerates the spacecraft.

History of electromagnetic theory

64

21st century
Electromagnetic technologies
There are a range of emerging energy technologies. By 2007, solid state micrometer-scale electric double-layer capacitors based on advanced superionic conductors had been for low-voltage electronics such as deep-sub-voltage nanoelectronics and related technologies (the 22nm technological node of CMOS and beyond). Also, the nanowire battery, a lithium-ion battery, was invented by a team led by Dr. Yi Cui in 2007. Magnetic resonance Reflecting the fundamental importance and applicability of Magnetic resonance imaging[204] in medicine, Paul Lauterbur of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and Sir Peter Mansfield of the University of Nottingham were awarded the 2003 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their "discoveries concerning magnetic resonance imaging". The Nobel citation acknowledged Lauterbur's insight of using magnetic field gradients to determine spatial localization, a discovery that allowed rapid acquisition of 2D images. Wireless electricity "Wireless electricity" describes a form of wireless energy transfer,[205] the ability to provide electrical energy to remote objects without wires. The term WiTricity was coined in 2005 by Dave Gerding and later used for a project led by Prof. Marin Soljai in 2007.[206][207] The MIT researchers successfully demonstrated the ability to power a 60 watt light bulb wirelessly, using two 5-turn copper coils of 60cm (24in) diameter, that were 2m (7ft) away, at roughly 45% efficiency.[208] This technology can potentially be used in a large variety of applications, including consumer, industrial, medical and military. Its aim is to reduce the dependence on batteries. Further applications for this technology include transmission of informationit would not interfere with radio waves and thus could be used as a cheap and efficient communication device without requiring a license or a government permit.

Unified Theories
As of 2010, there is still no hard evidence that nature is described by a Grand Unified Theory. Moreover, since the Higgs particle has not yet been verified, the smaller electroweak unification is still pending.[209] The discovery of neutrino oscillations indicates that the Standard Model is incomplete and has led to renewed interest toward certain GUT such as . One of the few possible experimental tests of certain GUT is proton decay and also fermion masses. There are a few more special tests for supersymmetric GUT. The gauge coupling strengths of QCD, the weak interaction and hypercharge seem to meet at a common length scale called the GUT scale and equal approximately to GeV, which is slightly suggestive. This interesting numerical observation is called the gauge coupling unification, and it works particularly well if one assumes the existence of superpartners of the Standard Model particles. Still it is possible to achieve the same by postulating, for instance, that ordinary (non supersymmetric) models break with an intermediate gauge scale, such as the one of Pati-Salam group. The Theory of Everything (TOE) is a putative theory of theoretical physics that fully explains and links together all known physical phenomena, and, ideally, has predictive power for the outcome of any experiment that could be carried out in principle. M-Theory is not yet complete, but the underlying structure of the mathematics has been established and is in agreement with not only all the string theories, but with all of our scientific observations of the universe. Furthermore, it has passed many tests of internal mathematical consistency that many other attempts to combine quantum mechanics and gravity had failed. Unfortunately, until we can find some way to observe higher dimensions (impossible with our current level of technology) M-Theory has a very difficult time making predictions which can be tested in a laboratory. Technologically, it may never be possible for it to be "proven". Physicist and author Michio Kaku has remarked that M-Theory may present us with a "Theory of Everything" which is so concise that its underlying formula would fit on a t-shirt.[210] Stephen Hawking originally believed that M-Theory may be

History of electromagnetic theory the ultimate theory but later suggested that the search for understanding of mathematics and physics will never be complete.[211]

65

Open problems
The magnetic monopole[212] in the quantum theory of magnetic charge started with a paper by the physicist Paul A.M. Dirac in 1931.[213] The detection of magnetic monopoles is an open problem in experimental physics. In some theoretical models, magnetic monopoles are unlikely to be observed, because they are too massive to be created in particle accelerators, and also too rare in the Universe to enter a particle detector with much probability. After more than twenty years of intensive research the origin of high-temperature superconductivity is still not clear, but it seems that instead of electron-phonon attraction mechanisms, as in conventional superconductivity, one is dealing with genuine electronic mechanisms (e.g. by antiferromagnetic correlations), and instead of s-wave pairing, d-wave pairings[214] are substantial.[215] One goal of all this research is room-temperature superconductivity.[216]

References
Citations and notes
[1] Bruno Kolbe, Francis ed Legge, Joseph Skellon, tr., " An Introduction to Electricity (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?vid=0o90G64Z2FDIyKUsLs9& id=150IAAAAIAAJ)". Kegan Paul, Trench, Trbner, 1908. 429 pages. Page 391 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=150IAAAAIAAJ& printsec=titlepage& cad=0#PPA391,M1). (cf., "[...] high poles covered with copper plates and with gilded tops were erected 'to break the stones coming from on high'. J. Dmichen, Baugeschichte des Dendera-Tempels, Strassburg, 1877") [2] Urbanitzky, A. v., & Wormell, R. (1886). Electricity in the service of man: a popular and practical treatise on the applications of electricity in modern life (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=rkgOAAAAYAAJ). London: Cassell &. [3] Lyons, T. A. (1901). A treatise on electromagnetic phenomena, and on the compass and its deviations aboard ship. Mathematical, theoretical, and practical. New York: J. Wiley & Sons. [4] The Encyclopaedia Britannica; a dictionary of arts, sciences and general literature. (1890). New York: The Henry G. Allen Company. [5] Whittaker, E. T. (1910). A history of the theories of aether and electricity from the age of Descartes to the close of the nineteenth century. Dublin University Press series. London: Longmans, Green and Co.; [etc.]. [6] Carlson, John B. (1975) "Lodestone Compass: Chinese or Olmec Primacy?: Multidisciplinary analysis of an Olmec hematite artifact from San Lorenzo, Veracruz, Mexico", Science, 189 (4205 : 5 September), p. 753-760, doi:10.1126/science.189.4205.753. p. 753760 [7] Lodestone Compass: Chinese or Olmec Primacy?: Multidisciplinary analysis of an Olmec hematite artifact from San Lorenzo, Veracruz, Mexico - Carlson 189 (4205): 753 - Science (http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 189/ 4205/ 753) [8] Li Shu-hua, p. 175 [9] If there was another substance, having the same attractive quality as the amber, was known to the ancients, it was probably jet a species of lignite resembling cannel coal, but harder and susceptible of a high polish. It does not seem possible, however, to resolve that doubt, owing to the many kinds of coal and other fossil deposits which not only old writers but even modern commentators constantly confuse. Theophrastus speaks of a material which is plainly anthracite coal and Pliny (xxxvi. 18), of the Gagates, his description of which answers generally to that of jet; but neither author mentions any phenomenon similar to that of the amber as pertaining to it. Later writers apply the word "gagates" to almost any black bituminous material, though they commonly mean "jet" by the term. Leonardus regards the gagate as another species of amber "black amber" in contradistinction to yellow and he describes it as "black, light, dry and lucid, not transparent and if put into fire has, as it were, the smell of pitch. Being heated with rubbing it attracts straws and chaff." Marbodeus gives almost the same account and states that it is found in Britain, where it is still obtained in the tertiary clays along the Yorkshire coast. This unfortunate confusion of yellow amber and jet, probably first due to Leonardus, has rendered it impossible to tell, from the references to amber attraction by the writers of the 16th and even of the 17th century, which substance is meant. It appears not at all unlikely that the English were then much more familiar with the attraction of jet than they were with that of amber. [10] The Phoenicians have transmitted to us in their romantic language the story that the pieces of Amber sometimes washed up by the waves of the ocean were the petrified tears of maidens, who, disappointed in love, had cast themselves into the arms of Mother Ocean and had after years returned like Galatea to their original source. [11] Barrett, J. P. (1894). Electricity at the Columbian Exposition, including an account of the exhibits in the Electricity Building, the power plant in Machinery Hall, the arc and incandescent lighting of the grounds and buildings (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=lF5KAAAAMAAJ) ... etc. Chicago: R.R. Donnelley. Page 4 [12] Benjamin, P. (1898). A history of electricity (The intellectual rise in electricity) from antiquity to the days of Benjamin Franklin. New York: J. Wiley & Sons. [13] Maver, William Jr.: "Electricity, its History and Progress", The Encyclopedia Americana; a library of universal knowledge, vol. X, pp.172ff (http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/ encyclopediaame21unkngoog#page/ n210/ mode/ 1up). (1918). New York: Encyclopedia Americana

History of electromagnetic theory

Corp. [14] Heinrich Karl Brugsch-Bey and Henry Danby Seymour, " A History of Egypt Under the Pharaohs (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?vid=0CJl3KVQupibKmzuADNu17& id=LoiTizgRo9kC)". J. Murray, 1881. Page 422. (cf., [... the symbol of a] 'serpent' is rather a fish, which still serves, in the Coptic language, to designate the electric fish [...]) [15] Seeman, Bernard and Barry, James E. The Story of Electricity and Magnetism, Harvey House 1967, p. 19 [16] Moller, Peter; Kramer, Bernd (December 1991), "Review: Electric Fish", BioScience (American Institute of Biological Sciences) 41 (11): 7946 [794], doi:10.2307/1311732, JSTOR1311732 [17] Bullock, Theodore H. (2005), Electroreception, Springer, pp.57, ISBN0-387-23192-7 [18] Morris, Simon C. (2003), Life's Solution: Inevitable Humans in a Lonely Universe, Cambridge University Press, pp.182185, ISBN0-521-82704-3 [19] Riddle of 'Baghdad's batteries' (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 1/ hi/ sci/ tech/ 2804257. stm). BBC News. [20] After the Second World War, Willard Gray demonstrated current production by a reconstruction of the inferred battery design when filled with grape juice. W. Jansen experimented with 1,4-Benzoquinone (some beetles produce quinones) and vinegar in a cell and got satisfactory performance. [21] An alternative, but still electrical explanation was offered by Paul Keyser. It was suggested that a priest or healer, using an iron spatula to compound a vinegar based potion in a copper vessel, may have felt an electrical tingle and used the phenomenon either for electro-acupuncture, or to amaze supplicants by electrifying a metal statue. [22] Copper and iron form an electrochemical couple, so that in the presence of any electrolyte, an electric potential (voltage) will be produced. Knig had observed a number of very fine silver objects from ancient Iraq which were plated with very thin layers of gold, and speculated that they were electroplated using batteries of these "cells". [23] Corder, Gregory, "Using an Unconventional History of the Battery to engage students and explore the importance of evidence", Virginia Journal of Science Education 1 [24] His Epistola was written in 1269. [25] Lane, Frederic C. (1963) "The Economic Meaning of the Invention of the Compass", The American Historical Review, 68 (3: April), p. 605617 [26] Dampier, W. C. D. (1905). The theory of experimental electricity. Cambridge physical series. Cambridge [Eng.: University Press. [27] consult ' Priestley's 'History of Electricity,' London 1757 [28] Robert Boyle (1676). Experiments and notes about the mechanical origin or production of particular qualities. [29] Benjamin, P. (1895). A history of electricity (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=hkMPAAAAMAAJ): (The intellectual rise in electricity) from antiquity to the days of Benjamin Franklin. New York: J. Wiley & Sons. [30] Consult Boyle's 'Experiments on the Origin of Electricity,'" and Priestley's 'History of Electricity'. [31] From Physico-Mechanical Experiments, 2nd Ed., London 1719 [32] Consult Dr. Carpue's 'Introduction to Electricity and Galvanism,' London 1803. [33] Krebs, Robert E. (2003), Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the 18th Century, Greenwood Publishing Group, p.82, ISBN0-313-32015-2 [34] Keithley, Joseph F. (1999), The Story of Electrical and Magnetic Measurements: From 500 B.C. to the 1940s, Wiley, ISBN0-7803-1193-0 [35] Biography, Pieter (Petrus) van Musschenbroek (http:/ / chem. ch. huji. ac. il/ history/ musschenbroek. htm) [36] According to Priestley ('History of Electricity,' 3d ed., Vol. I, p. 102) [37] Priestley's 'History of Electricity,' p. 138 [38] Cheney Hart: " Part of a letter from Cheney Hart, M.D. to William Watson, F.R.S. giving Account of the Effects of Electricity in the County Hospital at Shrewsbury (http:/ / rstl. royalsocietypublishing. org/ content/ 48/ 786. full. pdf)", Phil. Trans. 1753:48 (http:/ / rstl. royalsocietypublishing. org/ content/ 48. toc), pp.786788. Read on November 14, 1754. [39] Kite Experiment (http:/ / www. ieeeghn. org/ wiki/ index. php/ Kite_Experiment) (2011). IEEE Global History Network. [40] see atmospheric electricity [41] Dr. Wall Experiments of the Luminous Qualities of Amber, Diamonds, and Gum Lac (http:/ / rstl. royalsocietypublishing. org/ content/ 26/ 313-324/ 69. full. pdf+ html), by Dr. Wall, in a Letter to Dr. Sloane, R. S. Secr. Phil. Trans. 1708 26:69-76; doi:10.1098/rstl.1708.0011 [42] Physico-mechanical experiments, on various subjects; with, explanations of all the machines engraved on copper [43] Vail, A. (1845). The American electro magnetic telegraph: With the reports of Congress, and a description of all telegraphs known, employing electricity or galvanism. Philadelphia: Lea & Blanchard [44] Hutton, C., Shaw, G., Pearson, R., & Royal Society (Great Britain). (1665). Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London: From their commencement, in 1665 to the year 1800. London: C. and R. Baldwin. PaGE 345 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=QkNKAAAAYAAJ& pg=PR345). [45] Franklin, 'Experiments and Observations on Electricity' [46] Royal Society Papers, vol. IX (BL. Add MS 4440): Henry Elles, from Lismore, Ireland, to the Royal Society, London, 9 August 1757, f.12b; 9 August 1757, f.166. [47] Tr., Test Theory of Electricity and Magnetism [48] Philosophical Transactions 1771 [49] Electric Telegraph, apparatus by wh. signals may be transmitted to a distance by voltaic currents propagated on metallic wires; fnded. on experimts. of Gray 1729, Nollet, Watson 1745, Lesage 1774, Lamond 1787, Reusserl794, Cavallo 1795, Betancourt 1795, Soemmering 1811,

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Gauss & Weber 1834, &c. Telegraphs constructed by Wheatstone & Independently by Steinheil 1837, improved by Morse, Cooke, Woolaston, &c. [50] Cassell's miniature cyclopaedia By Sir William Laird Clowes. Page 288. [51] Die Geschichte Der Physik in Grundzgen: th. In den letzten hundert jahren (17801880) 1887-90 (tr. The history of physics in broad terms: th. In the last hundred years (17801880) 1887-90) By Ferdinand Rosenberger. F. Vieweg und sohn, 1890. Page 288. [52] See Voltaic pile [53] 'Philosophical Transactions,' 1833 [54] Of Torpedos Found on the Coast of England. In a Letter from John Walsh, Esq; F. R. S. to Thomas Pennant, Esq; F. R. S. John Walsh Philosophical Transactions (16831775) Vol. 64, (1774), pp. 464-473 [55] The works of Benjamin Franklin: containing several political and historical tracts not included in any former ed., and many letters official and private, not hitherto published; with notes and a life of the author, Volume 6 Page 348 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=dvQ_AAAAYAAJ& pg=PA348). [56] another noted and careful experimenter in electricity and the discoverer of palladium and rhodium [57] Philosophical Magazine, Vol. Ill, p. 211 [58] (coulomb^2) * the molar gas constant = 8.314472 m2 kg A2 K-1 mol-1 [59] 'Trans. Society of Arts,1 1825 [60] Meteorological essays By Franois Arago, Sir Edward Sabine. Page 290. " On Rotation Magnetism (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=j0wlAAAAMAAJ& pg=PA290). Proces verbal, Academy of Sciences, 22 November 1824." [61] For more, see Rotating magnetic field. [62] Tr., "The galvanic Circuit investigated mathematically". [63] G. S. Ohm (1827). Die galvanische Kette, mathematisch bearbeitet (http:/ / www. ohm-hochschule. de/ bib/ textarchiv/ Ohm. Die_galvanische_Kette. pdf). Berlin: T. H. Riemann. . [64] The Encyclopedia Americana: a library of universal knowledge, 1918. [65] Tsverava, G. K. 1981. "FARADEI, GENRI, I OTKRYTIE INDUKTIROVANNYKH TOKOV." Voprosy Istorii Estestvoznaniia i Tekhniki no. 3: 99-106. Historical Abstracts, EBSCOhost . Retrieved October 17, 2009. [66] Bowers, Brian. 2004. "Barking Up the Wrong (Electric Motor) Tree." Proceedings of the IEEE 92, no. 2: 388-392. Computers & Applied Sciences Complete, EBSCOhost . Retrieved October 17, 2009. [67] 1998. "Joseph Henry." Issues in Science & Technology 14, no. 3: 96. Associates Programs Source, EBSCOhost . Retrieved October 17, 2009. [68] According to Oliver Heaviside [69] Oliver Heaviside, Electromagnetic theory: Complete and unabridged ed. of v.1, no.2, and: Volume 3. 1950. [70] Oliver Heaviside, Electromagnetic theory, v.1. "The Electrician" printing and publishing company, limited, 1893. [71] A treatise on electricity, in theory and practice, Volume 1 By Auguste de La Rive. Page 139 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=IvQEAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA139). [72] 'Phil. Trans.,' 1845. [73] Elementary Lessons in Electricity and Magnetism By Silvanus Phillips Thompson. Page 363 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=LZzB2UhRw94C& pg=PA363). [74] Phil. Mag-., March 1854 [75] For more, see Counter-electromotive force. [76] Philosophical Magazine, 1849. [77] Ruhmkorff's version coil was such a success that in 1858 he was awarded a 50,000-franc prize by Napoleon III for the most important discovery in the application of electricity. [78] American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Vol. XXIII, May 1895 - May 1896, Boston: University Press, John Wilson and Son (1896), pp. 359-360: Ritchie's most powerful version of his induction coil, using staged windings, achieved electrical bolts 2 inches (unknown operator: u'strong'cm) or longer in length. [79] Page, Charles G., History of Induction: The American Claim to the Induction Coil and Its Electrostatic Developments, Boston: Harvard University, Intelligencer Printing house (1867), pp. 104-106 [80] American Academy, pp. 359-360 [81] Lyons, T. A. (1901). A treatise on electromagnetic phenomena, and on the compass and its deviations aboard ship. Mathematical, theoretical, and practical. New York: J. Wiley & Sons. Page 500. [82] La, R. A. (1853). A treatise on electricity: In theory and practice (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=IvQEAAAAYAAJ). London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans. [83] tr., Introduction to electrostatics, the study of magnetism and electrodynamics [84] May be Johann Philipp Reis, of Friedrichsdorf, Germany [85] "On a permanent Deflection of the Galvanometer-needle under the influence of a rapid series of equal and opposite induced Currents". By Lord Rayleigh, F.R.S.. Philosophical magazine, 1877. Page 44 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=wVIwAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA44). [86] Annales de chimie et de physique, Page 385 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=KikFAAAAQAAJ& pg=PA385). "Sur l'aimantation par les courants" (tr. "On the magnetization by currents"). [87] 'Ann. de Chimie III,' i, 385.

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[88] Jenkin, F. (1873). Electricity and magnetism (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=9OkDAAAAQAAJ). Text-books of science. London: Longmans, Green, and Co [89] Introduction to 'Electricity in the Service of Man'. [90] 'Poggendorf Ann.1 1851. [91] Proc. Am. Phil. Soc.,Vol. II, pp. 193 [92] Annalen der Physik, Volume 103 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=j2UEAAAAYAAJ). Contributions to the acquaintance with the electric spark, B. W. Feddersen. Page 69+. [93] Special information on method and apparatus can be found in Feddersen's Inaugural Dissertation, Kiel 1857th (In the Commission der Schwers'sehen Buchhandl Handl. In Kiel.) [94] Rowland, H. A. (1902). The physical papers of Henry Augustus Rowland: Johns Hopkins University, 1876-1901 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=3plMAAAAYAAJ). Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press. [95] LII. On the electromagnetic effect of convection-currents Henry A. Rowland; Cary T. Hutchinson Philosophical Magazine Series 5, 1941-5990, Volume 27, Issue 169, Pages 445 460 [96] See electric machinery, electric direct current, electrical generators. [97] consult his British patent of that year [98] consult 'Royal Society Proceedings, 1867 VOL. 1012 [99] RJ Gulcher, of Biala, near Bielitz, Austria. [100] The Electrical journal, Volume 7 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=MrbmAAAAMAAJ). 1881. Page117+ (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=MrbmAAAAMAAJ& pg=PA117) [101] ETA: Electrical magazine: A. Ed, Volume 1 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=SCrOAAAAMAAJ) [102] See electric direct current. [103] See Electric alternating current machinery. [104] The 19th century science book A Guide to the Scientific Knowledge of Things Familiar provides a brief summary of scientific thinking in this field at the time. [105] Consult Maxwell's 'Electricity and Magnetism,1 Vol. II, Chap. xx [106] On Faradays Lines of Force byJames Clerk Maxwell 1855 (http:/ / www. blazelabs. com/ On Faraday's Lines of Force. pdf) [107] James Clerk Maxwell, On Physical Lines of Force, Philosophical Magazine, 1861 [108] In November 1847, Clerk Maxwell entered the University of Edinburgh, learning mathematics from Kelland, natural philosophy from J. D. Forbes, and logic from Sir W. R. Hamilton. [109] Glazebrook, R. (1896). James Clerk Maxwell and modern physics. New York: Macmillan. Pg. 190 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=rX9LAAAAMAAJ& pg=PA190) [110] J J O'Connor and E F Robertson, James Clerk Maxwell (http:/ / www-groups. dcs. st-and. ac. uk/ ~history/ Biographies/ Maxwell. html), School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews, Scotland, November 1997 [111] James Clerk Maxwell, A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 155, 459-512 (1865). [112] Maxwell's 'Electricity and Magnetism,' preface [113] See oscillating current, telegraphy, wireless. [114] Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, Volume 3. London Mathematical Society, 1871. Pg. 224 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=lekKAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA224) [115] Consult 'Proc. Am. Inst. El. Engrs.,' 1901 [116] Crookes presented a lecture to the British Association for the Advancement of Science, in Sheffield, on Friday, 22 August 1879 (http:/ / www. worldcatlibraries. org/ wcpa/ top3mset/ 5dcb9349d366f8ec. html) (http:/ / www. tfcbooks. com/ mall/ more/ 315rm. htm) [117] consult 'Proc. British Association,' 1879 [118] Perhaps there were other reasons than those mentioned for the discontinuance. We do not dwell in the Palace of Truth. [119] in Sir W. Thomson's meaning of the word [120] Electro-Magnetic Theory. By Oliver HeaviBide. Vol. I. Electrician Printing: and Publishing Company, Ltd. London, 1893 [121] In mathematics, vectorial algebra may mean a linear algebra, specifically the basic algebraic operations of vector addition and scalar multiplication; see vector space. The algebraic operations in vector calculus, namely the specific additional structure of vectors in 3-dimensional Euclidean space of dot product and especially cross product. In this sense, vector algebra is contrasted with geometric algebra, which provides an alternative generalization to higher dimensions. Original vector algebras of the 19th century like quaternions, tessarines, or coquaternions, each of which has its own product. The vector algebras biquaternions and hyperbolic quaternions enabled the revolution in physics called special relativity by providing mathematical models. [122] Electrical engineer, Volume 18. Page299 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=WbrmAAAAMAAJ& pg=PA299) [123] Announced in his evening lecture to the Royal Institution on Friday, 30 April 1897, and published in Philosophical Magazine, 44, 293 (http:/ / web. lemoyne. edu/ ~GIUNTA/ thomson1897. html) [124] Earl R. Hoover, Cradle of Greatness: National and World Achievements of Ohios Western Reserve (Cleveland: Shaker Savings Association, 1977). [125] Dayton C. Miller, "Ether-drift Experiments at Mount Wilson Solar Observatory," Physical Review (http:/ / prola. aps. org/ abstract/ PR/ v19/ i4/ p407_1), S2, V19, N4, pp. 407-408 (April 1922).

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[126] Alternating current generating systems were known in simple forms from the discovery of the magnetic induction of electric current. The early machines were developed by pioneers such as Michael Faraday and Hippolyte Pixii. Faraday developed the "rotating rectangle", whose operation was heteropolar - each active conductor passed successively through regions where the magnetic field was in opposite directions. [127] Blalock, Thomas J., " Alternating Current Electrification, 1886 (http:/ / www. ieee. org/ organizations/ history_center/ stanley. html)". IEEE History Center, IEEE Milestone. (ed. first practical demonstration of a dc generator - ac transformer system.) [128] US 447921 (http:/ / worldwide. espacenet. com/ textdoc?DB=EPODOC& IDX=US447921), Tesla, Nikola, "Alternating Electric Current Generator". [129] Thompson, Silvanus P., Dynamo-Electric Machinery. pp. 17 [130] Thompson, Silvanus P., Dynamo-Electric Machinery. pp. 16 [131] See electric lighting [132] Lomas, Robert (1999). The Man who Invented the 20th century. London: Headline. ISBN 0-7472-7588-2. [133] See War of Currents and International Electro-Technical Exhibition - 1891 [134] See telegraph [135] see transatlantic telegraph cable [136] Miller's 'Magnetism and Electricity,' p. 460 [137] Thomas Hughes, Networks of Power, page 120 [138] See Electric transmission of energy. [139] 'James Blyth - Britain's first modern wind power pioneer', by Trevor Price, 2003, Wind Engineering, vol 29 no. 3, pp 191-200] [140] [Anon, 1890, 'Mr. Brush's Windmill Dynamo', Scientific American, vol 63 no. 25, 20 December, p. 54] [141] A Wind Energy Pioneer: Charles F. Brush (http:/ / www. windpower. org/ en/ pictures/ brush. htm), Danish Wind Industry Association. Retrieved 2007-05-02. [142] History of Wind Energy in Cutler J. Cleveland,(ed) Encyclopedia of Energy Vol.6, Elsevier, ISBN 978-1-60119-433-6, 2007, pp. 421-422 [143] See electrical units, electrical terms. [144] Miller 1981, Ch. 1 [145] Pais 1982, Ch. 6b [146] Janssen, 2007 [147] Galison 2002 [148] Darrigol 2005 [149] Katzir 2005 [150] Miller 1981, Ch. 1.7 & 1.14 [151] Pais 1982, Ch. 6 & 8 [152] On the reception of relativity theory around the world, and the different controversies it encountered, see the articles in Thomas F. Glick, ed., The Comparative Reception of Relativity (Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1987), ISBN 90-277-2498-9. [153] Pais, Abraham (1982), Subtle is the Lord. The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein, Oxford University Press, pp.382386, ISBN0-19-520438-7 [154] The state of the aether is at every place determined by connections with the matter and the state of the ether in neighbouring places, which are amenable to law in the form of differential equations. [155] Sidelights On Relativity (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=cDtk_23SsXgC), Albert Einstein. [156] P.A.M. Dirac (1927). "The Quantum Theory of the Emission and Absorption of Radiation". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A 114: 243265. Bibcode1927RSPSA.114..243D. doi:10.1098/rspa.1927.0039. [157] E. Fermi (1932). "Quantum Theory of Radiation". Reviews of Modern Physics 4: 87132. Bibcode1932RvMP....4...87F. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.4.87. [158] F. Bloch; A. Nordsieck (1937). "Note on the Radiation Field of the Electron". Physical Review 52: 5459. Bibcode1937PhRv...52...54B. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.52.54. [159] V. F. Weisskopf (1939). "On the Self-Energy and the Electromagnetic Field of the Electron". Physical Review 56: 7285. Bibcode1939PhRv...56...72W. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.56.72. [160] R. Oppenheimer (1930). "Note on the Theory of the Interaction of Field and Matter". Physical Review 35: 461477. Bibcode1930PhRv...35..461O. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.35.461. [161] O. Hahn and F.Strassmann. ber den Nachweis und das Verhalten der bei der Bestrahlung des Urans mittels Neutronen entstehenden Erdalkalimetalle ("On the detection and characteristics of the alkaline earth metals formed by irradiation of uranium with neutrons"), Naturwissenschaften Volume27, Number1, 1115 (1939). The authors were identified as being at the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut fr Chemie, Berlin-Dahlem. Received 22 December 1938. [162] Lise Meitner and O.R. Frisch. "Disintegration of Uranium by Neutrons: a New Type of Nuclear Reaction", Nature, Volume143, Number3615, 239240 (11 February 1939) (http:/ / www. nature. com/ physics/ looking-back/ meitner/ index. html). The paper is dated 16 January 1939. Meitner is identified as being at the Physical Institute, Academy of Sciences, Stockholm. Frisch is identified as being at the Institute of Theoretical Physics, University of Copenhagen. [163] O. R. Frisch. "Physical Evidence for the Division of Heavy Nuclei under Neutron Bombardment", Nature, Volume143, Number3616, 276276 (18February 1939) (http:/ / dbhs. wvusd. k12. ca. us/ webdocs/ Chem-History/ Frisch-Fission-1939. html). The paper is dated 17January 1939. [The experiment for this letter to the editor was conducted on 13January 1939; see Richard Rhodes The Making of the

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Atomic Bomb. 263 and 268 (Simon and Schuster, 1986).] [164] Ruth Lewin Sime. From Exceptional Prominence to Prominent Exception: Lise Meitner at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry Ergebnisse 24 (http:/ / www. mpiwg-berlin. mpg. de/ KWG/ Ergebnisse/ Ergebnisse24. pdf) Forschungsprogramm Geschichte der Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft im Nationalsozialismus (2005). [165] Ruth Lewin Sime. Lise Meitner: A Life in Physics (University of California, 1997). [166] Elisabeth Crawford, Ruth Lewin Sime, and Mark Walker. "A Nobel Tale of Postwar Injustice", Physics Today Volume50, Issue9, 2632 (1997). [167] W. E. Lamb; R. C. Retherford (1947). "Fine Structure of the Hydrogen Atom by a Microwave Method,". Physical Review 72: 241243. Bibcode1947PhRv...72..241L. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.72.241. [168] P. Kusch; H. M. Foley (1948). "On the Intrinsic Moment of the Electron". Physical Review 73: 412. Bibcode1948PhRv...73..412F. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.73.412. [169] Brattain quoted in Michael Riordan and Lillian Hoddeson; Crystal Fire: The Invention of the Transistor and the Birth of the Information Age. New York: Norton (1997) ISBN 0-393-31851-6 pbk. p. 127 [170] Schweber, Silvan (1994). "Chapter 5". QED and the Men Who Did it: Dyson, Feynman, Schwinger, and Tomonaga. Princeton University Press. p.230. ISBN978-0-691-03327-3. [171] H. Bethe (1947). "The Electromagnetic Shift of Energy Levels". Physical Review 72: 339341. Bibcode1947PhRv...72..339B. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.72.339. [172] S. Tomonaga (1946). "On a Relativistically Invariant Formulation of the Quantum Theory of Wave Fields". Progress of Theoretical Physics 1: 2742. doi:10.1143/PTP.1.27. [173] J. Schwinger (1948). "On Quantum-Electrodynamics and the Magnetic Moment of the Electron". Physical Review 73: 416417. Bibcode1948PhRv...73..416S. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.73.416. [174] J. Schwinger (1948). "Quantum Electrodynamics. I. A Covariant Formulation". Physical Review 74: 14391461. Bibcode1948PhRv...74.1439S. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.74.1439. [175] R. P. Feynman (1949). "Space-Time Approach to Quantum Electrodynamics". Physical Review 76: 769789. Bibcode1949PhRv...76..769F. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.76.769. [176] R. P. Feynman (1949). "The Theory of Positrons". Physical Review 76: 749759. Bibcode1949PhRv...76..749F. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.76.749. [177] R. P. Feynman (1950). "Mathematical Formulation of the Quantum Theory of Electromagnetic Interaction". Physical Review 80: 440457. Bibcode1950PhRv...80..440F. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.80.440. [178] F. Dyson (1949). "The Radiation Theories of Tomonaga, Schwinger, and Feynman". Physical Review 75: 486502. Bibcode1949PhRv...75..486D. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.75.486. [179] F. Dyson (1949). "The S Matrix in Quantum Electrodynamics". Physical Review 75: 17361755. Bibcode1949PhRv...75.1736D. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.75.1736. [180] "The Nobel Prize in Physics 1965" (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ physics/ laureates/ 1965/ index. html). Nobel Foundation. . Retrieved 2008-10-09. [181] Feynman, Richard (1985). QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter. Princeton University Press. p.128. ISBN978-0-691-12575-6. [182] Kurt Lehovec's patent on the isolation p-n junction: U.S. Patent 3029366 (http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=3029366) granted on April 10, 1962, filed April 22, 1959. Robert Noyce credits Lehovec in his article "Microelectronics", Scientific American, September 1977, Volume 23, Number 3, pp. 639. [183] The Chip that Jack Built (http:/ / www. ti. com/ corp/ docs/ kilbyctr/ jackbuilt. shtml), (c. 2008), (HTML), Texas Instruments, accessed May 29, 2008. [184] Winston, Brian. Media technology and society: a history: from the telegraph to the Internet (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=gfeCXlElJTwC& pg=RA2-PA221& dq="wherein+ all+ the+ components+ of+ the+ electronic+ circuit"#v=onepage& q="wherein all the components of the electronic circuit"& f=false), (1998), Routeledge, London, ISBN 0-415-14230-X ISBN 978-0-415-14230-4, p. 221 [185] Nobel Web AB, (October 10, 2000),( The Nobel Prize in Physics 2000 (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ physics/ laureates/ 2000/ press. html), Retrieved on May 29, 2008 [186] Cartlidge, Edwin. The Secret World of Amateur Fusion. Physics World, March 2007: IOP Publishing Ltd, pp. 10-11. ISSN: 0953-8585. [187] S.L. Glashow (1961). "Partial-symmetries of weak interactions". Nuclear Physics 22: 579588. Bibcode1961NucPh..22..579G. doi:10.1016/0029-5582(61)90469-2. [188] S. Weinberg (1967). "A Model of Leptons". Physical Review Letters 19: 12641266. Bibcode1967PhRvL..19.1264W. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.19.1264. [189] A. Salam (1968). N. Svartholm. ed. Elementary Particle Physics: Relativistic Groups and Analyticity. Eighth Nobel Symposium. Stockholm: Almquvist and Wiksell. pp.367. [190] F. Englert, R. Brout (1964). "Broken Symmetry and the Mass of Gauge Vector Mesons". Physical Review Letters 13: 321323. Bibcode1964PhRvL..13..321E. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.321. [191] P.W. Higgs (1964). "Broken Symmetries and the Masses of Gauge Bosons". Physical Review Letters 13: 508509. Bibcode1964PhRvL..13..508H. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.508. [192] G.S. Guralnik, C.R. Hagen, T.W.B. Kibble (1964). "Global Conservation Laws and Massless Particles". Physical Review Letters 13: 585587. Bibcode1964PhRvL..13..585G. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.13.585.

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History of electromagnetic theory

[193] F.J. Hasert et al. (1973). "Search for elastic muon-neutrino electron scattering". Physics Letters B 46: 121. Bibcode1973PhLB...46..121H. doi:10.1016/0370-2693(73)90494-2. [194] F.J. Hasert et al. (1973). "Observation of neutrino-like interactions without muon or electron in the gargamelle neutrino experiment". Physics Letters B 46: 138. Bibcode1973PhLB...46..138H. doi:10.1016/0370-2693(73)90499-1. [195] F.J. Hasert et al. (1974). "Observation of neutrino-like interactions without muon or electron in the Gargamelle neutrino experiment". Nuclear Physics B 73: 1. Bibcode1974NuPhB..73....1H. doi:10.1016/0550-3213(74)90038-8. [196] D. Haidt (4 October 2004). "The discovery of the weak neutral currents" (http:/ / cerncourier. com/ cws/ article/ cern/ 29168). CERN Courier. . Retrieved 2008-05-08. [197] F. J. Hasert et al. Phys. Lett. 46B 121 (1973). [198] F. J. Hasert et al. Phys. Lett. 46B 138 (1973). [199] F. J. Hasert et al. Nucl. Phys. B73 1(1974). [200] The discovery of the weak neutral currents (http:/ / cerncourier. com/ cws/ article/ cern/ 29168), CERN courier, 2004-10-04, , retrieved 2008-05-08 [201] The Nobel Prize in Physics 1979 (http:/ / www. nobel. se/ physics/ laureates/ 1979), Nobel Foundation, , retrieved 2008-09-10 [202] A long conductor attached to an object. [203] It is noted that though not all space tethers are conductive. [204] A medical imaging technique used in radiology to visualize detailed internal structures. The good contrast it provides between the different soft tissues of the body make it especially useful in brain, muscles, heart, and cancer compared with other medical imaging techniques such as computed tomography (CT) or X-rays. [205] Wireless power is the transmission of electrical energy from a power source to an electrical load without interconnecting wires. Wireless transmission is useful in cases where interconnecting wires are inconvenient, hazardous, or impossible. [206] "Wireless electricity could power consumer, industrial electronics" (http:/ / web. mit. edu/ newsoffice/ 2006/ wireless. html). MIT News. 2006-11-14. . [207] "Goodbye wires" (http:/ / web. mit. edu/ newsoffice/ 2007/ wireless-0607. html). MIT News. 2007-06-07. . [208] "Wireless Power Demonstrated" (http:/ / thefutureofthings. com/ pod/ 250/ wireless-power-demonstrated. html). . Retrieved 2008-12-09. [209] Hawking, S.W. (1996). A Brief History of Time: The Updated and Expanded Edition. (2nd ed.). Bantam Books. p.XXX. ISBN0-553-38016-8. [210] M-Theory: The Mother of all SuperStrings (http:/ / www. mkaku. org/ articles/ m_theory. php) [211] Hawking, Stephen. Gdel and the end of physics (http:/ / www. damtp. cam. ac. uk/ strings02/ dirac/ hawking/ ), July 20, 2002. [212] A hypothetical particle in particle physics that is a magnet with only one magnetic pole. In more technical terms, a magnetic monopole would have a net "magnetic charge". Modern interest in the concept stems from particle theories, notably the grand unification and superstring theories, which predict their existence. See Particle Data Group summary of magnetic monopole search (http:/ / pdg. lbl. gov/ 2004/ listings/ s028. pdf); Wen, Xiao-Gang; Witten, Edward, Electric and magnetic charges in superstring models,Nuclear Physics B, Volume 261, p. 651-677; and Coleman, The Magnetic Monopole 50 years Later, reprinted in Aspects of Symmetry for more [213] Paul Dirac, "Quantised Singularities in the Electromagnetic Field". Proc. Roy. Soc. (London) A 133, 60 (1931). Free web link (http:/ / users. physik. fu-berlin. de/ ~kleinert/ files/ dirac1931. pdf). [214] d-Wave Pairing (http:/ / musr. ca/ theses/ Sonier/ MSc/ node17. html). musr.ca. [215] The Motivation for an Alternative Pairing Mechanism (http:/ / musr. ca/ theses/ Sonier/ MSc/ node16. html). musr.ca. [216] A. Mourachkine (2004). Room-Temperature Superconductivity. Cambridge International Science Publishing (Cambridge, UK) (also http:/ / xxx. lanl. gov/ abs/ cond-mat/ 0606187). & #32;ISBN& nbsp;1-904602-27-4.

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Bakewell, F. C. (1853). Electric science; its history, phenomena, and applications (http://books.google.com/ books?id=Lks1AAAAMAAJ). London: Ingram, Cooke. Benjamin, P. (1898). A history of electricity (The intellectual rise in electricity) from antiquity to the days of Benjamin Franklin (http://books.google.com/books?id=VLsKAAAAIAAJ). New York: J. Wiley & Sons. Darrigol, Olivier (2005), "The Genesis of the theory of relativity" (http://www.bourbaphy.fr/darrigol2.pdf) (PDF), Sminaire Poincar 1: 122, retrieved 2009-06-21 Durgin, W. A. (1912). Electricity, its history and development (http://books.google.com/ books?id=hQtJAAAAIAAJ). Chicago: A.C. McClurg. Einstein, Albert: "Ether and the Theory of Relativity" (1920), republished in Sidelights on Relativity (Dover, NY, 1922). Einstein, Albert, The Investigation of the State of Aether in Magnetic Fields (http://www.worldscibooks.com/ phy_etextbook/4454/4454_chap1.pdf), 1895. (PDF format)

History of electromagnetic theory Einstein, Albert (1905a), "On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light", Annalen der Physik 17: 132148, Bibcode1905AnP...322..132E, doi:10.1002/andp.19053220607. This annus mirabilis paper on the photoelectric effect was received by Annalen der Physik March 18. Einstein, Albert (1905b), "On the MotionRequired by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of Heatof Small Particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid", Annalen der Physik 17: 549560, Bibcode1905AnP...322..549E, doi:10.1002/andp.19053220806. This annus mirabilis paper on Brownian motion was received May 11. Einstein, Albert (1905c), "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies", Annalen der Physik 17: 891921, Bibcode1905AnP...322..891E, doi:10.1002/andp.19053221004. This annus mirabilis paper on special relativity was received June 30. Einstein, Albert (1905d), "Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?", Annalen der Physik 18: 639641, Bibcode1905AnP...323..639E, doi:10.1002/andp.19053231314. This annus mirabilis paper on mass-energy equivalence was received September 27. " Aether (http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/ADA_AIZ/AETHER_or_ETHER_Gr_deli_p_proba.html)", Encyclopdia Britannica, Eleventh Edition (19101911). Volume Vol. 1, Page 297. The Encyclopedia Americana; a library of universal knowledge (http://books.google.com/ books?id=62UMAAAAYAAJ); "Electricity, its history and Progress". (1918). New York: Encyclopedia Americana Corp. Page 171 (http://books.google.com/books?id=62UMAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA171#PPA171,M1) Galison, Peter (2003), Einstein's Clocks, Poincar's Maps: Empires of Time, New York: W.W. Norton, ISBN0-393-32604-7 Gibson, C. R. (1907). Electricity of to-day, its work & mysteries described in non-technical language (http:// books.google.com/books?id=lwpVAAAAMAAJ). London: Seeley and co., limited Heaviside, O. (1894). Electromagnetic theory (http://books.google.com/books?id=9ukEAAAAYAAJ). London: "The Electrician" Print. and Pub. Ireland commissioners of nat. educ., (1861). Electricity, galvanism, magnetism, electro-magnetism, heat, and the steam engine (http://books.google.com/books?id=1AoFAAAAQAAJ). Oxford University. Janssen, Michel & Mecklenburg, Matthew (2007), From classical to relativistic mechanics: Electromagnetic models of the electron (http://www.tc.umn.edu/~janss011/), in V. F. Hendricks, et al., , Interactions: Mathematics, Physics and Philosophy (Dordrecht: Springer): 65134 Jeans, J. H. (1908). The mathematical theory of electricity and magnetism (http://books.google.com/ books?id=jKYTAAAAYAAJ). Cambridge: University Press. Katzir, Shaul (2005), "Poincars Relativistic Physics: Its Origins and Nature", Phys. Perspect. 7: 268292, Bibcode2005PhP.....7..268K, doi:10.1007/s00016-004-0234-y Lord Kelvin (Sir William Thomson), "On Vortex Atoms". Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Vol. VI, 1867, pp.94105. (ed., Reprinted in Phil. Mag. Vol. XXXIV, 1867, pp.1524.) Kolbe, Bruno; Francis ed Legge, Joseph Skellon, tr., " An Introduction to Electricity (http://books.google.com/ books?vid=0o90G64Z2FDIyKUsLs9&id=150IAAAAIAAJ)". Kegan Paul, Trench, Trbner, 1908. Lodge, Oliver, "Ether", Encyclopdia Britannica, Thirteenth Edition (1926). Lodge, Oliver, "The Ether of Space". ISBN 1-4021-8302-X (paperback) ISBN 1-4021-1766-3 (hardcover) Lodge, Oliver, "Ether and Reality". ISBN 0-7661-7865-X Lyons, T. A. (1901). A treatise on electromagnetic phenomena, and on the compass and its deviations aboard ship (http://books.google.com/books?id=JXkpAAAAYAAJ). Mathematical, theoretical, and practical. New York: J. Wiley & Sons. Maxwell, James Clerk, "Ether", Encyclopdia Britannica, Ninth Edition (187589). Maxwell, J. C., & Thompson, J. J. (1892). A treatise on electricity and magnetism (http://books.google.com/ books?id=qdYcAAAAMAAJ). Clarendon Press series. Oxford: Clarendon.

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History of electromagnetic theory Miller, Arthur I. (1981), Albert Einsteins special theory of relativity. Emergence (1905) and early interpretation (19051911), Reading: AddisonWesley, ISBN0-201-04679-2 Pais, Abraham (1982), Subtle is the Lord: The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein, New York: Oxford University Press, ISBN0-19-520438-7 Priestley, J., & Mynde, J. (1775). The history and present state of electricity, with original experiments (http:// books.google.com/books?id=RkpkAAAAMAAJ). London: Printed for C. Bathurst, and T. Lowndes; J. Rivington, and J. Johnson; S. Crowder [and 4 others in London]. Schaffner, Kenneth F. : 19th-century aether theories, Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1972. (contains several reprints of original papers of famous physicists) Slingo, M., Brooker, A., Urbanitzky, A., Perry, J., & Dibner, B. (1895). The cyclopdia of electrical engineering: containing a history of the discovery and application of electricity with its practice and achievements from the earliest period to the present time: the whole being a practical guide to artisans, engineers and students interested in the practice and development of electricity, electric lighting, motors, thermo-piles, the telegraph, the telephone, magnets and every other branch of electrical application (http://books.google.com/ books?id=EexMAAAAMAAJ). Philadelphia: The Gebbie Pub. Co., Limited. Steinmetz, C. P., " Transient Electric Phenomena (http://books.google.com/books?id=PBsAAAAAMAAJ& pg=RA1-PA40#PRA1-PA38,M1)". Page 38 (http://books.google.com/books?id=PBsAAAAAMAAJ& pg=RA1-PA40#PRA1-PA38,M1). (ed., contained in: General Electric Company. General Electric review. Schenectady: General Electric Co. (http://books.google.com/books?id=PBsAAAAAMAAJ).) A New System of Alternating Current Motors and Transformers, by Nichola Tesla, 1888 Thompson, S. P. (1891). The electromagnet, and electromagnetic mechanism (http://books.google.com/ books?id=CLmFTg_j0pwC). London: E. & F.N. Spon. Whittaker, E. T., " A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity, from the Age of Descartes to the Close of the 19th century (http://www.archive.org/details/historyoftheorie00whitrich)". Dublin University Press series. London: Longmans, Green and Co.; Urbanitzky, A. v., & Wormell, R. (1886). Electricity in the service of man: a popular and practical treatise on the applications of electricity in modern life (http://books.google.com/books?id=rkgOAAAAYAAJ). London: Cassell &.

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Lorentz force

74

Lorentz force
In physics, particularly electromagnetism, the Lorentz force is the force on a point charge due to electromagnetic fields. If a particle of charge q moves with velocity v in the presence of an electric field E and a magnetic field B, then it will experience a force

Variations on this basic formula describe the magnetic force on a current-carrying wire (sometimes called Laplace force), the electromotive force in a wire loop moving through a magnetic field (an aspect of Faraday's law of induction), and the force on a particle which might be traveling near the speed of light (relativistic form of the Lorentz force). The first derivation of the Lorentz force is commonly attributed to Oliver Heaviside in 1889,[1] although other historians suggest an earlier origin in an 1865 paper by James Clerk Maxwell.[2] Lorentz derived it a few years after Heaviside.

Trajectory of a particle with a positive or negative charge q under the influence of a magnetic field B, which is directed perpendicularly out of the screen.

Equation (SI units)

One charged particle
The force F acting on a particle of electric charge q with instantaneous velocity v, due to an external electric field E and magnetic field B, is given by:[3]
Beam of electrons moving in a circle, due to the presence of a magnetic field. Purple light is emitted along the electron path, due to the electrons colliding with gas molecules in the bulb. Using a Teltron tube.

where is the vector cross product. All boldface quantities are vectors. More explicitly stated: in which r is the position vector of the charged particle, t is time, and the overdot is a time derivative. A positively charged particle will be accelerated in the same linear orientation as the E field, but will curve perpendicularly to both the instantaneous velocity vector v and the B field according to the right-hand rule (in detail, if the thumb of the right hand points along v and the index finger along B, then the middle finger points along F). The term qE is called the electric force, while the term qv B is called the magnetic force.[4] According to some definitions, the term "Lorentz force" refers specifically to the formula for the magnetic force,[5] with the total

Lorentz force electromagnetic force (including the electric force) given some other (nonstandard) name. This article will not follow this nomenclature: In what follows, the term "Lorentz force" will refer only to the expression for the total force. The magnetic force component of the Lorentz force manifests itself as the force that acts on a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field. In that context, it is also called the Laplace force.

75

Continuous charge distribution

For a continuous charge distribution in motion, the Lorentz force equation becomes:

where dF is the force on a small piece of the charge distribution with charge dq. If both sides of this equation are divided by the volume of this small piece of the charge distribution dV, the result is:

where f is the force density (force per unit volume) and is the charge density (charge per unit volume). Next, the current density corresponding to the motion of the charge continuum is so the continuous analogue to the equation is[6]

The total force is the volume integral over the charge distribution:

By eliminating and J, using Maxwell's equations, and manipulating using the theorems of vector calculus, this form of the equation can be used to derive the Maxwell stress tensor T, used in General relativity.[6] In terms of the tensor field T and the Poynting vector S, another way to write the Lorentz force (per unit volume) is[6]

where c is the speed of light and denotes the divergence of a tensor field. Rather than the amount of charge and its velocity in electric and magnetic fields, this equation relates the energy flux (flow of energy per unit time per unit distance) in the fields to the force exerted on a charge distribution.

History
Early attempts to quantitatively describe the electromagnetic force were made in the mid-18th century. It was proposed that the force on magnetic poles, by Johann Tobias Mayer and others in 1760, and electrically charged objects, by Henry Cavendish in 1762, obeyed an inverse-square law. However, in both cases the experimental proof was neither complete nor conclusive. It was not until 1784 when Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, using a torsion balance, was able to definitively show through experiment that this was true.[7] Soon after the discovery in 1820 by H. C. rsted that a magnetic needle is acted on by a voltaic current, Andr-Marie Ampre that same year was able to devise through experimentation the formula for the angular dependence of the force between two current elements.[8][9] In all these descriptions, the force was always given in terms of the properties of the objects involved and the distances between them rather than in terms of electric and magnetic fields.[10] The modern concept of electric and magnetic fields first arose in the theories of Michael Faraday, particularly his idea of lines of force, later to be given full mathematical description by Lord Kelvin and James Clerk Maxwell.[11] From a modern perspective it is possible to identify in Maxwell's 1865 formulation of his field equations a form of the Lorentz force equation in relation to electric currents,[2] however, in the time of Maxwell it was not evident how

Lorentz force his equations related to the forces on moving charged objects. J. J. Thomson was the first to attempt to derive from Maxwell's field equations the electromagnetic forces on a moving charged object in terms of the object's properties and external fields. Interested in determining the electromagnetic behavior of the charged particles in cathode rays, Thomson published a paper in 1881 wherein he gave the force on the particles due to an external magnetic field as[1]

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Thomson derived the correct basic form of the formula, but, because of some miscalculations and an incomplete description of the displacement current, included an incorrect scale-factor of a half in front of the formula. It was Oliver Heaviside, who had invented the modern vector notation and applied them to Maxwell's field equations, that in 1885 and 1889 fixed the mistakes of Thomson's derivation and arrived at the correct form of the magnetic force on a moving charged object.[1][12][13] Finally, in 1892, Hendrik Lorentz derived the modern day form of the formula for the electromagnetic force which includes the contributions to the total force from both the electric and the magnetic fields. Lorentz began by abandoning the Maxwellian descriptions of the ether and conduction. Instead, Lorentz made a distinction between matter and the luminiferous aether and sought to apply the Maxwell equations at a microscopic scale. Using the Heaviside's version of the Maxwell equations for a stationary ether and applying Lagrangian mechanics (see below), Lorentz arrived at the correct and complete form of the force law that now bears his name.[14][15]

Trajectories of particles due to the Lorentz force

In many cases of practical interest, the motion in a magnetic field of an electrically charged particle (such as an electron or ion in a plasma) can be treated as the superposition of a relatively fast circular motion around a point called the guiding center and a relatively slow drift of this point. The drift speeds may differ for various species depending on their charge states, masses, or temperatures, possibly resulting in electric currents or chemical separation.

Significance of the Lorentz force

While the modern Maxwell's equations describe how electrically charged particles and currents or moving charged particles give rise to electric and magnetic fields, the Lorentz force law completes that picture by describing the force acting on a moving point charge q in the presence of electromagnetic fields.[3][16] The Lorentz force law describes the effect of E and B upon a point charge, but such electromagnetic forces are not the entire picture. Charged particles are possibly coupled to other forces, notably gravity and nuclear forces. Thus, Charged particle drifts in a homogeneous magnetic field. (A) No Maxwell's equations do not stand separate from other disturbing force (B) With an electric field, E (C) With an independent physical laws, but are coupled to them via the charge force, F (e.g. gravity) (D) In an inhomogeneous magnetic field, grad H and current densities. The response of a point charge to the Lorentz law is one aspect; the generation of E and B by currents and charges is another.

Lorentz force In real materials the Lorentz force is inadequate to describe the behavior of charged particles, both in principle and as a matter of computation. The charged particles in a material medium both respond to the E and B fields and generate these fields. Complex transport equations must be solved to determine the time and spatial response of charges, for example, the Boltzmann equation or the FokkerPlanck equation or the NavierStokes equations. For example, see magnetohydrodynamics, fluid dynamics, electrohydrodynamics, superconductivity, stellar evolution. An entire physical apparatus for dealing with these matters has developed. See for example, GreenKubo relations and Green's function (many-body theory).

77

Lorentz force law as the definition of E and B

In many textbook treatments of classical electromagnetism, the Lorentz Force Law is used as the definition of the electric and magnetic fields E and B.[17] To be specific, the Lorentz Force is understood to be the following empirical statement: The electromagnetic force F on a test charge at a given point and time is a certain function of its charge q and velocity v, which can be parameterized by exactly two vectors E and B, in the functional form:

If this empirical statement is valid (countless experiments have shown that it is), then two vector fields E and B are thereby defined throughout space and time, and these are called the "electric field" and "magnetic field". Note that the fields are defined everywhere in space and time with respect to what force a test charge would receive regardless of whether a charge is present to experience the force. Note also that as a definition of E and B, the Lorentz force is only a definition in principle because a real particle (as opposed to the hypothetical "test charge" of infinitesimally-small mass and charge) would generate its own finite E and B fields, which would alter the electromagnetic force that it experiences. In addition, if the charge experiences acceleration, as if forced into a curved trajectory by some external agency, it emits radiation that causes braking of its motion. See for example Bremsstrahlung and synchrotron light. These effects occur through both a direct effect (called the radiation reaction force) and indirectly (by affecting the motion of nearby charges and currents). Moreover, net force must include gravity, electroweak, and any other forces aside from electromagnetic force.

Force on a current-carrying wire

When a wire carrying an electrical current is placed in a magnetic field, each of the moving charges, which comprise the current, experiences the Lorentz force, and together they can create a macroscopic force on the wire (sometimes called the Laplace force). By combining the Lorentz force law above with the definition of electrical current, the following equation results, in the case of a straight, stationary wire:
Right-hand rule for a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field B

where is a vector whose magnitude is the length of wire, and whose direction is along the wire, aligned with the direction of conventional current flow I. If the wire is not straight but curved, the force on it can be computed by applying this formula to each infinitesimal segment of wire d, then adding up all these forces by integration. Formally, the net force on a stationary, rigid wire carrying a steady current I is

Lorentz force This is the net force. In addition, there will usually be torque, plus other effects if the wire is not perfectly rigid. One application of this is Ampre's force law, which describes how two current-carrying wires can attract or repel each other, since each experiences a Lorentz force from the other's magnetic field. For more information, see the article: Ampre's force law.

78

EMF
The magnetic force (q v B) component of the Lorentz force is responsible for motional electromotive force (or motional EMF), the phenomenon underlying many electrical generators. When a conductor is moved through a magnetic field, the magnetic force tries to push electrons through the wire, and this creates the EMF. The term "motional EMF" is applied to this phenomenon, since the EMF is due to the motion of the wire. In other electrical generators, the magnets move, while the conductors do not. In this case, the EMF is due to the electric force (qE) term in the Lorentz Force equation. The electric field in question is created by the changing magnetic field, resulting in an induced EMF, as described by the Maxwell-Faraday equation (one of the four modern Maxwell's equations).[18] Both of these EMF's, despite their different origins, can be described by the same equation, namely, the EMF is the rate of change of magnetic flux through the wire. (This is Faraday's law of induction, see above.) Einstein's theory of special relativity was partially motivated by the desire to better understand this link between the two effects.[18] In fact, the electric and magnetic fields are different faces of the same electromagnetic field, and in moving from one inertial frame to another, the solenoidal vector field portion of the E-field can change in whole or in part to a B-field or vice versa.[19]

Lorentz force and Faraday's law of induction

Given a loop of wire in a magnetic field, Faraday's law of induction states the induced electromotive force (EMF) in the wire is:

where

is the magnetic flux through the loop, B is the magnetic field, (t) is a surface bounded by the closed contour (t), at all at time t, dA is an infinitesimal vector area element of (t) (magnitude is the area of an infinitesimal patch of surface, direction is orthogonal to that surface patch). The sign of the EMF is determined by Lenz's law. Note that this is valid for not only a stationary wire but also for a moving wire. From Faraday's law of induction (that is valid for a moving wire, for instance in a motor) and the Maxwell Equations, the Lorentz Force can be deduced. The reverse is also true, the Lorentz force and the Maxwell Equations can be used to derive the Faraday Law. Let (t) be the moving wire, moving together without rotation and with constant velocity v and (t) be the internal surface of the wire. The EMF around the closed path (t) is given by:[20]

where

is the electric field and d is an infinitesimal vector element of the contour (t).

Lorentz force NB: Both d and dA have a sign ambiguity; to get the correct sign, the right-hand rule is used, as explained in the article Kelvin-Stokes theorem. The above result can be compared with the version of Faraday's law of induction that appears in the modern Maxwell's equations, called here the Maxwell-Faraday equation:

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The Maxwell-Faraday equation also can be written in an integral form using the Kelvin-Stokes theorem:.[21] So we have, the Maxwell Faraday equation:

and the Faraday Law,

The two are equivalent if the wire is not moving. Using the Leibniz integral rule and that div B = 0, results in,

and using the Maxwell Faraday equation,

since this is valid for any wire position it implies that,

Faraday's law of induction holds whether the loop of wire is rigid and stationary, or in motion or in process of deformation, and it holds whether the magnetic field is constant in time or changing. However, there are cases where Faraday's law is either inadequate or difficult to use, and application of the underlying Lorentz force law is necessary. See inapplicability of Faraday's law. If the magnetic field is fixed in time and the conducting loop moves through the field, the magnetic flux B linking the loop can change in several ways. For example, if the B-field varies with position, and the loop moves to a location with different B-field, B will change. Alternatively, if the loop changes orientation with respect to the B-field, the B dA differential element will change because of the different angle between B and dA, also changing B. As a third example, if a portion of the circuit is swept through a uniform, time-independent B-field, and another portion of the circuit is held stationary, the flux linking the entire closed circuit can change due to the shift in relative position of the circuit's component parts with time (surface (t) time-dependent). In all three cases, Faraday's law of induction then predicts the EMF generated by the change in B. Note that the Maxwell Faraday's equation implies that the Electric Field E is non conservative when the Magnetic Field B varies in time, and is not expressible as the gradient of a scalar field, and not subject to the gradient theorem since its rotational is not zero. See also.[20][22]

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Lorentz force in terms of potentials

The E and B fields can be replaced by the magnetic vector potential A and (scalar) electrostatic potential by

where is the gradient, is the divergence, is the curl. The force becomes

and using an identity for the triple product simplifies to

Lorentz force and Lagrangian mechanics

The Lagrangian for a charged particle of mass m and charge q in an electromagnetic field equivalently describes the dynamics of the particle in terms of its energy, rather than the force exerted on it. The classical expression is given by:[23]

where A and are the potential fields as above. Using Lagrange's equations, the equation for the Lorentz force can be obtained.
Derivation of Lorentz force (SI units) For an A field, a particle moving with velocity v = has potential momentum particle's potential energy is The total potential energy is then: . , so its potential energy is . For a field, the

and the kinetic energy is:

hence the Lagrangian:

Lagrange's equations are

(same for y and z). So calculating the partial derivatives:

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equating and simplifying:

and similarly for the y and z directions. Hence the force equation is:

The potential energy depends on the velocity of the particle, so the force is velocity dependent, so it is not conservative.

Equation (cgs units)

The above-mentioned formulae use SI units which are the most common among experimentalists, technicians, and engineers. In cgs-Gaussian units, which are somewhat more common among theoretical physicists, one has instead

where c is the speed of light. Although this equation looks slightly different, it is completely equivalent, since one has the following relations:

where 0 is the vacuum permittivity and 0 the vacuum permeability. In practice, the subscripts "cgs" and "SI" are always omitted, and the unit system has to be assessed from context.

Relativistic form of the Lorentz force

Because the electric and magnetic fields are dependent on the velocity of an observer, the relativistic form of the Lorentz force law can best be exhibited starting from a coordinate-independent expression for the electromagnetic and magnetic fields,[24] , and an arbitrary time-direction, , where

and

is a space-time plane (bivector), which has six degrees of freedom corresponding to boosts (rotations in space-time planes) and rotations (rotations in space-space planes). The dot product with the vector pulls a vector from the translational part, while the wedge-product creates a space-time trivector, whose dot product with the volume element (the dual above) creates the magnetic field vector from the spatial rotation part. Only the parts of the above two formulas perpendicular to gamma are relevant. The relativistic velocity is given by the (time-like) changes in a time-position vector , where

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(which shows our choice for the metric) and the velocity is

Then the Lorentz force law is simply (note that the order is important)

Covariant form of the Lorentz force

Field tensor Using the metric signature (-1,1,1,1), The Lorentz force for a charge q can be written in covariant form:

where p is the four-momentum, defined as: the proper time of the particle, F the contravariant electromagnetic tensor

and U is the covariant 4-velocity of the particle, defined as:

where

is the Lorentz factor defined above.

The fields are transformed to a frame moving with constant relative velocity by: where is the Lorentz transformation tensor.

Translation to vector notation

The = 1 component (x-component) of the force is

Substituting the components of the covariant electromagnetic tensor F yields

Using the components of covariant four-velocity yields

The calculation for = 2, 3 (force components in the y and z directions) yields similar results, so collecting the 3 equations into one:

Lorentz force which is the Lorentz force.

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Applications
The Lorentz force occurs in many devices, including: Cyclotrons and other circular path particle accelerators Mass spectrometers Velocity Filters Magnetrons

In its manifestation as the Laplace force on an electric current in a conductor, this force occurs in many devices including:
Electric motors Railguns Linear motors Loudspeakers Magnetoplasmadynamic thrusters Electrical generators Homopolar generators Linear alternators

Footnotes
[1] Oliver Heaviside By Paul J. Nahin, p120 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=e9wEntQmA0IC& pg=PA120) [2] Huray, Paul G. (2009). Maxwell's Equations (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=0QsDgdd0MhMC& pg=PA22#v=onepage& q& f=false). Wiley-IEEE. p.22. ISBN0-470-54276-4. . [3] See Jackson page 2. The book lists the four modern Maxwell's equations, and then states, "Also essential for consideration of charged particle motion is the Lorentz force equation, F = q ( E+ v B ), which gives the force acting on a point charge q in the presence of electromagnetic fields." [4] See Griffiths page 204. [5] For example, see the website of the "Lorentz Institute": \ (http:/ / ilorentz. org/ history/ lorentz/ lorentz. html), or Griffiths. [6] Griffiths, David J. (1999). Introduction to electrodynamics. reprint. with corr. (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ [u.a.]: Prentice Hall. ISBN9780138053260. [7] Meyer, Herbert W. (1972). A History of Electricity and Magnetism. Norwalk, CT: Burndy Library. pp.3031. ISBN0-262-13070-X. [8] Verschuur, Gerrit L. (1993). Hidden Attraction : The History And Mystery Of Magnetism. New York: Oxford University Press. pp.7879. ISBN0-19-506488-7. [9] Darrigol, Olivier (2000). Electrodynamics from Ampre to Einstein. Oxford, [England]: Oxford University Press. pp.9, 25. ISBN0-19-850593-0 [10] Verschuur, Gerrit L. (1993). Hidden Attraction : The History And Mystery Of Magnetism. New York: Oxford University Press. p.76. ISBN0-19-506488-7. [11] Darrigol, Olivier (2000). Electrodynamics from Ampre to Einstein. Oxford, [England]: Oxford University Press. pp.126131, 139144. ISBN0-19-850593-0 [12] Darrigol, Olivier (2000). Electrodynamics from Ampre to Einstein. Oxford, [England]: Oxford University Press. pp.200, 429430. ISBN0-19-850593-0 [13] Heaviside, Oliver. "On the Electromagnetic Effects due to the Motion of Electrification through a Dielectric" (http:/ / en. wikisource. org/ wiki/ Motion_of_Electrification_through_a_Dielectric). Philosophical Magazine, April 1889, p. 324. . [14] Darrigol, Olivier (2000). Electrodynamics from Ampre to Einstein. Oxford, [England]: Oxford University Press. p.327. ISBN0-19-850593-0 [15] Whittaker, E. T. (1910). A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity: From the Age of Descartes to the Close of the Nineteenth Century (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=CGJDAAAAIAAJ& printsec=frontcover#v=onepage& q& f=false). Longmans, Green and Co.. pp.420423. ISBN1-143-01208-9. . [16] See Griffiths page 326, which states that Maxwell's equations, "together with the [Lorentz] force law...summarize the entire theoretical content of classical electrodynamics". [17] See, for example, Jackson p777-8. [18] See Griffiths pages 3013. [19] Tai L. Chow (2006). Electromagnetic theory (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=dpnpMhw1zo8C& pg=PA153& dq=isbn=0763738271). Sudbury MA: Jones and Bartlett. p.395. ISBN0-7637-3827-1. . [20] Landau, L. D., Lifshits, E. M., & Pitaevski, L. P. (1984). Electrodynamics of continuous media; Volume 8 [[Course of Theoretical Physics (http:/ / worldcat. org/ search?q=0750626348& qt=owc_search)]] (Second ed.). Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. p.63 (49 pp. 205207 in 1960 edition). ISBN0-7506-2634-8. .

Lorentz force
[21] Roger F Harrington (2003). Introduction to electromagnetic engineering (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=ZlC2EV8zvX8C& pg=PA57& dq="faraday's+ law+ of+ induction"). Mineola, NY: Dover Publications. p.56. ISBN0-486-43241-6. . [22] M N O Sadiku (2007). Elements of elctromagnetics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=w2ITHQAACAAJ& dq=isbn:0-19-530048-3) (Fourth ed.). NY/Oxford: Oxford University Press. p.391. ISBN0-19-530048-3. . [23] Classical Mechanics (2nd Edition), T.W.B. Kibble, European Physics Series, Mc Graw Hill (UK), 1973, ISBN 07-084018-0. [24] Hestenes, David. "SpaceTime Calculus" (http:/ / geocalc. clas. asu. edu/ html/ STC. html). .

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References
The numbered references refer in part to the list immediately below. Feynman, Richard Phillips; Leighton, Robert B.; Sands, Matthew L. (2006). The Feynman lectures on physics (3 vol.). Pearson / Addison-Wesley. ISBN0-8053-9047-2: volume 2. Griffiths, David J. (1999). Introduction to electrodynamics (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, [NJ.]: Prentice-Hall. ISBN0-13-805326-X Jackson, John David (1999). Classical electrodynamics (3rd ed.). New York, [NY.]: Wiley. ISBN0-471-30932-X Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W., Jr. (2004). Physics for scientists and engineers, with modern physics. Belmont, [CA.]: Thomson Brooks/Cole. ISBN0-534-40846-X Srednicki, Mark A. (2007). Quantum field theory (http://books.google.com/?id=5OepxIG42B4C& pg=PA315&dq=isbn=9780521864497). Cambridge, [England] ; New York [NY.]: Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-86449-7

External links
Interactive Java tutorial on the Lorentz force (http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/education/tutorials/java/ lorentzforce/index.html) National High Magnetic Field Laboratory Lorentz force (demonstration) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mxMMqNrm598) Faraday's law: Tankersley and Mosca (http://www.nadn.navy.mil/Users/physics/tank/Public/FaradaysLaw. pdf) Notes from Physics and Astronomy HyperPhysics at Georgia State University (http://hyperphysics.phy-astr. gsu.edu/HBASE/hframe.html); see also home page (http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/HBASE/hframe. html) Interactive Java applet on the magnetic deflection of a particle beam in a homogeneous magnetic field (http:// chair.pa.msu.edu/applets/Lorentz/a.htm) by Wolfgang Bauer

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Magnet
A magnet (from Greek magntis lthos, "Magnesian stone") is a material or object that produces a magnetic field. This magnetic field is invisible but is responsible for the most notable property of a magnet: a force that pulls on other ferromagnetic materials, such as iron, and attracts or repels other magnets. A permanent magnet is an object made from a material that is magnetized and creates its own persistent magnetic field. An everyday example is a refrigerator magnet used to hold notes on a refrigerator door. Materials that can be magnetized, which are also the ones that are strongly attracted to a magnet, are called ferromagnetic (or ferrimagnetic). These include iron, nickel, cobalt, some alloys of rare earth metals, and some naturally occurring minerals such as lodestone. Although ferromagnetic (and ferrimagnetic) materials are the only ones attracted to a magnet strongly enough to be commonly considered magnetic, all other substances respond weakly to a magnetic field, by one of several other types of magnetism. Ferromagnetic materials can be divided into magnetically "soft" materials like annealed iron, which can be magnetized but do not tend to stay magnetized, and magnetically "hard" materials, which do. Permanent magnets are made from "hard" ferromagnetic materials such as alnico and ferrite that are subjected to special processing in a powerful magnetic field during manufacture, to align their internal microcrystalline structure, making them very hard to demagnetize. To demagnetize a saturated magnet, a certain magnetic field must be applied, and this threshold depends on coercivity of the respective material. "Hard" materials have high coercivity, whereas "soft" materials have low coercivity. An electromagnet is made from a coil of wire that acts as a magnet when an electric current passes through it but stops being a magnet when the current stops. Often, the coil is wrapped around a core of ferromagnetic material like steel, which enhances the magnetic field produced by the coil. The overall strength of a magnet is measured by its magnetic moment or, alternatively, the total magnetic flux it produces. The local strength of magnetism in a material is measured by its magnetization.
Magnetic field lines of a solenoid electromagnet, which are similar to a bar magnet as illustrated above with the iron filings

A "horseshoe magnet" made of alnico, an iron alloy. The magnet is made in the shape of a horseshoe to bring the two magnetic poles close to each other, to create a strong magnetic field there that can pick up heavy pieces of iron

Iron filings that have oriented in the magnetic field produced by a bar magnet

Discovery and development

Ancient people learned about magnetism from lodestones, naturally magnetized pieces of iron ore. They are naturally created magnets, which attract pieces of iron. The word magnet in Greek meant "stone from Magnesia", a part of ancient Greece where lodestones were found. Lodestones suspended so they could turn were the first magnetic compasses. The earliest known surviving descriptions of magnets and their properties are from Greece, India, and China around 2500 years ago.[1][2][3] The properties of lodestones and their affinity for iron were written

Magnet of by Pliny the Elder in his encyclopedia Naturalis Historia.[4] By the 12th to 13th centuries AD, magnetic compasses were used in navigation in China, Europe, and elsewhere.[5]

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Background on the physics of magnetism and magnets

Magnetic field
The magnetic flux density (also called magnetic B field or just magnetic field, usually denoted B) is a vector field. The magnetic B field vector at a given point in space is specified by two properties: 1. Its direction, which is along the orientation of a compass needle. 2. Its magnitude (also called strength), which is proportional to how strongly the compass needle orients along that direction. In SI units, the strength of the magnetic B field is given in teslas.[6]

Magnetic moment
A magnet's magnetic moment (also called magnetic dipole moment and usually denoted ) is a vector that characterizes the magnet's overall magnetic properties. For a bar magnet, the direction of the magnetic moment points from the magnet's south pole to its north pole,[7] and the magnitude relates to how strong and how far apart these poles are. In SI units, the magnetic moment is specified in terms of Am2.

An ovoid-shaped rare-earth magnet hanging from another

A magnet both produces its own magnetic field and responds to magnetic fields. The strength of the magnetic field it produces is at any given point proportional to the magnitude of its magnetic moment. In addition, when the magnet is put into an external magnetic field, produced by a different source, it is subject to a torque tending to orient the magnetic moment parallel to the field.[8] The amount of this torque is proportional both to the magnetic moment and the external field. A magnet may also be subject to a force driving it in one direction or another, according to the positions and orientations of the magnet and source. If the field is uniform in space, the magnet is subject to no net force, although it is subject to a torque.[9] A wire in the shape of a circle with area A and carrying current I is a magnet, with a magnetic moment of magnitude equal to IA.

Magnetization
The magnetization of a magnetized material is the local value of its magnetic moment per unit volume, usually denoted M, with units A/m.[10] It is a vector field, rather than just a vector (like the magnetic moment), because different areas in a magnet can be magnetized with different directions and strengths (for example, because of domains, see below). A good bar magnet may have a magnetic moment of magnitude 0.1Am2 and a volume of 1cm3, or 1106m3, and therefore an average magnetization magnitude is 100,000A/m. Iron can have a magnetization of around a million amperes per meter. Such a large value explains why iron magnets are so effective at producing magnetic fields.

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Modelling magnets
Two different models exist for magnets: magnetic poles and atomic currents. Although for many purposes it is convenient to think of a magnet as having distinct north and south magnetic poles, the concept of poles should not be taken literally: it is merely a way of referring to the two different ends of a magnet. The magnet does not have distinct north or south particles on opposing sides. If a bar magnet is broken into two pieces, in an attempt to separate the north and south poles, the result will be two bar magnets, each of which has both a north and south Field of a cylindrical bar magnet calculated with pole. However, a version of the magnetic-pole approach is used by Ampre's model professional magneticians to design permanent magnets. In this approach, the divergence of the magnetization M inside a magnet and the surface normal component Mn are treated as a distribution of magnetic monopoles. This is a mathematical convenience and does not imply that there are actually monopoles in the magnet. If the magnetic-pole distribution is known, then the pole model gives the magnetic field H. Outside the magnet, the field B is proportional to H, while inside the magnetization must be added to H. An extension of this method that allows for internal magnetic charges is used in theories of ferromagnetism. Another model is the Ampre model, where all magnetization is due to the effect of microscopic, or atomic, circular bound currents, also called Amprian currents, throughout the material. For a uniformly magnetized cylindrical bar magnet, the net effect of the microscopic bound currents is to make the magnet behave as if there is a macroscopic sheet of electric current flowing around the surface, with local flow direction normal to the cylinder axis.[11] Microscopic currents in atoms inside the material are generally canceled by currents in neighboring atoms, so only the surface makes a net contribution; shaving off the outer layer of a magnet will not destroy its magnetic field, but will leave a new surface of uncancelled currents from the circular currents throughout the material.[12] The right-hand rule tells which direction the current flows.

Pole naming conventions

The north pole of a magnet is the pole that, when the magnet is freely suspended, points towards the Earth's North Magnetic Pole which is located in northern Canada. Since opposite poles (north and south) attract, the Earth's "North Magnetic Pole" is thus actually the south pole of the Earth's magnetic field.[13][14][15][16] As a practical matter, in order to tell which pole of a magnet is north and which is south, it is not necessary to use the Earth's magnetic field at all. For example, one method would be to compare it to an electromagnet, whose poles can be identified by the right-hand rule. The magnetic field lines of a magnet are considered by convention to emerge from the magnet's north pole and reenter at the south pole.[16]

Magnetic materials
The term magnet is typically reserved for objects that produce their own persistent magnetic field even in the absence of an applied magnetic field. Only certain classes of materials can do this. Most materials, however, produce a magnetic field in response to an applied magnetic field; a phenomenon known as magnetism. There are several types of magnetism, and all materials exhibit at least one of them. The overall magnetic behavior of a material can vary widely, depending on the structure of the material, particularly on its electron configuration. Several forms of magnetic behavior have been observed in different materials, including: Ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic materials are the ones normally thought of as magnetic; they are attracted to a magnet strongly enough that the attraction can be felt. These materials are the only ones that can retain

Magnet magnetization and become magnets; a common example is a traditional refrigerator magnet. Ferrimagnetic materials, which include ferrites and the oldest magnetic materials magnetite and lodestone, are similar to but weaker than ferromagnetics. The difference between ferro- and ferrimagnetic materials is related to their microscopic structure, as explained in Magnetism. Paramagnetic substances, such as platinum, aluminum, and oxygen, are weakly attracted to either pole of a magnet. This attraction is hundreds of thousands of times weaker than that of ferromagnetic materials, so it can only be detected by using sensitive instruments or using extremely strong magnets. Magnetic ferrofluids, although they are made of tiny ferromagnetic particles suspended in liquid, are sometimes considered paramagnetic since they cannot be magnetized. Diamagnetic means repelled by both poles. Compared to paramagnetic and ferromagnetic substances, diamagnetic substances, such as carbon, copper, water, and plastic, are even more weakly repelled by a magnet. The permeability of diamagnetic materials is less than the permeability of a vacuum. All substances not possessing one of the other types of magnetism are diamagnetic; this includes most substances. Although force on a diamagnetic object from an ordinary magnet is far too weak to be felt, using extremely strong superconducting magnets, diamagnetic objects such as pieces of lead and even mice[17] can be levitated, so they float in mid-air. Superconductors repel magnetic fields from their interior and are strongly diamagnetic. There are various other types of magnetism, such as spin glass, superparamagnetism, superdiamagnetism, and metamagnetism.

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Common uses of magnets

Magnetic recording media: VHS tapes contain a reel of magnetic tape. The information that makes up the video and sound is encoded on the magnetic coating on the tape. Common audio cassettes also rely on magnetic tape. Similarly, in computers, floppy disks and hard disks record data on a thin magnetic coating.[18] Credit, debit, and ATM cards: All of these cards have a magnetic strip on one side. This strip encodes the information to contact an individual's financial institution and connect with their account(s).[19] Common televisions and computer monitors: TV and computer screens containing a cathode ray tube employ an electromagnet to guide electrons to the screen.[20] Plasma screens and LCDs use different technologies.

Hard disk drives record data on a thin magnetic coating

Speakers and microphones: Most speakers employ a permanent magnet and a current-carrying coil to convert electric energy (the signal) into mechanical energy (movement that creates the sound). The coil is wrapped around a bobbin attached to the speaker cone and carries the signal as changing current that interacts with the field of the permanent magnet. The voice coil feels a magnetic force and in response, moves the cone and pressurizes the neighboring air, thus generating sound. Dynamic microphones employ the same concept, but in reverse. A microphone has a diaphragm or Magnetic hand separator for heavy minerals membrane attached to a coil of wire. The coil rests inside a specially shaped magnet. When sound vibrates the membrane, the coil is vibrated as well. As the coil moves through the magnetic field, a voltage is induced across the coil. This voltage drives a current in the wire that is characteristic of the original sound.

Magnet Electric guitars use magnetic pickups to transduce the vibration of guitar strings into electric current that can then be amplified. This is different from the principle behind the speaker and dynamic microphone because the vibrations are sensed directly by the magnet, and a diaphragm is not employed. The Hammond organ used a similar principle, with rotating tonewheels instead of strings. Electric motors and generators: Some electric motors rely upon a combination of an electromagnet and a permanent magnet, and, much like loudspeakers, they convert electric energy into mechanical energy. A generator is the reverse: it converts mechanical energy into electric energy by moving a conductor through a magnetic field. Medicine: Hospitals use magnetic resonance imaging to spot problems in a patient's organs without invasive surgery. Chucks are used in the metalworking field to hold objects. Magnets are also used in other types of fastening devices, such as the magnetic base, the magnetic clamp and the refrigerator magnet. Compasses: A compass (or mariner's compass) is a magnetized pointer free to align itself with a magnetic field, most commonly Earth's magnetic field. Art: Vinyl magnet sheets may be attached to paintings, photographs, and other ornamental articles, allowing them to be attached to refrigerators and other metal surfaces. Objects and paint can be applied directly to the magnet surface to create collage pieces of art. Magnetic art is portable, inexpensive and easy to create. Vinyl magnetic art is not for the refrigerator anymore. Colorful metal magnetic boards, strips, doors, microwave ovens, dishwashers, cars, metal I beams, and any metal surface can be receptive of magnetic vinyl art. Being a relatively new media for art, the creative uses for this material is just beginning. Science projects: Many topic questions are based on magnets. For example: how is the strength of a magnet affected by glass, plastic, and cardboard? Toys: Given their ability to counteract the force of gravity at close range, magnets are often employed in children's toys, such as the Magnet Space Wheel and Levitron, to amusing effect. Magnets can be used to make jewelry. Necklaces and bracelets can have a magnetic clasp, or may be constructed entirely from a linked series of magnets and ferrous beads. Magnets can pick up magnetic items (iron nails, staples, tacks, paper clips) that are either too small, too hard to reach, or too thin for fingers to hold. Some screwdrivers are magnetized for this purpose. Magnets can be used in scrap and salvage operations to separate Magnets have many uses in toys. M-tic uses magnetic metals (iron, cobalt, and nickel) from non-magnetic metals magnetic rods connected to metal spheres for (aluminum, non-ferrous alloys, etc.). The same idea can be used in construction. Note the geodesic pyramid the so-called "magnet test", in which an auto body is inspected with a magnet to detect areas repaired using fiberglass or plastic putty. Magnetic levitation transport, or maglev, is a form of transportation that suspends, guides and propels vehicles (especially trains) through electromagnetic force. The maximum recorded speed of a maglev train is 581 kilometers per hour (unknown operator: u'strong'mph). Magnets may be used to serve as a fail-safe device for some cable connections. For example, the power cords of some laptops are magnetic to prevent accidental damage to the port when tripped over. The MagSafe power connection to the Apple MacBook is one such example.

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Medical issues and safety

Because human tissues have a very low level of susceptibility to static magnetic fields, there is little mainstream scientific evidence showing a health hazard associated with exposure to static fields. Dynamic magnetic fields may be a different issue, however; correlations between electromagnetic radiation and cancer rates have been postulated due to demographic correlations (see Electromagnetic radiation and health). If a ferromagnetic foreign body is present in human tissue, an external magnetic field interacting with it can pose a serious safety risk.[21] A different type of indirect magnetic health risk exists involving pacemakers. If a pacemaker has been embedded in a patient's chest (usually for the purpose of monitoring and regulating the heart for steady electrically induced beats), care should be taken to keep it away from magnetic fields. It is for this reason that a patient with the device installed cannot be tested with the use of an MRI, which is a magnetic imaging device. Children sometimes swallow small magnets from toys, and this can be hazardous if two or more magnets are swallowed, as the magnets can pinch or puncture internal tissues; one death has been reported.[22]

Magnetizing ferromagnets
Ferromagnetic materials can be magnetized in the following ways: Heating the object above its Curie temperature, allowing it to cool in a magnetic field and hammering it as it cools. This is the most effective method and is similar to the industrial processes used to create permanent magnets. Placing the item in an external magnetic field will result in the item retaining some of the magnetism on removal. Vibration has been shown to increase the effect. Ferrous materials aligned with the Earth's magnetic field that are subject to vibration (e.g., frame of a conveyor) have been shown to acquire significant residual magnetism. Stroking: An existing magnet is moved from one end of the item to the other repeatedly in the same direction.

Demagnetizing ferromagnets
Magnetized ferromagnetic materials can be demagnetized (or degaussed) in the following ways: Heating a magnet past its Curie temperature; the molecular motion destroys the alignment of the magnetic domains. This always removes all magnetization. Placing the magnet in an alternating magnetic field with intensity above the material's coercivity and then either slowly drawing the magnet out or slowly decreasing the magnetic field to zero. This is the principle used in commercial demagnetizers to demagnetize tools and erase credit cards and hard disks and degaussing coils used to demagnetize CRTs. Some demagnetization or reverse magnetization will occur if any part of the magnet is subjected to a reverse field above the magnetic material's coercivity. Demagnetisation progressively occurs if the magnet is subjected to cyclic fields sufficient to move the magnet away from the linear part on the second quadrant of the B-H curve of the magnetic material (the demagnetisation curve). Hammering or jarring: the mechanical disturbance tends to randomize the magnetic domains. This will leave some residual magnetization.

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Types of permanent magnets

Magnetic metallic elements
Many materials have unpaired electron spins, and the majority of these materials are paramagnetic. When the spins interact with each other in such a way that the spins align spontaneously, the materials are called ferromagnetic (what is often loosely termed as magnetic). Because of the way their regular crystalline atomic structure causes their spins to interact, some metals are ferromagnetic when found in their natural states, as ores. These include iron ore (magnetite or lodestone), cobalt and nickel, as well as the rare earth metals gadolinium and dysprosium (when at a very low temperature). Such naturally occurring A stack of ferrite magnets ferromagnets were used in the first experiments with magnetism. Technology has since expanded the availability of magnetic materials to include various man-made products, all based, however, on naturally magnetic elements.

Composites
Ceramic, or ferrite, magnets are made of a sintered composite of powdered iron oxide and barium/strontium carbonate ceramic. Given the low cost of the materials and manufacturing methods, inexpensive magnets (or non-magnetized ferromagnetic cores, for use in electronic components such as radio antennas, for example) of various shapes can be easily mass-produced. The resulting magnets are non-corroding but brittle and must be treated like other ceramics. Alnico magnets are made by casting or sintering a combination of aluminium, nickel and cobalt with iron and small amounts of other elements added to enhance the properties of the magnet. Sintering offers superior mechanical characteristics, whereas casting delivers higher magnetic fields and allows for the design of intricate shapes. Alnico magnets resist corrosion and have physical properties more forgiving than ferrite, but not quite as desirable as a metal. Trade names for alloys in this family include: Alni, Alcomax, Hycomax, Columax, and Ticonal.[23] Injection-molded magnets are a composite of various types of resin and magnetic powders, allowing parts of complex shapes to be manufactured by injection molding. The physical and magnetic properties of the product depend on the raw materials, but are generally lower in magnetic strength and resemble plastics in their physical properties. Flexible magnets are similar to injection-molded magnets, using a flexible resin or binder such as vinyl, and produced in flat strips, shapes or sheets. These magnets are lower in magnetic strength but can be very flexible, depending on the binder used. Flexible magnets can be used in industrial printers.

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Rare-earth magnets
Rare earth (lanthanoid) elements have a partially occupied f electron shell (which can accommodate up to 14 electrons). The spin of these electrons can be aligned, resulting in very strong magnetic fields, and therefore, these elements are used in compact high-strength magnets where their higher price is not a concern. The most common types of rare-earth magnets are samarium-cobalt and neodymium-iron-boron (NIB) magnets.

Single-molecule magnets (SMMs) and single-chain magnets (SCMs)

In the 1990s, it was discovered that certain molecules containing paramagnetic metal ions are capable of storing a magnetic moment at very low temperatures. These are very different from conventional magnets that store information at a magnetic domain level and theoretically could provide a far denser storage medium than conventional magnets. In this direction, research on monolayers of SMMs is currently under way. Very briefly, the two main attributes of an SMM are: 1. a large ground state spin value (S), which is provided by ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic coupling between the paramagnetic metal centres 2. a negative value of the anisotropy of the zero field splitting (D) Most SMMs contain manganese but can also be found with vanadium, iron, nickel and cobalt clusters. More recently, it has been found that some chain systems can also display a magnetization that persists for long times at higher temperatures. These systems have been called single-chain magnets.

Nano-structured magnets
Some nano-structured materials exhibit energy waves, called magnons, that coalesce into a common ground state in the manner of a Bose-Einstein condensate.[24][25]

Costs
The current cheapest permanent magnets, allowing for field strengths, are flexible and ceramic magnets, but these are also among the weakest types. The ferrite magnets are mainly low-cost magnets since they are made from cheap raw materials- iron oxide and Ba- or Sr-carbonate. However, a new low cost magnet- Mn-Al alloy has been developed and is now dominating the low-cost magnets field. It has a higher saturation magnetization than the ferrite magnets. It also has more favorable temperature coefficients, although it can be thermally unstable. Neodymium-iron-boron (NIB) magnets are among the strongest. These cost more per kilogram than most other magnetic materials but, owing to their intense field, are smaller and cheaper in many applications.[26]

Temperature
Temperature sensitivity varies, but when a magnet is heated to a temperature known as the Curie point, it loses all of its magnetism, even after cooling below that temperature. The magnets can often be remagnetized, however. Additionally, some magnets are brittle and can fracture at high temperatures. The maximum usable temperature is highest for alnico magnets at over 540 C (unknown operator: u'strong'F), around 300 C (unknown operator: u'strong'F) for ferrite and SmCo, about 140 C (unknown operator: u'strong'F) for NIB and lower for flexible ceramics, but the exact numbers depend on the grade of material.

Magnet

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Electromagnets
An electromagnet, in its simplest form, is a wire that has been coiled into one or more loops, known as a solenoid. When electric current flows through the wire, a magnetic field is generated. It is concentrated near (and especially inside) the coil, and its field lines are very similar to those of a magnet. The orientation of this effective magnet is determined by the right hand rule. The magnetic moment and the magnetic field of the electromagnet are proportional to the number of loops of wire, to the cross-section of each loop, and to the current passing through the wire.[27] If the coil of wire is wrapped around a material with no special magnetic properties (e.g., cardboard), it will tend to generate a very weak field. However, if it is wrapped around a soft ferromagnetic material, such as an iron nail, then the net field produced can result in a several hundred- to thousandfold increase of field strength. Uses for electromagnets include particle accelerators, electric motors, junkyard cranes, and magnetic resonance imaging machines. Some applications involve configurations more than a simple magnetic dipole; for example, quadrupole and sextupole magnets are used to focus particle beams.

Units and calculations

For most engineering applications, MKS (rationalized) or SI (Systme International) units are commonly used. Two other sets of units, Gaussian and CGS-EMU, are the same for magnetic properties and are commonly used in physics. In all units, it is convenient to employ two types of magnetic field, B and H, as well as the magnetization M, defined as the magnetic moment per unit volume. 1. The magnetic induction field B is given in SI units of teslas (T). B is the magnetic field whose time variation produces, by Faraday's Law, circulating electric fields (which the power companies sell). B also produces a deflection force on moving charged particles (as in TV tubes). The tesla is equivalent to the magnetic flux (in webers) per unit area (in meters squared), thus giving B the unit of a flux density. In CGS, the unit of B is the gauss (G). One tesla equals 104G. 2. The magnetic field H is given in SI units of ampere-turns per meter (A-turn/m). The turns appears because when H is produced by a current-carrying wire, its value is proportional to the number of turns of that wire. In CGS, the unit of H is the oersted (Oe). One A-turn/m equals 4103 Oe. 3. The magnetization M is given in SI units of amperes per meter (A/m). In CGS, the unit of M is the oersted (Oe). One A/m equals 103emu/cm3. A good permanent magnet can have a magnetization as large as a million amperes per meter. 4. In SI units, the relation B= 0(H+M) holds, where 0 is the permeability of space, which equals 4107Tm/A. In CGS, it is written as B= H+4M. (The pole approach gives 0H in SI units. A 0M term in SI must then supplement this 0H to give the correct field within B, the magnet. It will agree with the field B calculated using Amprian currents] Materials that are not permanent magnets usually satisfy the relation M= H in SI, where is the (dimensionless) magnetic susceptibility. Most non-magnetic materials have a relatively small (on the order of a millionth), but soft magnets can have on the order of hundreds or thousands. For materials satisfying M= H, we can also write B= 0(1+)H= 0rH= H, where r= 1+ is the (dimensionless) relative permeability and =0r is the magnetic permeability. Both hard and soft magnets have a more complex, history-dependent, behavior described by what are called hysteresis loops, which give either B vs. H or M vs. H. In CGS, M= H, but SI= 4CGS, and =r. Caution: in part because there are not enough Roman and Greek symbols, there is no commonly agreed-upon symbol for magnetic pole strength and magnetic moment. The symbol m has been used for both pole strength (unit Am, where here the upright m is for meter) and for magnetic moment (unit Am2). The symbol has been used in some texts for magnetic permeability and in other texts for magnetic moment. We will use for magnetic permeability and

Magnet m for magnetic moment. For pole strength, we will employ qm. For a bar magnet of cross-section A with uniform magnetization M along its axis, the pole strength is given by qm= MA, so that M can be thought of as a pole strength per unit area.

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Fields of a magnet
Far away from a magnet, the magnetic field created by that magnet is almost always described (to a good approximation) by a dipole field characterized by its total magnetic moment. This is true regardless of the shape of the magnet, so long as the magnetic moment is non-zero. One characteristic of a dipole field is that the strength of the field falls off inversely with the cube of the distance from the magnet's center. Closer to the magnet, the magnetic field becomes more complicated and more dependent on the detailed shape and magnetization of the magnet. Formally, the field can be expressed as a multipole expansion: A dipole field, plus a quadrupole field, plus an octupole field, etc. At close range, many different fields are possible. For example, for a long, skinny bar magnet with its north pole at one end and south pole at the other, the magnetic field near either end falls off inversely with the square of the distance from that pole.

Calculating the magnetic force

Force between two magnetic poles Further information: Magnetic moment#Forces between two magnetic dipoles Classically, the force between two magnetic poles is given by:[28]

where F is force (SI unit: newton) qm1 and qm2 are the magnitudes of magnetic poles (SI unit: ampere-meter) is the permeability of the intervening medium (SI unit: tesla meter per ampere, henry per meter or newton per ampere squared) r is the separation (SI unit: meter). The pole description is useful to the engineers designing real-world magnets, but real magnets have a pole distribution more complex than a single north and south. Therefore, implementation of the pole idea is not simple. In some cases, one of the more complex formulae given below will be more useful. Force between two nearby magnetized surfaces of area A The mechanical force between two nearby magnetized surfaces can be calculated with the following equation. The equation is valid only for cases in which the effect of fringing is negligible and the volume of the air gap is much smaller than that of the magnetized material:[29][30]

where: A is the area of each surface, in m2 H is their magnetizing field, in A/m 0 is the permeability of space, which equals 4107Tm/A B is the flux density, in T.

Magnet Force between two bar magnets The force between two identical cylindrical bar magnets placed end to end is given by:[29]

95

where: B0 is the magnetic flux density very close to each pole, in T, A is the area of each pole, in m2, L is the length of each magnet, in m, R is the radius of each magnet, in m, and x is the separation between the two magnets, in m. relates the flux density at the pole to the magnetization of the magnet. Note that all these formulations are based on Gilbert's model, which is usable in relatively great distances. In other models (e.g., Ampre's model), a more complicated formulation is used that sometimes cannot be solved analytically. In these cases, numerical methods must be used. Force between two cylindrical magnets For two cylindrical magnets with radius and height ) by, , with their magnetic dipole aligned, the force can be well approximated (even at distances of the order of
[31]

where to

is the magnetization of the magnets and by the formula

is the gap between the magnets. In disagreement to the is related

statement in the previous section, a measurement of the magnetic flux density very close to the magnet

The effective magnetic dipole can be written as

Where When

is the volume of the magnet. For a cylinder, this is , the point dipole approximation is obtained,

which matches the expression of the force between two magnetic dipoles.

Notes
[1] Fowler, Michael (1997). "Historical Beginnings of Theories of Electricity and Magnetism" (http:/ / galileoandeinstein. physics. virginia. edu/ more_stuff/ E& M_Hist. html). . Retrieved 2008-04-02. [2] Vowles, Hugh P. (1932). "Early Evolution of Power Engineering". Isis 17 (2): 412420 [41920]. doi:10.1086/346662. [3] Li Shu-hua (1954). "Origine de la Boussole II. Aimant et Boussole". Isis 45 (2): 175. JSTOR227361. [4] Pliny the Elder, The Natural History, BOOK XXXIV. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF METALS., CHAP. 42.THE METAL CALLED LIVE IRON (http:/ / www. perseus. tufts. edu/ hopper/ text?doc=Perseus:text:1999. 02. 0137:book=34:chapter=42& highlight=magnet). Perseus.tufts.edu. Retrieved on 2011-05-17. [5] Schmidl, Petra G. (19961997). "Two Early Arabic Sources On The Magnetic Compass" (http:/ / www. lancs. ac. uk/ jais/ volume/ docs/ vol1/ 1_081-132schmidl2. pdf). Journal of Arabic and Islamic Studies 1: 81132. . [6] Griffiths, David J. (1999). Introduction to Electrodynamics (3rd ed.). Prentice Hall. pp.2558. ISBN0-13-805326-X. OCLC40251748. [7] Knight, Jones, & Field, "College Physics" (2007) p. 815

Magnet
[8] B. D. Cullity, C. D. Graham (2008). Introduction to Magnetic Materials (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=ixAe4qIGEmwC& pg=PA103) (2 ed.). Wiley-IEEE Press. p.103. ISBN0-471-47741-9. . [9] Boyer, Timothy H. (1988). "The Force on a Magnetic Dipole". American Journal of Physics 56 (8): 688692. Bibcode1988AmJPh..56..688B. doi:10.1119/1.15501. [10] "Units for Magnetic Properties" (http:/ / www. magneticmicrosphere. com/ resources/ Units_for_Magnetic_Properties. pdf). Lake Shore Cryotronics, Inc.. . Retrieved 2009-10-24. [11] Zachariah Allen (1852). Philosophy of the Mechanics of Nature, and the Source and Modes of Action of Natural Motive-Power (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=EpUIAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA252). D. Appleton and Company. p.252. . [12] Wayne M. Saslow (2002). Electricity, Magnetism, and Light (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=4liwlxqt9NIC& pg=PA426) (3rd ed.). Academic Press. p.426. ISBN978-0-12-619455-5. . [13] Serway, Raymond A.; Chris Vuille (2006). Essentials of college physics (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=8n4NCyRgUMEC& pg=PA493). USA: Cengage Learning. p.493. ISBN0-495-10619-4. . [14] Emiliani, Cesare (1992). Planet Earth: Cosmology, Geology, and the Evolution of Life and Environment (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=MfAGpVq8gpQC& pg=PA228). UK: Cambridge University Press. p.228. ISBN0-521-40949-7. . [15] Manners, Joy (2000). Static Fields and Potentials (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=vJyqbRPsXYQC& pg=PA148). USA: CRC Press. p.148. ISBN0-7503-0718-8. . [16] Nave, Carl R. (2010). "Bar Magnet" (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ hframe. html). Hyperphysics. Dept. of Physics and Astronomy, Georgia State Univ.. . Retrieved 2011-04-10. [17] Mice levitated in NASA lab (http:/ / www. livescience. com/ animals/ 090909-mouse-levitation. html). Livescience.com (2009-09-09). Retrieved on 2011-10-08. [18] Mallinson, John C. (1987). The foundations of magnetic recording (2nd ed.). Academic Press. ISBN0-12-466626-4. [19] "The stripe on a credit card" (http:/ / money. howstuffworks. com/ personal-finance/ debt-management/ credit-card2. htm). How Stuff Works. . Retrieved July 2011. [20] "Electromagnetic deflection in a cathode ray tube, I" (http:/ / www. magnet. fsu. edu/ education/ tutorials/ java/ cathoderaytube/ index. html). National High Magnetic Field Laboratory. . Retrieved July 2011. [21] Schenck JF (2000). "Safety of strong, static magnetic fields". J Magn Reson Imaging 12 (1): 219. doi:10.1002/1522-2586(200007)12:1<2::AID-JMRI2>3.0.CO;2-V. PMID10931560. [22] Oestreich AE (2008). "Worldwide survey of damage from swallowing multiple magnets". Pediatr Radiol 39 (2): 142. doi:10.1007/s00247-008-1059-7. PMID19020871. [23] Brady, George Stuart; Henry R. Clauser & John A. Vaccari (2002). Materials Handbook: An Encyclopedia for Managers (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=vIhvSQLhhMEC& pg=PA577). McGraw-Hill Professional. p.577. ISBN0-07-136076-X. . [24] "Nanomagnets Bend The Rules" (http:/ / www. spacedaily. com/ news/ nanotech-05zm. html). . Retrieved November 14, 2005. [25] Della Torre, E.; Bennett, L.; Watson, R. (2005). "Extension of the Bloch T3/2 Law to Magnetic Nanostructures: Bose-Einstein Condensation". Physical Review Letters 94 (14): 147210. Bibcode2005PhRvL..94n7210D. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.94.147210. [26] Frequently Asked Questions (http:/ / www. magnetsales. com/ Design/ FAQs_frames/ FAQs_3. htm#howrated). Magnet sales. Retrieved on 2011-10-08. [27] Ruskell, Todd; Tipler, Paul A. ; Mosca, Gene (2007). Physics for Scientists and Engineers (6 ed.). Macmillan. ISBN1-4292-0410-9. [28] "Basic Relationships" (http:/ / geophysics. ou. edu/ solid_earth/ notes/ mag_basic/ mag_basic. html). Geophysics.ou.edu. . Retrieved 2009-10-19. [29] "Magnetic Fields and Forces" (http:/ / instruct. tri-c. edu/ fgram/ web/ Mdipole. htm). . Retrieved 2009-12-24. [30] "The force produced by a magnetic field" (http:/ / info. ee. surrey. ac. uk/ Workshop/ advice/ coils/ force. html). . Retrieved 2010-03-09. [31] David Vokoun, Marco Beleggia, Ludek Heller, Petr Sittner (2009). "Magnetostatic interactions and forces between cylindrical permanent magnets". Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials 321 (22): 37583763. Bibcode2009JMMM..321.3758V. doi:10.1016/j.jmmm.2009.07.030.

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References
"positive pole n". The Concise Oxford English Dictionary. Catherine Soanes and Angus Stevenson. Oxford University Press, 2004. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. Wayne M. Saslow, Electricity, Magnetism, and Light, Academic (2002). ISBN 0-12-619455-6. Chapter 9 discusses magnets and their magnetic fields using the concept of magnetic poles, but it also gives evidence that magnetic poles do not really exist in ordinary matter. Chapters 10 and 11, following what appears to be a 19th-century approach, use the pole concept to obtain the laws describing the magnetism of electric currents. Edward P. Furlani, Permanent Magnet and Electromechanical Devices:Materials, Analysis and Applications, Academic Press Series in Electromagnetism (2001). ISBN 0-12-269951-3.

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External links
HyperPhysics E/M (http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/hframe.html), good complete tree diagram of electromagnetic relationships with magnets Maxwell's Equations and some history Detailed Theory on Designing a Solenoid (http://www.coilgun.info) or a coil gun Video: The physicist Richard Feynman answers the question, Why do bar magnets attract or repel each other? (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wMFPe-DwULM) Articles, tutorials and other educational information about magnets (http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/education/ tutorials/electricitymagnetism.html) National High Magnetic Field Laboratory Answers to several questions from curious kids about magnets (http://static.scribd.com/docs/ghnvi6g2fepvm. swf) Magnetic units discussed (http://www.magnets.bham.ac.uk/magneticmaterials/units.shtml) EU requires warning on toys containing magnets (http://newsletter.sgs.com/eNewsletterPro/uploadedimages/ 000006/SafeGuardS_03608_EU_requires_warning_on_toys_containing_magnets_v2.pdf) Information on Permanent Magnets (http://www.stanfordmagnets.com/magnet.html#ref) About Magnets (http://www.thomasnet.com/about/magnets-49490402.html) International Magnetics Association (http://www.intl-magnetics.org/) Online magnetic pull force calculator (http://www.kjmagnetics.com/calculator.asp) Magnet (How Products Are Made Volume 2) (http://www.madehow.com/Volume-2/Magnet.html) Why are all metals not attracted to a magnet? (http://wiki.answers.com/Q/ Why_are_all_metals_not_attracted_to_a_magnet)

Magnetic bearing
A magnetic bearing is a bearing which supports a load using magnetic levitation. Magnetic bearings support moving machinery without physical contact; for example, they can levitate a rotating shaft and permit relative motion with very low friction and no mechanical wear. Magnetic bearings are in service in such industrial applications as electric power generation, petroleum refining, machine tool operation, and natural gas pipelines. They are also used in the Zippe-type centrifuge[1] used for uranium enrichment. Magnetic bearings are used in turbomolecular pumps, where oil-lubricated bearings would be a source of contamination. Magnetic bearings support the highest speeds of any kind of bearing; they have no known maximum relative speed.

A magnetic bearing

Description
It is difficult to build a magnetic bearing using permanent magnets due to the limitations described by Earnshaw's theorem, and techniques using diamagnetic materials are relatively undeveloped. As a result, most magnetic bearings require continuous power input and an active control system to hold the load stable. Many bearings can use permanent magnets to carry the static load, and then only use power when the levitated object deviates from its optimum position. Magnetic bearings also typically require some kind of back-up bearing in case of power or control system failure and during initial start-up conditions. Two sorts of instabilities are very typically present with magnetic bearings. Firstly, attractive magnets give an unstable static force that decreases with greater distance and increases at close distances. Secondly since magnetism

Magnetic bearing is a conservative force, in and of itself it gives little if any damping, and oscillations may cause loss of successful suspension if any driving forces are present, which they very typically are. With the use of an induction-based levitation system present in maglev technologies such as the Inductrack system, magnetic bearings could do away with complex control systems by using Halbach Arrays and simple closed loop coils. These systems gain in simplicity, but are less advantageous when it comes to eddy current losses. For rotating systems it is possible to use homopolar magnet designs instead of multipole Halbach structures, which reduces losses considerably. An example of this - that has bypassed the Earnshaw's theorem issues - is the homopolar electrodynamic bearings invented by Dr Torbjrn Lembke.[2][3][4]

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Active magnetic bearing

An active magnetic bearing (AMB) works on the principle of electromagnetic suspension and consists of an electromagnet assembly, a set of power amplifiers which supply current to the electromagnets, a controller, and gap sensors with associated electronics to provide the feedback required to control the position of the rotor within the gap. These elements are shown in the diagram. The power amplifiers supply equal bias current to two pairs of electromagnets on opposite sides of a rotor. This constant tug-of-war is mediated by the controller which offsets the bias current by equal but opposite perturbations of current as the rotor deviates by a small amount from its center position.

Basic operation for a single axis

The gap sensors are usually inductive in nature and sense in a differential mode. The power amplifiers in a modern commercial application are solid state devices which operate in a pulse width modulation (PWM) configuration. The controller is usually a microprocessor or DSP. Active bearings have several advantages, they do not suffer from wear, they have low friction, and they can often accommodate irregularities in the mass distribution automatically, allowing it to spin around its centre of mass with very low vibration.

History
The evolution of active magnetic bearings may be traced through the patents issued in this field. The table below lists several early patents for active magnetic bearings. Earlier patents for magnetic suspensions can be found but are excluded here because they consist of assemblies of permanent magnets of problematic stability per Earnshaw's Theorem. Early active magnetic bearing patents were assigned to Jesse Beams[5][6] at the University of Virginia during World War II and are concerned with ultracentrifuges for purification of the isotopes of various elements for the manufacture of the first nuclear bombs, but the technology did not mature until the advances of solid-state electronics and modern computer-based control technology with the work of Habermann[7] and Schweitzer.[8] Extensive modern work in magnetic bearings has continued at the University of Virginia in the Rotating Machinery and Controls Industrial Research Program. The first international symposium for active magnetic bearing technology was held in 1988 with the founding of the International Society of Magnetic Bearings by Prof. Schweitzer (ETHZ), Prof. Allaire (University of Virginia), and Prof. Okada (Ibaraki University). In 1987 further improved AMB designs were created in Australia by E.Croot [9] (see reference below as well) but these designs were not manufactured due to expensive costs of production. However, some of those designs have since been used by Japanese electronics companies, they remain a specialty item: where extremely high RPM is required.

Magnetic bearing Since then there have been nine succeeding symposia. Kasarda[10] reviews the history of AMB in depth. She notes that the first commercial application of AMBs was with turbomachinery. The AMB allowed the elimination of oil reservoirs on compressors for the NOVA Gas Transmission Ltd. (NGTL) gas pipelines in Alberta, Canada. This reduced the fire hazard allowing a substantial reduction in insurance costs. The success of these magnetic bearing installations led NGTL to pioneer the research and development of a digital magnetic bearing control system as a replacement for the analog control systems supplied by the American company Magnetic Bearings Inc. (MBI). In 1992, NGTL's magnetic bearing research group formed the company Revolve Technologies Inc [11]. to commercialize the digital magnetic bearing technology. This firm was later purchased by SKF of Sweden. The French company S2M, founded in 1976, was the first to commercially market AMBs. Extensive research on magnetic bearings continues at the University of Virginia in the Rotating Machinery and Controls Industrial Research Program [12]. Starting from 1996 the Dutch oil and gas company NAM installed over a period of 10 years 20 large E-motor driven (with variable speed drive) gas compressors of 23 MW fully equipped with AMB's on both the E-motor and the compressor. These compressors are used in the Groningen gas field to deplete the remaining gas from this large gas field and to increase the field capacity. The motor - compressor design is done by Siemens and the AMB are delivered by Waukesha (owned by Dover). (Originally these bearings were designed by Glacier, this company was later on taken over by Federal Mogul and now part of Waukesha) By using AMB's and a direct drive between motor and compressor (so no the gearbox in between) and applying dry gas seals a full so called dry-dry system (=fully oil free) has been installed. A few of the main advantages by applying AMB's in the driver as well as in the compressor (compared to the traditional configuration with a gearbox, plain bearings and a gasturbine-driver) is a relative simple system with a very wide operating envelope, high efficiencies (particularly at partial load) and also, as done in the Groningen field, to install the full installation outdoors (no large compressor building needed).

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Early U.S. Patents in AMB

Inventor(s) Year Patent No. 2,256,937 Suspension of Rotatable Bodies 2,691,306 Magnetically Supported Rotating Bodies 3,041,482 Apparatus for Rotating Freely Suspended Bodies 3,196,694 Magnetic Suspension System 3,316,032 Poly-Phase Magnetic Suspension Transformer 3,565,495 Magnetic Suspension Apparatus 3,731,984 Magnetic Bearing Block Device for Supporting a Vertical Shaft Adapted for Rotating at High Speed 3,787,100 Devices Including Rotating Members Supported by Magnetic Bearings Invention Title

Beams, Holmes Beams Beams Beams Wolf Lyman Habermann

1941 1954 1962 1965 1967 1971 1973

Habermann, Loyen, Joli, Aubert Habermann, Brunet Habermann, Brunet, LeClre

1974

1977 1978

4,012,083 Magnetic Bearings 4,114,960 Radial Displacement Detector Device for a Magnetic Bearings

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Electrodynamic bearing
Electrodynamic bearings (EDB) are a novel type of bearing that is a passive magnetic technology. EDBs do not require any control electronics to operate. They work by the electrical currents generated by motion causing a restoring force.

Applications
Magnetic bearing advantages include very low and predictable friction, ability to run without lubrication and in a vacuum. Magnetic bearings are increasingly used in industrial machines such as compressors, turbines, pumps, motors and generators. Magnetic bearings are An axial homopolar electrodynamic bearing commonly used in watt-hour meters by electric utilities to measure home power consumption. Magnetic bearings are also used in high-precision instruments and to support equipment in a vacuum, for example in flywheel energy storage systems. A flywheel in a vacuum has very low windage losses, but conventional bearings usually fail quickly in a vacuum due to poor lubrication. Magnetic bearings are also used to support maglev trains in order to get low noise and smooth ride by eliminating physical contact surfaces. Disadvantages include high cost, and relatively large size. A new application of magnetic bearings is their use in artificial hearts. The use of magnetic suspension in ventricular assist devices was pioneered by Prof. Paul Allaire and Prof. Houston Wood at the University of Virginia culminating in the first magnetically suspended ventricular assist centrifugal pump (VAD) in 1999.

References
[1] Charles, D., Spinning a Nuclear Comeback, Science, Vol. 315, (30 March 2007) [2] "Design and Analysis of a Novel Low Loss Homopolar Electrodynamic Bearing." (http:/ / www. magnetal. se/ Dokument/ PhDThesis. pdf) Lembke, Torbjrn. PhD Thesis. Stockholm: Universitetsservice US AB, 2005. ISBN 91-7178-032-7 [3] "3D-FEM Analysis of a Low Loss Homopolar Induction Bearing" (http:/ / www. kth. se/ ees/ forskning/ publikationer/ modules/ publications_polopoly/ reports/ 2004/ IR-EE-EME_2004_015. pdf?l=en_UK) Lembke, Torbjrn. 9th International Symposium on Magnetic Bearings (ISMB9). Aug. 2004. [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] Seminar at KTH the Royal Institute of Technology (http:/ / www. kth. se/ ees/ kalender/ seminarier/ 1. 54496) Stockholm. Feb 24. 2010 Beams, J. , Production and Use of High Centrifugal Fields, Science, Vol. 120, (1954) Beams, J. , Magnetic Bearings, Paper 810A, Automotive Engineering Conference, Detroit, Michigan, USA, SAE (Jan. 1964) Habermann,H. , Liard, G. Practical Magnetic Bearings , IEEE Spectrum, Vol. 16, No. 9, (September 1979) Schweitzer, G. , Characteristics of a Magnetic Rotor Bearing for Active Vibration Control, Paper C239/76, First International Conference on Vibrations in Rotating Machinery, (1976) [9] E. Croot, Australian Inventors Weekly, NSW Inventors Association, Vol. 3, (April 1987) [10] Kasarda, M. An Overview of Active Magnetic Bearing Technology and Applications, The Shock and Vibration Digest, Vol.32, No. 2: A Publication of the Shock and Vibration Information Center, Naval Research Laboratory, (March 2000) [11] http:/ / www. skfmagneticbearings. com [12] http:/ / www. virginia. edu/ romac/

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Further reading
Schweitzer, G (2002). Active Magnetic Bearings Chances and Limitations (http://www.mcgs.ch/ web-content/AMB-chances_and_limit.pdf). Chiba, A., Fukao, T., Ichikawa, O., Oshima, M., Takemoto, M., Dorrel, D. (2005). Magnetic Bearings and Bearingless Drives. Newnes. Schweitzer, G., Maslen, H. (2009). Magnetic Bearings, Theory, Design,and Application to Rotating Machinery. Springer. Maslen, E. H. (1999). Course notes on Magnetic Bearings (http://www.people.virginia.edu/~ehm7s/courses/ magnetic_bearings/home.html). Jim Wilson (1999-September). "Beating Demon Friction" (http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/ research/1281766.html). Popular Mechanics. E. Croot (1987 - 1995). Improved Magnetic Bearings (http://pericles.ipaustralia.gov.au/ols/auspat/ quickSearch.do?queryString=Croot&resultsPerPage=). IPAustralia [Australian Patent Office database entries]. T. Lembke (2005). PhD Thesis "Design and Analysis of a Novel Low Loss Homopolar Electrodynamic Bearing" (http://www.magnetal.se/Dokument/PhDThesis.pdf). Stockholm: Universitetsservice US AB. ISBN91-7178-032-7.

External links
Kinematic Models for Design Digital Library (KMODDL) (http://kmoddl.library.cornell.edu/index.php) Movies and photos of hundreds of working mechanical-systems models at Cornell University. Also includes an e-book library (http://kmoddl.library.cornell.edu/e-books.php) of classic texts on mechanical design and engineering. MADYN2000, Rotordynamics Software (http://www.delta-js.ch/english/software/ madyn-2000-for-rotordynamics/magnetic-bearings/) supports computer-aided design of Magnetic Bearing controllers and provides multiple analytic reports of design quality.

Magnetic circuit

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Magnetic circuit
A magnetic circuit is made up of one or more closed loop paths containing a magnetic flux. The flux is usually generated by permanent magnets or electromagnets and confined to the path by magnetic cores consisting of ferromagnetic materials like iron, although there may be air gaps or other materials in the path. Magnetic circuits are employed to efficiently channel magnetic fields in many devices such as electric motors, generators, transformers, relays, lifting electromagnets, SQUIDs, galvanometers, and magnetic recording heads. The concept of a "magnetic circuit" exploits a one-to-one correspondence between the equations of the magnetic field in an unsaturated ferromagnetic material to that of an electrical circuit. Using this concept the magnetic fields of complex devices such as transformers can be quickly solved using the methods and techniques developed for electrical circuits. Some examples of magnetic circuits are: horseshoe magnet with iron keeper (low-reluctance circuit) horseshoe magnet with no keeper (high-reluctance circuit) electric motor (variable-reluctance circuit)

Magnetomotive force (MMF)

Similar to the way that EMF drives a current of electrical charge in electrical circuits, magnetomotive force (MMF) 'drives' magnetic flux through magnetic circuits. The term 'magnetomotive force', though, is a misnomer since it is not a force nor is anything moving. It is perhaps better to call it simply MMF. In analogy to the definition of EMF, the magnetomotive force around a closed loop is defined as:

The MMF represents the potential that a hypothetical magnetic charge would gain by completing the loop. The magnetic flux that is driven is not a current of magnetic charge; it merely has the same relationship to MMF that electric current has to EMF. (See microscopic origins of reluctance below for a further description.) The unit of magnetomotive force is the ampere-turn (At), represented by a steady, direct electric current of one ampere flowing in a single-turn loop of electrically conducting material in a vacuum. The gilbert (Gi), established by the IEC in 1930 [1], is the CGS unit of magnetomotive force and is a slightly smaller unit than the ampere-turn. The unit is named after William Gilbert (15441603) English physician and natural philosopher.

The magnetomotive force can often be quickly calculated using Ampre's law. For example, the magnetomotive force of long coil is: , where N is the number of turns and I is the current in the coil. In practice this equation is used for the MMF of real inductors with N being the winding number of the inducting coil.

Magnetic flux
An applied MMF 'drives' magnetic flux through the magnetic components of the system. The magnetic flux through a magnetic component is proportional to the number of magnetic field lines that pass through the cross sectional area of that component. This is the net number, i.e. the number passing through in one direction, minus the number passing through in the other direction. The direction of the magnetic field vector B is by definition from the south to the north pole of a magnet inside the magnet; outside the field lines go from north to south.

Magnetic circuit The flux through an element of area perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field is given by the product of the magnetic field and the area element. More generally, magnetic flux is defined by a scalar product of the magnetic field and the area element vector. Quantitatively, the magnetic flux through a surface S is defined as the integral of the magnetic field over the area of the surface

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For a magnetic component the area S used to calculate the magnetic flux is usually chosen to be the cross-sectional area of the component. The SI unit of magnetic flux is the weber (in derived units: volt-seconds), and the unit of magnetic field is the weber per square meter, or tesla.

Hopkinson's law: the magnetic analogy to Ohm's law

In electronic circuits, Ohm's law is an empirical relation between the EMF current I it generates through that element. It is written as: applied across an element and the

where R is the electrical resistance of that material. Hopkinson's law is a counterpart to Ohm's law used in magnetic circuits. The law is named after the British electrical engineer, John Hopkinson. It states that[2][3]

where

is the magnetomotive force (MMF) across a magnetic element,

is the magnetic flux through the

magnetic element, and is the magnetic reluctance of that element. (It shall be shown later that this relationship is due to the empirical relationship between the H-field and the magnetic field B, B=H, where is the permeability of the material.) Like Ohm's law, Hopkinson's law can be interpreted either as an empirical equation that works for some materials, or it may serve as a definition of reluctance.

Reluctance
Magnetic reluctance, or magnetic resistance, is analogous to resistance in an electrical circuit (although it does not dissipate magnetic energy). In likeness to the way an electric field causes an electric current to follow the path of least resistance, a magnetic field causes magnetic flux to follow the path of least magnetic reluctance. It is a scalar, extensive quantity, akin to electrical resistance. The total reluctance is equal to the ratio of the (MMF) in a passive magnetic circuit and the magnetic flux in this circuit. In an AC field, the reluctance is the ratio of the amplitude values for a sinusoidal MMF and magnetic flux. (see phasors) The definition can be expressed as:

where

is the reluctance in ampere-turns per weber (a unit that is equivalent to turns per henry).

Magnetic flux always forms a closed loop, as described by Maxwell's equations, but the path of the loop depends on the reluctance of the surrounding materials. It is concentrated around the path of least reluctance. Air and vacuum have high reluctance, while easily magnetized materials such as soft iron have low reluctance. The concentration of flux in low-reluctance materials forms strong temporary poles and causes mechanical forces that tend to move the materials towards regions of higher flux so it is always an attractive force(pull). The inverse of reluctance is called permeance.

Magnetic circuit Its SI derived unit is the henry (the same as the unit of inductance, although the two concepts are distinct).

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Microscopic origins of reluctance

The reluctance of a magnetically uniform magnetic circuit element can be calculated as:

where l is the length of the element in metres is the permeability of the material ( (dimensionless), and is the permeability of free space) A is the cross-sectional area of the circuit in square metres This is similar to the equation for electrical resistance in materials, with permeability being analogous to conductivity; the reciprocal of the permeability is known as magnetic reluctivity and is analogous to resistivity. Longer, thinner geometries with low permeabilities lead to higher reluctance. Low reluctance, like low resistance in electric circuits, is generally preferred. is the relative permeability of the material

Summary of analogy between magnetic circuits and electrical circuits

The following table summarizes the mathematical analogy between electrical circuit theory and magnetic circuit theory. This is mathematical analogy and not a physical one. Objects in the same row have the same mathematical role; the physics of the two theories are very different. For example, current is the flow of electrical charge, while magnetic flux is not the flow of any quantity.

Analogy between 'magnetic circuits' and electrical circuits

Magnetic equivalent Magnetomotive force (MMF) Symbol Units ampere-turn Electric equivalent Definition of EMF Symbol

Magnetic field Magnetic flux Hopkinson's law or Rowland's law Reluctance Permeance relation between B and H Magnetic flux density B permeability

ampere/meter Electric field weber Electric current Ohm's law 1/henry henry Electrical resistance Electric conductance Microscopic Ohm's law

E I

R G = 1/R

tesla henry/meter

Current density Electrical conductivity

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Limitations of the analogy

When using the analogy between magnetic circuits and electric circuits, the limitations of this analogy must be kept in mind. Electric and magnetic circuits are only superficially similar because of the similarity between Hopkinson's law and Ohm's law. Magnetic circuits have significant differences, which must be taken into account in their construction: Electric currents represent the flow of particles (electrons) and carry power, which is dissipated as heat in resistances. Magnetic fields don't represent the "flow" of anything, and no power is dissipated in reluctances. The current in typical electric circuits is confined to the circuit, with very little "leakage". In typical magnetic circuits not all of the magnetic field is confined to the magnetic circuit; there is significant "leakage flux" in the space outside the magnetic cores, which must be taken into account but is difficult to calculate. Most importantly, magnetic circuits are nonlinear; the reluctance in a magnetic circuit is not constant, as resistance is, but varies depending on the magnetic field. At high magnetic fluxes the ferromagnetic materials used for the cores of magnetic circuits saturate, limiting the magnetic flux, so above this level the reluctance increases rapidly. The reluctance also increases at low fluxes. In addition, ferromagnetic materials suffer from hysteresis so the flux in them depends not just on the instantaneous MMF but also on the history of MMF. After the source of the magnetic flux is turned off, remanent magnetism is left in ferromagnetic circuits, creating a flux with no MMF.

Circuit Laws
Magnetic circuits obey other laws that are similar to electrical circuit laws. For example, the total reluctance of reluctances in series is:

This also follows from Ampre's law and is analogous to Kirchhoff's voltage law for adding resistances in series. Also, the sum of magnetic fluxes into any node is always zero:

This follows from Gauss's law and is analogous to Kirchhoff's current law for analyzing electrical circuits.

Magnetic circuit

Together, the three laws above form a complete system for analysing magnetic circuits, in a manner similar to electric circuits. Comparing the two types of circuits shows that: The equivalent to resistance R is the reluctance Rm The equivalent to current I is the magnetic flux The equivalent to voltage V is the magnetomotive Force F Magnetic circuits can be solved for the flux in each branch by application of the magnetic equivalent of Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL) for pure source/resistance circuits. Specifically, whereas KVL states that the voltage excitation applied to a loop is equal to the sum of the voltage drops (resistance times current) around the loop, the magnetic analogue states that the magnetomotive force (achieved from ampere-turn excitation) is equal to the sum of MMF drops (product of flux and reluctance) across the rest of the loop. (If there are multiple loops, the current in each branch can be solved through a matrix equationmuch as a matrix solution for mesh circuit branch currents is obtained in loop analysisafter which the individual branch currents are obtained by adding and/or subtracting the constituent loop currents as indicated by the adopted sign convention and loop orientations.) Per Ampre's law, the excitation is the product of the current and the number of complete loops made and is measured in ampere-turns. Stated more generally:

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(Note that, per Stokes's theorem, the closed line integral of H dot dl around a contour is equal to the open surface integral of curl H dot dA across the surface bounded by the closed contour. Since, from Maxwell's equations, curl H = J, the closed line integral of H dot dl evaluates to the total current passing through the surface. This is equal to the excitation, NI, which also measures current passing through the surface, thereby verifying that the net current flow through a surface is zero ampere-turns in a closed system that conserves energy.) More complex magnetic systems, where the flux is not confined to a simple loop, must be analysed from first principles by using Maxwell's equations.

History
The term reluctance was coined in May 1888 by Oliver Heaviside.[4] The notion of magnetic resistance was first mentioned by James Joule [5] and the term "magnetomotive force (MMF) was first named by Bosanquet.[6] The idea for a magnetic flux law, similar to Ohm's law for closed electric circuits, is attributed to H. Rowland.[7]

Applications
Air gaps can be created in the cores of certain transformers to reduce the effects of saturation. This increases the reluctance of the magnetic circuit, and enables it to store more energy before core saturation. This effect is also used in the flyback transformer. Variation of reluctance is the principle behind the reluctance motor (or the variable reluctance generator) and the Alexanderson alternator. Multimedia loudspeakers are typically shielded magnetically, in order to reduce magnetic interference caused to televisions and other CRTs. The speaker magnet is covered with a material such as soft iron to minimize the stray magnetic field. Reluctance can also be applied to: Reluctance motors Variable reluctance (magnetic) pickups

References
[1] http:/ / www. iec. ch/ about/ history/ [2] Magnetism (flash) (http:/ / www. ginerdelosrios. org/ pizarra/ electronica/ nemesio/ pizarra_neme/ simuladores/ parametros_magneticos. swf) [3] Tesche, Fredrick; Michel Ianoz, Torbjrn Karlsson (1997). EMC Analysis Methods and Computational Models. Wiley-IEEE. pp.513. ISBN0-471-15573-X. [4] Heaviside O., Electrical Papers. Vol.2. L.; N.Y.: Macmillan, 1892, p. 166. [5] Joule J., Scientific Papers, vol. 1. 1884, p. 36. [6] Bosanquet, Phil. Mag., vol. 15, 1883, p. 205. [7] Rowland H., Phil. Mag. (4), vol. 46, 1873, p. 140.

External links
Magnetic-Electric Analogs (http://www.analogzone.com/col_0909.pdf) by Dennis L. Feucht, Innovatia Laboratories (PDF) Interactive Java Tutorial on Magnetic Shunts (http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/education/tutorials/java/ magneticshunt/) National High Magnetic Field Laboratory

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Magnetic dipole

Dipole moment m.

Electric current I.

A magnetic dipole is the limit of either a closed loop of electric current or a pair of poles as the dimensions of the source are reduced to zero while keeping the magnetic moment constant. It is a magnetic analogue of the electric dipole, but the analogy is not complete. In particular, a magnetic monopole, the magnetic analogue of an electric charge, has never been observed. Moreover, one form of magnetic dipole moment is associated with a fundamental quantum property, the spin of elementary particles. The magnetic field around any magnetic source looks increasingly like the field of a magnetic dipole as the distance from the source increases.

External magnetic field produced by a magnetic dipole moment

In classical physics, the magnetic field of a dipole is calculated as the limit of either a current loop or a pair of charges as the source shrinks to a point while keeping the magnetic moment m constant. For the current loop, this limit is most easily derived for the vector potential. Outside of the source region, this potential is (in SI units) [1]

and the magnetic flux density (strength of the B-field) in teslas is

An electrostatic analogue for a magnetic moment: two opposing charges separated by a finite distance. Each arrow represents the direction of the field vector at that point.

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The magnetic field of a current loop. The ring represents the current loop, which goes into the page at the x and comes out at the dot.

Alternatively one can obtain the scalar potential first from the magnetic pole limit,

and hence the magnetic field strength (or strength of the H-field) in ampere-turns per meter is

The magnetic field is symmetric under rotations about the axis of the magnetic moment.

Internal magnetic field of a dipole

The two models for a dipole (current loop and magnetic poles) give the same predictions for the magnetic field far from the source. However, inside the source region they give different predictions. The magnetic field between poles is in the opposite direction to the magnetic moment (which points from the negative charge to the positive charge), while inside a current loop it is in the same direction (see the figure to the right). Clearly, the limits of these fields must also be different as the sources shrink to zero size. This distinction only matters if the dipole limit is used to calculate fields inside a magnetic material. If a magnetic dipole is formed by making a current loop smaller and smaller, but keeping the product of current and area constant, the limiting field is . where n=x/|x|. Unlike the expressions in the previous section, this limit is correct for the internal field of the dipole. If a magnetic dipole is formed by taking a "north pole" and a "south pole", bringing them closer and closer together but keeping the product of magnetic pole-charge and distance constant, the limiting field is

These fields are related by B = 0(H+M), where

Magnetic dipole is the magnetization.

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Forces between two magnetic dipoles

The force F exerted by one dipole moment m1 on another m2 separated in space by a vector r can be calculated using or [2]

where r is the distance between dipoles. The force acting on m1 is in the opposite direction. The torque can be obtained from the formula

Dipolar fields from finite sources

The magnetic scalar potential produced by a finite source, but external to it, can be represented by a multipole expansion. Each term in the expansion is associated with a characteristic moment and a potential having a characteristic rate of decrease with distance r from the source. Monopole moments have a 1/r rate of decrease, dipole moments have a 1/r2 rate, quadrupole moments have a 1/r3 rate, and so on. The higher the order, the faster the potential drops off. Since the lowest-order term observed in magnetic sources is the dipolar term, it dominates at large distances. Therefore, at large distances any magnetic source looks like a dipole with the same magnetic moment.

Notes
[1] Chow 2006, pp.146150 [2] Furlani 2001

References
Chow, Tai L. (2006). Introduction to electromagnetic theory: a modern perspective. Jones & Bartlett Learning. ISBN978-0-7637-3827-3. Jackson, John D. (1999). Classical Electrodynamics (3rd ed.). Wiley. ISBN0-471-30932-X. OCLC224523909. Furlani, Edward P. (2001). Permanent Magnet and Electromechanical Devices: Materials, Analysis, and Applications (http://books.google.com/?id=irsdLnC5SrsC&dq=permanent+magnet+and+ electromechanical+devices&printsec=frontcover&q=3.130). Academic Press. p.140. ISBN0-12-269951-3. Schill, R. A. (2003). "General relation for the vector magnetic field of a circular current loop: A closer look". IEEE Transactions on Magnetics 39 (2): 961967. Bibcode2003ITM....39..961S. doi:10.1109/TMAG.2003.808597.

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Magnetic domain
A magnetic domain is a region within a magnetic material which has uniform magnetization. This means that the individual magnetic moments of the atoms are aligned with one another and they point in the same direction. When cooled below a temperature called the Curie temperature, the magnetization of a piece of ferromagnetic material spontaneously divides into many small regions called magnetic domains. The magnetization within each domain points in a uniform direction, but the magnetization of different domains may point in different directions. Magnetic domain structure is responsible for the magnetic behavior of ferromagnetic materials like iron, nickel, cobalt and their alloys, ferrites etc. such as the formation of permanent magnets. The regions separating magnetic domains are called domain walls, where the magnetization rotates coherently from the direction in one domain to that in the next domain. The study of magnetic domains is called micromagnetics.

Several grains of NdFeB with magnetic domains made visible with a Kerr microscope. The domains are the light and dark stripes visible within each grain.

Development of domain theory

Magnetic domain theory was developed by French physicist Pierre-Ernest Weiss[1] who in 1906 suggested existence of magnetic domains in ferromagnets.[2] He suggested that large number of atomic magnetic moments (typically 1012-1018) were aligned parallel. The direction of alignment varies from domain to domain in a more or less random manner although certain crystallographic axis may be preferred by the magnetic moments, called easy axes. Weiss still had to explain the reason for the spontaneous alignment of atomic moments within a ferromagnetic material, and he came up with the so-called Weiss mean field : he assumed that a given magnetic moment in a material experienced a very high effective magnetic field due to the magnetization of its neighbors. In the original Weiss theory the mean field was proportional to the bulk magnetization M, so that

where is the mean field constant. However this is not applicable to ferromagnets due to the variation of magnetization from domain to domain. In this case, the interaction field is

Where

is the saturation magnetization at 0K.

Later, the quantum theory made it possible to understand the microscopic origin of the Weiss field. The exchange interaction between localized spins favored a parallel (in ferromagnets) or an anti-parallel (in anti-ferromagnets) state of neighboring magnetic moments.

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Domain structure
Why domains form
The reason a piece of magnetic material such as iron spontaneously divides into separate domains, rather than exist in a state with magnetization in the same direction throughout the material, is to minimize its internal energy.[3] A large region of ferromagnetic material with a constant magnetization throughout will create a large How dividing a ferromagnetic material into magnetic domains reduces the magnetic field extending into the space outside magnetostatic energy itself (diagram a, right). This requires a lot of magnetostatic energy stored in the field. To reduce this energy, the sample can split into two domains, with the magnetization in opposite directions in each domain (diagram b right). The magnetic field lines pass in loops in opposite directions through each domain, reducing the field outside the material. To reduce the field energy further, each of these domains can split also, resulting in smaller parallel domains with magnetization in alternating directions, with smaller amounts of field outside the material. The domain structure of actual magnetic materials does not usually form by the process of large domains splitting into smaller ones as described here. When a sample is cooled below the Curie temperature, for example, the equilibrium domain configuration simply appears. But the description of domains splitting is often used to reveal the energy tradeoffs in domain formation.

Size of domains
So a domain which is too big is unstable, and will divide into smaller domains. But a small enough domain will be stable and will not split, and this determines the size of the domains created in a material. This size depends on the balance of several energies within the material.[3] Each time a region of magnetization splits into two domains, it creates a "domain wall" between the domains, where magnetic dipoles (molecules) with magnetization pointing in different directions are adjacent. The exchange interaction which creates the magnetization is a force which tends to align nearby dipoles so they point in the same direction. So forcing adjacent dipoles to point in different directions requires energy. Therefore creating a domain wall requires extra energy, called the "exchange energy", which is proportional to the area of the wall. So the net amount that the energy is reduced when a domain splits is equal to the difference between the magnetic field energy saved, and the additional energy of the domain wall created. The field energy saved is proportional to the cube of the domain size, while the domain wall energy is proportional to the square of the domain size. So as the domains get smaller, the net energy saved by splitting decreases. The domains keep dividing into smaller domains until the energy cost of creating an additional domain wall is just equal to the field energy saved. Then the domains of this size are stable. In most materials the domains are microscopic in size, around 10-4 - 10-6 m.

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Magnetic anisotropy
An additional way for the material to further reduce its magnetostatic energy is to form domains with magnetization at right angles to the other domains (diagram c, right), instead of just in opposing parallel directions.[3] These domains, called flux closure domains, allow the field lines to turn 180 within the material, forming closed loops entirely within the material, reducing the magnetostatic energy to zero. However, forming these domains incurs two additional energy costs. First, the crystal lattice of most magnetic materials has magnetic anisotropy, which means it has an "easy" direction of magnetization, parallel to one of the crystal axes. Changing the magnetization of the material to any other direction takes additional energy, called the "magnetocrystalline anisotropy energy".

Magnetostriction

The other energy cost to creating domains with magnetization at an angle to the "easy" direction is caused by the phenomenon called magnetostriction.[3] When the magnetization of a piece of magnetic material is changed to a different direction, it causes a slight change in its shape. The change in magnetic field causes the magnetic dipole molecules to change shape slightly, making the crystal lattice longer in Animation showing how magnetostriction works. one dimension and shorter in other dimensions. However, since the An external magnetic field causes the magnetic magnetic domain is "squished in" with its boundaries held rigid by the dipoles to rotate, changing the dimensions of the surrounding material, it cannot actually change shape. So instead, crystal lattice. changing the direction of the magnetization induces tiny mechanical stresses in the material, requiring more energy to create the domain. This is called "magnetoelastic anisotropy energy". To form these closure domains with "sideways" magnetization requires additional energy due to the aforementioned two factors. So flux closure domains will only form where the magnetostatic energy saved is greater than the sum of the "exchange energy" to create the domain wall, the magnetocrystalline anisotropy energy, and the magnetoelastic anisotropy energy. Therefore most of the volume of the material is occupied by domains with magnetization either "up" or "down" along the "easy" direction, and the flux closure domains only form in small areas at the edges of the other domains where they are needed to provide a path for magnetic field lines to change direction (diagram c, above).

Micrograph of surface of ferromagnetic material, showing the crystal grains, each divided into several domains parallel to its "easy" axis of magnetization, with the magnetization in alternating directions (red and green areas).

Grain structure
The above describes magnetic domain structure in a perfect crystal lattice, such as would be found in a single crystal of iron. However most magnetic materials are polycrystalline, composed of microscopic crystalline grains. These grains are not the same as domains. Each grain is a little crystal, with the crystal lattices of separate grains oriented in random directions. In most materials, each grain is big enough to contain several domains. Each crystal has an "easy" axis of magnetization, and is divided into domains with the axis of magnetization parallel to this axis, in alternate directions.

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"Magnetized" states
It can be seen that, although on a microscopic scale almost all the magnetic dipoles in a piece of ferromagnetic material are lined up parallel to their neighbors in domains, creating strong local magnetic fields, energy minimization results in a domain structure that minimizes the large-scale magnetic field. The domains point in different directions, confining the field lines to microscopic loops between neighboring domains, so the combined fields cancel at a distance. Therefore a bulk piece of ferromagnetic material in its lowest energy state has little or no external magnetic field. The material is said to be "unmagnetized". However, the domains can also exist in other configurations in which their magnetization mostly points in the same direction, creating an external magnetic field. Although these are not minimum energy configurations, due to a phenomenon where the domain walls become "pinned" to defects in the crystal lattice they can be local minimums of the energy, and therefore can be very stable. This is what happens when a piece of magnetic material is "magnetized" and becomes a permanent magnet.

Landau-Lifshitz energy equation

The contributions of the different internal energy factors described above is expressed by the free energy equation proposed by Lev Landau and Evgeny Lifshitz in 1935 [1], which forms the basis of the modern theory of magnetic domains. The domain structure of a material is the one which minimizes the Gibbs free energy of the material. For a crystal of magnetic material, this is the Landau-Lifshitz free energy, E, which is the sum of these energy terms:[4]
Moving domain walls in a grain of silicon steel caused by an increasing external magnetic field in the "downward" direction, observed in a Kerr microscope. White areas are domains with magnetization directed up, dark areas are domains with magnetization directed down.

where

Eex is exchange energy: This is the energy due to the exchange interaction between magnetic dipole molecules in ferromagnetic, ferrimagnetic and antiferromagnetic materials. It is lowest when the dipoles are all pointed in the same direction, so it is responsible for magnetization of magnetic materials. When two domains with different directions of magnetization are next to each other, at the domain wall between them magnetic dipoles pointed in different directions lie next to each other, increasing this energy. This additional exchange energy is proportional to the total area of the domain walls.

ED is magnetostatic energy: This is a self-energy, due to the interaction of the magnetic field created by the magnetization in some part of the sample on other parts of the same sample. It is dependent on the volume occupied by the magnetic field extending outside the domain. This energy is reduced by minimizing the length of the loops of magnetic field lines outside the domain. For example, this tends to encourage the magnetization to be parallel to the surfaces of the sample, so the field lines won't pass outside the sample. Reducing this energy is the main reason for the creation of magnetic domains. E is magnetoelastic anisotropy energy: This energy is due to the effect of magnetostriction, a slight change in the dimensions of the crystal when magnetized. This causes elastic strains in the lattice, and the direction of magnetization that minimizes these strain energies will be favored. This energy tends to be minimized when the axis of magnetization of the domains in a crystal are all parallel. Ek is magnetocrystalline anisotropy energy: Due to its magnetic anisotropy, the crystal lattice is "easy" to magnetize in one direction, and "hard" to magnetize in others. This energy is minimized when the magnetization is along the "easy" crystal axis, so the magnetization of most of the domains in a crystal grain tend to be in either direction along the "easy" axis. Since the crystal lattice in separate grains of the material is usually oriented in different random directions, this causes the dominant domain magnetization in different grains to be pointed in

Magnetic domain different directions. EH is Zeeman energy: This is energy which is added to or subtracted from the magnetostatic energy, due to the interaction between the magnetic material and an externally applied magnetic field. It is proportional to the negative of the cosine of the angle between the field and magnetization vectors. Domains with their magnetic field oriented parallel to the applied field reduce this energy, while domains with their magnetic field oriented opposite to the applied field increase this energy. So applying a magnetic field to a ferromagnetic material generally causes the domain walls to move so as to increase the size of domains lying mostly parallel to the field, at the cost of decreasing the size of domains opposing the field. This is what happens when ferromagnetic materials are "magnetized". With a strong enough external field, the domains opposing the field will be swallowed up and disappear; this is called saturation. Some sources define a wall energy EW equal to the sum of the exchange energy and the magnetocrystalline anisotropy energy, which replaces Eex and Ek in the above equation. A stable domain structure is a (compare Zeeman energy). magnetization function M(X), considered as a continuous vector field, which minimizes the total energy E throughout the material. To find the minimums a variational method is used, resulting in a set of nonlinear differential equations, called Brown's equations after William Fuller Brown Jr. Although in principle these equations can be solved for the stable domain configurations M(X), in practice only the simplest examples can be solved. Analytic solutions do not exist, and numerical solutions calculated by the finite element method are computationally intractable because of the large difference in scale between the domain size and the wall size. Therefore micromagnetics has evolved approximate methods which assume that the magnetization of dipoles in the bulk of the domain, away from the wall, all point in the same direction, and numerical solutions are only used near the domain wall, where the magnetization is changing rapidly.
Rotation of orientation and increase in size of magnetic to an externally applied field

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Observing domains
There are a number of microscopy methods which can make the magnetization at a surface of a magnetic material visible, revealing the magnetic domains. Each method has a different application because not all domains are the same. In magnetic materials, domains can be circular, square, irregular, elongated, and striped, all of which have varied sizes and dimensions. Large domains, within the range of 25-100 micrometers can be easily seen by Kerr microscopy, which uses the magneto-optic Kerr effect, which is the rotation of the polarization of light reflected from a magnetized surface. Smaller domains, down to the scale of a few nanometers, can be viewed by the use of magnetic force microscopy.

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Domain structure of a shape-memory alloy (recorded using CMOS-MagView)

Domain structure of an examplary meander domain (recorded using CMOS-MagView)

Domain structure of an examplary magnetic bubble domain (recorded using CMOS-MagView)

References
[1] P. Weiss (1906) La variation du ferromagnetisme du temperature, Comptes Rendus, 143, p.1136-1149, cited in Cullity, 2008 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ixAe4qIGEmwC& pg=PA116& lpg=PA116), p.116 [2] Cullity; C. D. Graham. Introduction to Magnetic Materials, 2nd ed. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ixAe4qIGEmwC& pg=PA116& lpg=PA116). New York: Wiley-IEte=2008. pp.116. ISBN0-471-47741-9. . [3] Feynman, Richard P.; Robert B. Leighton, Matthew Sands (1963). The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Vol. I (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=bDF-uoUmttUC& pg=SA4-PA4& dq="inclined+ plane"+ + "conservation+ of+ energy"& hl=en& sa=X& ei=gQtdT6iLCanSiAK22tCsCw& ved=0CGwQ6AEwBg#v=onepage& q="inclined plane" "conservation of energy"& f=false). USA: California Inst. of Technology. pp.37.5-37.6. ISBN0-201-02117-XP. . [4] Carey R., Isaac E.D., Magnetic domains and techniques for their observation, The English University Press Ltd, London, (1966).

Jiles, David (1998). Introduction to magnetism and magnetic materials. London: Chapman & Hall. ISBN0-412-79860-3.

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External links
Interactive Java tutorial on magnetic domains (http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/education/tutorials/java/domains/ index.html) National High Magnetic Field Laboratory Magnetismus und Magnetooptik (http://schulzeundschultze.anphy.uni-duesseldorf.de/veroff/Diplome/ Volker.Solinus/node3.phtml) a German text about magnetism and magneto-optics

Magnetic field
A magnetic field may be represented by a mathematical description of the magnetic influence of electric currents and magnetic materials. The magnetic field at any given point is specified by both a direction and a magnitude (or strength); as such it is a vector field.[1] The magnetic field is most commonly defined in terms of the Lorentz force it exerts on moving electric charges. There are two separate but closely related fields to which the name "magnetic field" can refer: a magnetic B field and a magnetic H field. Magnetic fields are produced by moving electric charges and the intrinsic magnetic moments of Magnetic field of an ideal cylindrical magnet with its axis of elementary particles associated with a fundamental symmetry inside the image plane. quantum property, their spin. In special relativity, electric and magnetic fields are two interrelated aspects of a single object, called the electromagnetic tensor; the split of this tensor into electric and magnetic fields depends on the relative velocity of the observer and charge. In quantum physics, the electromagnetic field is quantized and electromagnetic interactions result from the exchange of photons. Magnetic fields have had many uses in ancient and modern society. The Earth produces its own magnetic field, which is important in navigation. Rotating magnetic fields are utilized in both electric motors and generators. Magnetic forces give information about the charge carriers in a material through the Hall effect. The interaction of magnetic fields in electric devices such as transformers is studied in the discipline of magnetic circuits.

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History
Although magnets and magnetism were known much earlier, the study of the magnetic field began in 1269 when French scholar Petrus Peregrinus de Maricourt mapped out the magnetic field on the surface of a spherical magnet using iron needles.[2] Noting that the resulting field lines crossed at two points he named those points 'poles' in analogy to Earth's poles. Almost three centuries later, William Gilbert of Colchester replicated Petrus Peregrinus' work and was the first to state explicitly that Earth is a magnet.[3] Published in 1600, Gilbert's work, De Magnete, helped to establish magnetism as a science. In 1750, John Michell stated that magnetic One of the first drawings of a magnetic field, by Ren Descartes, 1644. It illustrated his theory that magnetism was caused by the circulation of tiny helical poles attract and repel in accordance with an particles, "threaded parts", through threaded pores in magnets. inverse square law.[4] Charles-Augustin de Coulomb experimentally verified this in 1785 and stated explicitly that the North and South poles cannot be separated.[5] Building on this force between poles, Simon-Denis Poisson (17811840) created the first successful model of the magnetic field which he presented in 1824.[6] In this model, a magnetic H-field is produced by 'magnetic poles' and magnetism is due to small pairs of north/south magnetic poles. Three discoveries challenged this foundation of magnetism, though. First, in 1819, Hans Christian Oersted discovered that an electric current generates a magnetic field encircling it. Then in 1820, Andr-Marie Ampre showed that parallel wires having currents in the same direction attract one another. Finally, Jean-Baptiste Biot and Flix Savart discovered the BiotSavart law in 1820 which correctly predicts the magnetic field around any current-carrying wire. Extending these experiments, Ampre published his own successful model of magnetism in 1825. In it, he showed the equivalence of electrical currents to magnets[7] and proposed that magnetism is due to perpetually flowing loops of current instead of the dipoles of magnetic charge in Poisson's model.[8] This has the additional benefit of explaining why magnetic charge can not be isolated. Further, Ampre derived both Ampre's force law describing the force between two currents and Ampre's law which, like the BiotSavart law, correctly described the magnetic field generated by a steady current. Also in this work, Ampre introduced the term electrodynamics to describe the relationship between electricity and magnetism. In 1831, Michael Faraday discovered electromagnetic induction when he found that a changing magnetic field generates an encircling electric field. He described this phenomenon in what is known as Faraday's law of induction. Later, Franz Ernst Neumann proved that, for a moving conductor in a magnetic field, induction is a consequence of Ampre's force law .[9] In the process he introduced the magnetic vector potential which was later shown to be equivalent to the underlying mechanism proposed by Faraday. In 1850, Lord Kelvin, then known as William Thomson, distinguished between two magnetic fields now denoted H and B. The former applied to Poisson's model and the latter to Ampre's model and induction.[10] Further, he derived how H and B relate to each other.

Magnetic field Between 1861 and 1865, James Clerk Maxwell developed and published Maxwell's equations which explained and united all of classical electricity and magnetism. The first set of these equations was published in a paper entitled On Physical Lines of Force in 1861. These equations were valid although incomplete. He completed Maxwell's set of equations in his later 1865 paper A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field and demonstrated the fact that light is an electromagnetic wave. Heinrich Hertz experimentally confirmed this fact in 1887. Although implicit in Ampre's force law the force due to a magnetic field on a moving electric charge was not correctly and explicitly stated until 1892 by Hendrik Lorentz who theoretically derived it from Maxwell's equations.[11] With this last piece of the puzzle, the classical theory of electrodynamics was essentially complete. The twentieth century extended electrodynamics to include relativity and quantum mechanics. Albert Einstein, in his paper of 1905 that established relativity, showed that both the electric and magnetic fields are part of the same phenomena viewed from different reference frames. (See moving magnet and conductor problem for details about the thought experiment that eventually helped Albert Einstein to develop special relativity.) Finally, the emergent field of quantum mechanics was merged with electrodynamics to form quantum electrodynamics (QED).

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Definitions, units, and measurement

The magnetic field can be defined in several equivalent ways based on the effects it has on its environment. Often the magnetic field is defined by the force it exerts on a moving charged particle. It is known from experiments in electrostatics that a particle of charge q in an electric field E experiences a force F = qE. However, electrostatics alone is insufficient to explain the force a charged particle experiences in other situations, such as when it moves in the vicinity of a current-carrying wire. In these situations, the force can be correctly accounted for if one introduces a vector B and then writes down a new equation for the force, known as the Lorentz force law:

Here v is the particle's velocity and denotes the cross product. The vector B is termed the magnetic field, and it is defined as the vector field necessary to make the Lorentz force law correctly describe the motion of a charged particle. This definition allows one to determine B in the following way, as described by Purcell:[12] [T]he command, "Measure the direction of magnitude of the vector B at such and such a place," calls for the following operations: Take a particle of known charge q. Measure the force on q at rest, to determine E. Then measure the force on the particle when its velocity is v; repeat with v in some other direction. Now find a B that will make [the Lorentz force law] fit all these results; that is the magnetic field at the place in question. Alternatively, the magnetic field can be defined in terms of the torque it produces on a magnetic dipole (see magnetic torque on permanent magnets below). Devices used to measure the local magnetic field are called magnetometers. Important classes of magnetometers include using a rotating coil, Hall effect magnetometers, NMR magnetometers, SQUID magnetometers, and fluxgate magnetometers. The magnetic fields of distant astronomical objects are measured through their effects on local charged particles. For instance, electrons spiraling around a field line produce synchrotron radiation which is detectable in radio waves.

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Alternative names for B Magnetic flux density Magnetic induction Magnetic field

[13]

Alternative names for H

[13][14]

Magnetic field intensity Magnetic field strength Magnetic field Magnetizing field

There are two magnetic fields, H and B. In a vacuum they are indistinguishable, differing only by a multiplicative constant that depends on the physical units. Inside a material they are different (see H and B inside and outside of magnetic materials). The term magnetic field is historically reserved for H while using other terms for B. Informally, though, and formally for some recent textbooks mostly in physics, the term 'magnetic field' is used to describe B as well as or in place of H.[15] There are many alternative names for both (see sidebar). In SI units, the B-field (magnetic flux density) is measured in teslas (symbol: T) and correspondingly B (magnetic flux) is measured in weber (Wb) so that a flux density of one Wb/m2 is one tesla. In Gaussian-cgs units, the B-field is measured in gauss (symbol: G). (The conversion is 1 T = 10,000 G.) The SI unit of tesla is equivalent to (newtonsecond)/(coulombmetre).[16] The H-field is measured in ampere per metre (A/m) in SI units, and in oersteds (Oe) in cgs units.[17] The smallest precision level for a magnetic field measurement[18] is on the order of attoteslas (1018 tesla); the largest magnetic field produced in a laboratory is 2.8kT (VNIIEF in Sarov, Russia, 1998).[19] The magnetic field of some astronomical objects such as magnetars are much higher; magnetars range from 0.1 to 100GT (108 to 1011T).[20] See orders of magnitude (magnetic field).

Magnetic field lines

Mapping the magnetic field of an object is simple in principle. First, measure the strength and direction of the magnetic field at a large number of locations. Then, mark each location with an arrow (called a vector) pointing in the direction of the local magnetic field with a length proportional to the strength of the magnetic field. A simpler method to map the magnetic field is to 'connect' the arrows to form magnetic field lines. On a magnetic field line diagram, the direction of the magnetic field at any point is represented by the direction of nearby field lines. Further, if drawn carefully, a higher density of nearby field lines indicates a stronger magnetic field. Magnetic field lines are like the contour lines (constant altitude) on a topographic map in that a different mapping scale would show more or fewer lines. An advantage of using magnetic field lines, though, is that many laws of magnetism (and electromagnetism) can be stated completely and concisely using simple concepts such as the 'number' of field lines through a surface. These concepts can be quickly 'translated' to their mathematical form. For example, the number of field lines through a given surface is the surface integral of the magnetic field.

Compasses reveal the direction of the local magnetic field. As seen here, the magnetic field points towards a magnet's south pole and away from its north pole.

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Various phenomena have the effect of "displaying" magnetic field lines as though the field lines are physical phenomena. For example, iron filings placed in a magnetic field line up to form lines that correspond to 'field lines'.[21] Magnetic fields "lines" are also visually displayed in polar auroras, in which plasma particle dipole interactions create visible streaks of light that line up with the local direction of Earth's magnetic field. Field lines can be used as a qualitative tool to visualize magnetic The direction of magnetic field lines represented forces. In ferromagnetic substances like iron and in plasmas, magnetic by the alignment of iron filings sprinkled on forces can be understood by imagining that the field lines exert a paper placed above a bar magnet. tension, (like a rubber band) along their length, and a pressure perpendicular to their length on neighboring field lines. 'Unlike' poles of magnets attract because they are linked by many field lines; 'like' poles repel because their field lines do not meet, but run parallel, pushing on each other.

Magnetic field and permanent magnets

Permanent magnets are objects that produce their own persistent magnetic fields. They are made of ferromagnetic materials, such as iron and nickel, that have been magnetized, and they have both a north and a south pole.

Magnetic field of permanent magnets

The magnetic field of permanent magnets can be quite complicated, especially near the magnet. The magnetic field of a small[22] straight magnet is proportional to the magnet's strength (called its magnetic dipole moment m). The equations are non-trivial and also depend on the distance from the magnet and the orientation of the magnet. For simple magnets, m points in the direction of a line drawn from the south to the north pole of the magnet. Flipping a bar magnet is equivalent to rotating its m by 180 degrees. The magnetic field of larger magnets can be obtained by modelling them as a collection of a large number of small magnets called dipoles each having their own m. The magnetic field produced by the magnet then is the net magnetic field of these dipoles. And, any net force on the magnet is a result of adding up the forces on the individual dipoles. There are two competing models for the nature of these dipoles. These two models produce two different magnetic fields, H and B. Outside a material, though, the two are identical (to a multiplicative constant) so that in many cases the distinction can be ignored. This is particularly true for magnetic fields, such as those due to electric currents, that are not generated by magnetic materials.

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Magnetic pole model and the H-field

It is sometimes useful to model the force and torques between two magnets as due to magnetic poles repelling or attracting each other in the same manner as the Coulomb force between electric charges. In this model, a magnetic H-field is produced by magnetic charges that are 'smeared' around each pole. The H-field, therefore, is analogous to the electric field E which starts at a positive electric charge and ends at a negative electric charge. Near the north pole, therefore, all H-field lines point away from the north pole (whether inside the magnet or out) while near the south pole (whether inside the magnet or out) all H-field lines point toward the south pole. A north pole, then, feels a force in the direction of the H-field while the force on the south pole is opposite to the H-field. In the magnetic pole model, the elementary magnetic dipole m is formed by two opposite magnetic poles of pole strength qm separated by a very small distance vector d, such that m = qm d.

The magnetic pole model: two opposing poles, North (+) and South (-), separated by a distance d produce an H-field (lines).

Magnetic poles cannot exist apart from each other; all magnets have north/south pairs which cannot be separated without creating two magnets each having a north/south pair. The magnetic pole model does not account for magnetism that is produced by electric currents, nor the force that a magnetic field applies to moving electric charges.

Amperian loop model and the B-field

After Oersted discovered that electric currents produce a magnetic field and Ampere discovered that electric currents attracted and repelled each other similar to magnets, it was natural to hypothesize that all magnetic fields are due to electric current loops. In this model developed by Ampere, the elementary magnetic dipole that makes up all magnets is a sufficiently small Amperian loop of current I. The dipole moment of this loop is m = I A where A is the area of the loop. These magnetic dipoles produce a magnetic B field. One important property of the B-field produced this way is that magnetic B field lines neither start nor end (mathematically, B is a solenoidal vector field); a field line either extends to infinity or wraps around to form a closed curve.[23] To date no exception to this rule has been The Amperian loop model: A current loop (ring) which found. (See magnetic monopole below.) Magnetic field lines exit a goes into the page at the x and comes out at the dot produces a B field (lines). The north pole is to the right magnet near its north pole and enter near its south pole, but inside and the south to the left. the magnet B-field lines continue through the magnet from the south pole back to the north.[24] If a B-field line enters a magnet somewhere it has to leave somewhere else; it is not allowed to have an end point. Magnetic poles, therefore, always come in N and S pairs. More formally, since all the magnetic field lines that enter any given region must also leave that region, subtracting the 'number'[25] of field lines that enter the region from the number that exit gives identically zero. Mathematically this is equivalent to:

Magnetic field where the integral is a surface integral over the closed surface S (a closed surface is one that completely surrounds a region with no holes to let any field lines escape). Since dA points outward, the dot product in the integral is positive for B-field pointing out and negative for B-field pointing in. There is also a corresponding differential form of this equation covered in Maxwell's equations below.

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Force between magnets

The force between two small magnets is quite complicated and depends on the strength and orientation of both magnets and the distance and direction of the magnets relative to each other. The force is particularly sensitive to rotations of the magnets due to magnetic torque. The force on each magnet depends on its magnetic moment and the magnetic field[26] of the other. To understand the force between magnets, it is useful to examine the magnetic pole model given above. In this model, the H-field of one magnet pushes and pulls on both poles of a second magnet. If this H-field is the same at both poles of the second magnet then there is no net force on that magnet since the force is opposite for opposite poles. If, however, the magnetic field of the first magnet is nonuniform (such as the H near one of its poles), each pole of the second magnet sees a different field and is subject to a different force. This difference in the two forces moves the magnet in the direction of increasing magnetic field and may also cause a net torque. This is a specific example of a general rule that magnets are attracted (or repulsed depending on the orientation of the magnet) into regions of higher magnetic field. Any non-uniform magnetic field whether caused by permanent magnets or by electric currents will exert a force on a small magnet in this way. The details of the Amperian loop model are different and more complicated but yield the same result: that magnetic dipoles are attracted/repelled into regions of higher magnetic field. Mathematically, the force on a small magnet having a magnetic moment m due to a magnetic field B is:[27]

where the gradient is the change of the quantity mB per unit distance and the direction is that of maximum increase of mB. To understand this equation, note that the dot product mB = mBcos(), where m and B represent the magnitude of the m and B vectors and is the angle between them. If m is in the same direction as B then the dot product is positive and the gradient points 'uphill' pulling the magnet into regions of higher B-field (more strictly larger mB). This equation is strictly only valid for magnets of zero size, but is often a good approximation for not too large magnets. The magnetic force on larger magnets is determined by dividing them into smaller regions having their own m then summing up the forces on each of these regions.

Magnetic torque on permanent magnets

If two like poles of two separate magnets are brought near each other and one of the magnets is allowed to turn it will promptly rotate to align itself with the first. In this example, the magnetic field of the stationary magnet creates a magnetic torque on the magnet that is free to rotate. This magnetic torque tends to align a magnet's poles with the magnetic field lines. A compass, therefore, will turn to align itself with earth's magnetic field. Magnetic torque is used to drive electric motors. In one simple motor design, a magnet is fixed to a freely rotating shaft and subjected to a magnetic field from an array of electromagnets. By continuously switching the electric current through each of the electromagnets, thereby flipping the polarity of their magnetic fields, like poles are kept next to the rotor; the resultant torque is transferred to the shaft. See Rotating magnetic fields below.

Magnetic field

123 As is the case for the force between magnets, the magnetic pole model leads more readily to the correct equation. Here, two equal and opposite magnetic charges experiencing the same H also experience equal and opposite forces. Since these equal and opposite forces are in different locations, this produces a torque proportional to the distance (perpendicular to the force) between them. With the definition of m as the pole strength times the distance between the poles, this leads to = 0mHsin, where 0 is a constant called the magnetic constant and is the angle between H and m.

torque on a dipole: An H field (to right) causes equal but opposite forces on a N pole (+q) and a S pole (-q) creating a torque.

The Amperian loop model also predicts the same magnetic torque. Here, it is the B field interacting with the Amperian current loop through a Lorentz force described below. Again, the results are the same although the models are completely different. Mathematically, the torque on a small magnet is proportional both to the applied magnetic field and to the magnetic moment m of the magnet:

where represents the vector cross product. Note that this equation includes all of the qualitative information included above. There is no torque on a magnet if m is in the same direction as the magnetic field. (The cross product is zero for two vectors that are in the same direction.) Further, all other orientations feel a torque that twists them toward the direction of magnetic field.

Cross product: |a b| = a b sin.

Magnetic field and electric currents

Currents of electric charges both generate a magnetic field and feel a force due to magnetic B-fields.

Magnetic field due to moving charges and electric currents

All moving charged particles produce magnetic fields. Moving point charges, such as electrons, produce complicated but well known magnetic fields that depend on the charge, velocity, and acceleration of the particles.[28] Magnetic field lines form in concentric circles around a cylindrical current-carrying conductor, such as a length of wire. The direction of such a magnetic field can be determined by using the "right hand grip rule" (see figure at right). The strength of the magnetic field decreases with distance from the wire. (For an infinite length wire the strength decreases inversely proportional to the distance.)

Right hand grip rule: a current flowing in the direction of the white arrow produces a magnetic field shown by the red arrows.

Magnetic field

124 Bending a current-carrying wire into a loop concentrates the magnetic field inside the loop while weakening it outside. Bending a wire into multiple closely spaced loops to form a coil or "solenoid" enhances this effect. A device so formed around an iron core may act as an electromagnet, generating a strong, well-controlled magnetic field. An infinitely long cylindrical electromagnet has a uniform magnetic field inside, and no magnetic field outside. A finite length electromagnet produces a magnetic field that looks similar to that produced by a uniform permanent magnet, with its strength and polarity determined by the current flowing through the coil. The magnetic field generated by a steady current (a constant flow of electric charges in which charge is neither accumulating nor depleting at any point)[29] is described by the BiotSavart law:

Solenoid

where the integral sums over the wire length where vector d is the direction of the current, 0 is the magnetic constant, r is the distance between the location of d and the location at which the magnetic field is being calculated, and r is a unit vector in the direction of r. A slightly more general[30][31] way of relating the current to the B-field is through Ampre's law:

where the line integral is over any arbitrary loop and

enc

is the current enclosed by that loop. Ampre's law is

always valid for steady currents and can be used to calculate the B-field for certain highly symmetric situations such as an infinite wire or an infinite solenoid. In a modified form that accounts for time varying electric fields, Ampre's law is one of four Maxwell's equations that describe electricity and magnetism.

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Force on moving charges and current

Force on a charged particle A charged particle moving in a B-field experiences a sideways force that is proportional to the strength of the magnetic field, the component of the velocity that is perpendicular to the magnetic field and the charge of the particle. This force is known as the Lorentz force, and is given by

where F is the force, q is the electric charge of the particle, v is the instantaneous velocity of the particle, and B is the magnetic field (in teslas). The Lorentz force is always perpendicular to both the velocity of the particle and the magnetic field that created it. When a charged particle moves in a static magnetic field it will trace out a helical path in which the helix axis is parallel to the magnetic field and in which the speed of the particle will remain constant. Because the magnetic force is always perpendicular to the motion, the magnetic field can do no work on an isolated charge. It can only do work indirectly, via the electric field generated by a changing magnetic field. It is often claimed that the magnetic force can Charged particle drifts in a magnetic field with (A) no net force, (B) an electric field, E, (C) a charge independent force, F (e.g. gravity), and do work to a non-elementary magnetic dipole, or to (D) an inhomogeneous magnetic field, grad H. charged particles whose motion is constrained by other forces, but this is incorrect[32] because the work in those cases is performed by the electric forces of the charges deflected by the magnetic field. Force on current-carrying wire The force on a current carrying wire is similar to that of a moving charge as expected since a charge carrying wire is a collection of moving charges. A current carrying wire feels a force in the presence of a magnetic field. The Lorentz force on a macroscopic current is often referred to as the Laplace force. Consider a conductor of length l, cross section A, and charge q which is due to electric current i. If this conductor is placed in a magnetic field of induction B which makes an angle (theta) with the velocity of charges in the conductor, the force exerted on a single charge q is , so, for N charges where , the force exerted on the conductor is , , where .

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Direction of force The direction of force on a charge or a current can be determined by a mnemonic known as the right-hand rule (see the figure). Using the right hand and pointing the thumb in the direction of the moving positive charge or positive current and the fingers in the direction of the magnetic field the resulting force on the charge points outwards from the palm. The force on a negatively charged particle is in the opposite direction. The right-hand rule: Pointing the thumb of the right hand in the If both the speed and the charge are reversed then the direction of the conventional current and the fingers in the direction direction of the force remains the same. For that reason of the B-field the force on the current points out of the palm. The force is reversed for a negative charge. a magnetic field measurement (by itself) cannot distinguish whether there is a positive charge moving to the right or a negative charge moving to the left. (Both of these cases produce the same current.) On the other hand, a magnetic field combined with an electric field can distinguish between these, see Hall effect below. An alternative mnemonic to the right hand rule is Fleming's left hand rule.

Relation between H and B

The formulas derived for the magnetic field above are correct when dealing with the entire current. A magnetic material placed inside a magnetic field, though, generates its own bound current which can be a challenge to calculate. (This bound current is due to the sum of atomic sized current loops and the spin of the subatomic particles such as electrons that make up the material.) The H-field as defined above helps factor out this bound current; but in order to see how, it helps to introduce the concept of magnetization first.

Magnetization
The magnetization vector field M represents how strongly a region of material is magnetized. It is defined as the net magnetic dipole moment per unit volume of that region. The magnetization of a uniform magnet, therefore, is a constant in the material equal to its magnetic moment, m, divided by its volume. Since the SI unit of magnetic moment is ampere meter2, the SI unit of magnetization M is ampere per meter, identical to that of the H-field. The magnetization M field of a region points in the direction of the average magnetic dipole moment in that region. Magnetization field lines, therefore, begin near the magnetic south pole and ends near the magnetic north pole. (Magnetization does not exist outside of the magnet.) In the Amperian loop model, the magnetization is due to combining many tiny Amperian loops to form a resultant current called bound current. This bound current, then, is the source of the magnetic B field due to the magnet. (See Magnetic dipoles below and magnetic poles vs. atomic currents for more information.) Given the definition of the magnetic dipole, the magnetization field follows a similar law to that of Ampere's law:[33]

where the integral is a line integral over any closed loop and Ib is the 'bound current' enclosed by that closed loop. In the magnetic pole model, magnetization begins at and ends at magnetic poles. If a given region, therefore, has a net positive 'magnetic pole strength' (corresponding to a north pole) then it will have more magnetization field lines entering it than leaving it. Mathematically this is equivalent to: ,

Magnetic field where the integral is a closed surface integral over the closed surface S and qM is the 'magnetic charge' (in units of magnetic flux) enclosed by S. (A closed surface completely surrounds a region with no holes to let any field lines escape.) The negative sign occurs because the magnetization field moves from south to north.

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H-field and magnetic materials

The H-field is defined as: (definition of H in SI units) With this definition, Ampere's law becomes:

where If represents the 'free current' enclosed by the loop so that the line integral of H does not depend at all on the bound currents.[34] For the differential equivalent of this equation see Maxwell's equations. Ampere's law leads to the boundary condition where Kf is the surface free current density.[35] Similarly, a surface integral of H over any closed surface is independent of the free currents and picks out the 'magnetic charges' within that closed surface:

which does not depend on the free currents. The H-field, therefore, can be separated into two[36] independent parts:

where H0 is the applied magnetic field due only to the free currents and Hd is the demagnetizing field due only to the bound currents. The magnetic H-field, therefore, re-factors the bound current in terms of 'magnetic charges'. The H field lines loop only around 'free current' and, unlike the magnetic B field, begins and ends near magnetic poles as well.

Magnetism
Most materials respond to an applied B-field by producing their own magnetization M and therefore their own B-field. Typically, the response is very weak and exists only when the magnetic field is applied. The term magnetism describes how materials respond on the microscopic level to an applied magnetic field and is used to categorize the magnetic phase of a material. Materials are divided into groups based upon their magnetic behavior: Diamagnetic materials[37] produce a magnetization that opposes the magnetic field. Paramagnetic materials[37] produce a magnetization in the same direction as the applied magnetic field. Ferromagnetic materials and the closely related ferrimagnetic materials and antiferromagnetic materials[38][39] can have a magnetization independent of an applied B-field with a complex relationship between the two fields. Superconductors (and ferromagnetic superconductors)[40][41] are materials that are characterized by perfect conductivity below a critical temperature and magnetic field. They also are highly magnetic and can be perfect diamagnets below a lower critical magnetic field. Superconductors often have a broad range of temperatures and magnetic fields (the so named mixed state) for which they exhibit a complex hysteretic dependence of M on B. In the case of paramagnetism and diamagnetism, the magnetization M is often proportional to the applied magnetic field such that:

Magnetic field where is a material dependent parameter called the permeability. In some cases the permeability may be a second rank tensor so that H may not point in the same direction as B. These relations between B and H are examples of constitutive equations. However, superconductors and ferromagnets have a more complex B to H relation; see magnetic hysteresis.

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Energy stored in magnetic fields

Energy is needed to generate a magnetic field both to work against the electric field that a changing magnetic field creates and to change the magnetization of any material within the magnetic field. For non-dispersive materials this same energy is released when the magnetic field is destroyed so that this energy can be modeled as being stored in the magnetic field. For linear, non-dispersive, materials (such that B = H where is frequency-independent), the energy density is:

If there are no magnetic materials around then can be replaced by 0. The above equation cannot be used for nonlinear materials, though; a more general expression given below must be used. In general, the incremental amount of work per unit volume W needed to cause a small change of magnetic field B is:

Once the relationship between H and B is known this equation is used to determine the work needed to reach a given magnetic state. For hysteretic materials such as ferromagnets and superconductors the work needed will also depend on how the magnetic field is created. For linear non-dispersive materials, though, the general equation leads directly to the simpler energy density equation given above.

Electromagnetism: the relationship between magnetic and electric fields

Faraday's Law: Electric force due to a changing B-field
A changing magnetic field, such as a magnet moving through a conducting coil, generates an electric field (and therefore tends to drive a current in the coil). This is known as Faraday's law and forms the basis of many electrical generators and electric motors. Mathematically, Faraday's law is:

where is the electromotive force (or EMF, the voltage generated around a closed loop) and m is the magnetic fluxthe product of the area times the magnetic field normal to that area. (This definition of magnetic flux is why B is often referred to as magnetic flux density.) The negative sign is necessary and represents the fact that any current generated by a changing magnetic field in a coil produces a magnetic field that opposes the change in the magnetic field that induced it. This phenomenon is known as Lenz's Law. This integral formulation of Faraday's law can be converted[42] into a differential form, which applies under slightly different conditions. This form is covered as one of Maxwell's equations below.

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Maxwell's correction to Ampre's Law: The magnetic field due to a changing electric field
Similar to the way that a changing magnetic field generates an electric field, a changing electric field generates a magnetic field. This fact is known as Maxwell's correction to Ampre's law. Maxwell's correction to Ampre's Law bootstrap together with Faraday's law of induction to form electromagnetic waves, such as light. Thus, a changing electric field generates a changing magnetic field which generates a changing electric field again. Maxwell's correction to Ampre law is applied as an additive term to Ampere's law given above. This additive term is proportional to the time rate of change of the electric flux and is similar to Faraday's law above but with a different and positive constant out front. (The electric flux through an area is proportional to the area times the perpendicular part of the electric field.) This full Ampre law including the correction term is known as the MaxwellAmpre equation. It is not commonly given in integral form because the effect is so small that it can typically be ignored in most cases where the integral form is used. The Maxwell term is critically important in the creation and propagation of electromagnetic waves. These, though, are usually described using the differential form of this equation given below.

Maxwell's equations
Like all vector fields, magnetic field has two important mathematical properties that relates it to its sources. (For the B-field the sources are currents and changing electric fields.) These two properties, along with the two corresponding properties of the electric field, make up Maxwell's Equations. Maxwell's Equations together with the Lorentz force law form a complete description of classical electrodynamics including both electricity and magnetism. The first property is the divergence of a vector field A, A which represents how A 'flows' outward from a given point. As discussed above, a B-field line never starts or ends at a point but instead forms a complete loop. This is mathematically equivalent to saying that the divergence of B is zero. (Such vector fields are called solenoidal vector fields.) This property is called Gauss's law for magnetism and is equivalent to the statement that there are no isolated magnetic poles or magnetic monopoles. The electric field on the other hand begins and ends at electric charges so that its divergence is non-zero and proportional to the charge density (See Gauss's law). The second mathematical property is called the curl, such that A represents how A curls or 'circulates' around a given point. The result of the curl is called a 'circulation source'. The equations for the curl of B and of E are called the AmpreMaxwell equation and Faraday's law respectively. They represent the differential forms of the integral equations given above. The complete set of Maxwell's equations then are:

where J = complete microscopic current density and is the charge density.

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Technically, B is a pseudovector (also called an axial vector) due to being defined by a vector cross product. (See diagram.) As discussed above, materials respond to an applied electric E field and an applied magnetic B field by producing their own internal 'bound' charge and current distributions that contribute to E and B but are difficult to calculate. To circumvent this problem, H and D fields are used to re-factor Maxwell's equations in terms of the free current density Jf and free charge density f:

Magnetic field, like all pseudovectors, changes sign when reflected in a mirror: When a current carrying loop (black) is reflected in a mirror (dotted line), its magnetic field (blue) is reflected and reversed.

These equations are not any more general than the original equations (if the 'bound' charges and currents in the material are known). They also need to be supplemented by the relationship between B and H as well as that between E and D. On the other hand, for simple relationships between these quantities this form of Maxwell's equations can circumvent the need to calculate the bound charges and currents.

Electric and magnetic fields: different aspects of the same phenomenon

According to the special theory of relativity, the partition of the electromagnetic force into separate electric and magnetic components is not fundamental, but varies with the observational frame of reference: An electric force perceived by one observer may be perceived by another (in a different frame of reference) as a magnetic force, or a mixture of electric and magnetic forces. Formally, special relativity combines the electric and magnetic fields into a rank-2 tensor, called the electromagnetic tensor. Changing reference frames mixes these components. This is analogous to the way that special relativity mixes space and time into spacetime, and mass, momentum and energy into four-momentum.[43]

Magnetic vector potential

In advanced topics such as quantum mechanics and relativity it is often easier to work with a potential formulation of electrodynamics rather than in terms of the electric and magnetic fields. In this representation, the vector potential A, and the scalar potential , are defined such that:

The vector potential A may be interpreted as a generalized potential momentum per unit charge[44] just as is interpreted as a generalized potential energy per unit charge. Maxwell's equations when expressed in terms of the potentials can be cast into a form that agrees with special relativity with little effort.[45] In relativity A together with forms the four-potential analogous to the four-momentum which combines the momentum and energy of a particle. Using the four potential instead of the electromagnetic tensor has the advantage of being much simpler; further it can be easily modified to work with quantum mechanics.

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Quantum electrodynamics
In modern physics, the electromagnetic field is understood to be not a classical field, but rather a quantum field; it is represented not as a vector of three numbers at each point, but as a vector of three quantum operators at each point. The most accurate modern description of the electromagnetic interaction (and much else) is Quantum electrodynamics (QED),[46] which is incorporated into a more complete theory known as the Standard Model of particle physics. In QED, the magnitude of the electromagnetic interactions between charged particles (and their antiparticles) is computed using perturbation theory; these rather complex formulas have a remarkable pictorial representation as Feynman diagrams in which virtual photons are exchanged. Predictions of QED agree with experiments to an extremely high degree of accuracy: currently about 1012 (and limited by experimental errors); for details see precision tests of QED. This makes QED one of the most accurate physical theories constructed thus far. All equations in this article are in the classical approximation, which is less accurate than the quantum description mentioned here. However, under most everyday circumstances, the difference between the two theories is negligible.

Important uses and examples of magnetic field

Earth's magnetic field
The Earth's magnetic field is thought to be produced by convection currents in the outer liquid of Earth's core. The Dynamo theory proposes that these movements produce electric currents which, in turn, produce the magnetic field.[47] The presence of this field causes a compass, placed anywhere within it, to rotate so that the "north pole" of the magnet in the compass points roughly north, toward Earth's north magnetic pole. This is the traditional definition of the "north pole" of a magnet, although other equivalent definitions are also possible. One confusion that arises from this definition is that, if Earth itself is considered as a magnet, the south pole of that magnet would be the one nearer the north magnetic pole, and vice-versa. The north magnetic pole is so-named not because of the polarity of the field there but because of its geographical location. The north and south poles of a permanent magnet are so-called because they are "north-seeking" and "south-seeking", respectively.[48][49]

A sketch of Earth's magnetic field representing the source of the field as a magnet. The geographic north pole of Earth is near the top of the diagram, the south pole near the bottom. The south pole of that magnet is deep in Earth's interior below Earth's North Magnetic Pole.

The figure is a sketch of Earth's magnetic field represented by field lines. For most locations, the magnetic field has a significant up/down component in addition to the North/South component. (There is also an East/West component; Earth's magnetic poles do not coincide exactly with Earth's geological pole.) The magnetic field can be visualised as a bar magnet buried deep in Earth's interior. Earth's magnetic field is not constantthe strength of the field and the location of its poles vary. Moreover, the poles periodically reverse their orientation in a process called geomagnetic reversal. The most recent reversal occurred

Magnetic field 780,000 years ago.

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Rotating magnetic fields

The rotating magnetic field is a key principle in the operation of alternating-current motors. A permanent magnet in such a field rotates so as to maintain its alignment with the external field. This effect was conceptualized by Nikola Tesla, and later utilized in his, and others', early AC (alternating-current) electric motors. A rotating magnetic field can be constructed using two orthogonal coils with 90 degrees phase difference in their AC currents. However, in practice such a system would be supplied through a three-wire arrangement with unequal currents. This inequality would cause serious problems in standardization of the conductor size and so, in order to overcome it, three-phase systems are used where the three currents are equal in magnitude and have 120 degrees phase difference. Three similar coils having mutual geometrical angles of 120 degrees create the rotating magnetic field in this case. The ability of the three-phase system to create a rotating field, utilized in electric motors, is one of the main reasons why three-phase systems dominate the world's electrical power supply systems. Because magnets degrade with time, synchronous motors use DC voltage fed rotor windings which allows the excitation of the machine to be controlled and induction motors use short-circuited rotors (instead of a magnet) following the rotating magnetic field of a multicoiled stator. The short-circuited turns of the rotor develop eddy currents in the rotating field of the stator, and these currents in turn move the rotor by the Lorentz force. In 1882, Nikola Tesla identified the concept of the rotating magnetic field. In 1885, Galileo Ferraris independently researched the concept. In 1888, Tesla gained U.S. Patent 381968 [50] for his work. Also in 1888, Ferraris published his research in a paper to the Royal Academy of Sciences in Turin.

Hall effect
The charge carriers of a current carrying conductor placed in a transverse magnetic field experience a sideways Lorentz force; this results in a charge separation in a direction perpendicular to the current and to the magnetic field. The resultant voltage in that direction is proportional to the applied magnetic field. This is known as the Hall effect. The Hall effect is often used to measure the magnitude of a magnetic field. It is used as well to find the sign of the dominant charge carriers in materials such as semiconductors (negative electrons or positive holes).

Magnetic circuits
An important use of H is in magnetic circuits where B= H inside a linear material. Here, is the magnetic permeability of the material. This result is similar in form to Ohm's law J= E, where J is the current density, is the conductance and E is the electric field. Extending this analogy, the counterpart to the macroscopic Ohm's law (I= VR) is:

where

is the magnetic flux in the circuit,

is the magnetomotive force applied to

the circuit, and Rm is the reluctance of the circuit. Here the reluctance Rm is a quantity similar in nature to resistance for the flux. Using this analogy it is straightforward to calculate the magnetic flux of complicated magnetic field geometries, by using all the available techniques of circuit theory.

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Magnetic field shape descriptions

An azimuthal magnetic field is one that runs east-west. A meridional magnetic field is one that runs north-south. In the solar dynamo model of the Sun, differential rotation of the solar plasma causes the meridional magnetic field to stretch into an azimuthal magnetic field, a process called the omega-effect. The reverse process is called the alpha-effect.[51] A dipole magnetic field is one seen around a bar magnet or around a charged elementary particle with nonzero spin. A quadrupole magnetic field is one seen, for example, between the poles of four bar magnets. The field strength grows linearly with the radial distance from its longitudinal axis. A solenoidal magnetic field is similar to a dipole magnetic field, except that a solid bar magnet is replaced by a hollow electromagnetic coil magnet.
Schematic quadrupole magnet ("four-pole") magnetic field. There are four steel pole tips, two opposing magnetic north poles and two opposing magnetic south poles.

A toroidal magnetic field occurs in a doughnut-shaped coil, the electric current spiraling around the tube-like surface, and is found, for example, in a tokamak. A poloidal magnetic field is generated by a current flowing in a ring, and is found, for example, in a tokamak. A radial magnetic field is one in which the field lines are directed from the center outwards, similar to the spokes in a bicycle wheel. An example can be found in a loudspeaker transducers (driver).[52] A helical magnetic field is corkscrew-shaped, and sometimes seen in space plasmas such as the Orion Molecular Cloud.[53]

Magnetic dipoles
The magnetic field of a magnetic dipole is depicted in the figure. From outside, the ideal magnetic dipole is identical to that of an ideal electric dipole of the same strength. Unlike the electric dipole, a magnetic dipole is properly modeled as a current loop having a current I and an area a. Such a current loop has a magnetic moment of:

where the direction of m is perpendicular to the area of the loop and depends on the direction of the current using the right-hand rule. An ideal magnetic dipole is modeled as a real magnetic dipole whose area a has been reduced to zero and its current I increased to infinity such that the product m=Ia is finite. In this model it is easy to see the Magnetic field lines around a magnetostatic connection between angular momentum and magnetic moment which dipole pointing to the right. is the basis of the Einstein-de Haas effect "rotation by magnetization" and its inverse, the Barnett effect or "magnetization by rotation".[54] Rotating the loop faster (in the same direction) increases the current and therefore the magnetic moment, for example. It is sometimes useful to model the magnetic dipole similar to the electric dipole with two equal but opposite magnetic charges (one south the other north) separated by distance d. This model produces an H-field not a B-field. Such a model is deficient, though, both in that there are no magnetic charges and in that it obscures the link between electricity and magnetism. Further, as discussed above it fails to explain the inherent connection between angular momentum and magnetism.

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Magnetic monopole (hypothetical)

A magnetic monopole is a hypothetical particle (or class of particles) that has, as its name suggests, only one magnetic pole (either a north pole or a south pole). In other words, it would possess a "magnetic charge" analogous to an electric charge. Magnetic field lines would start or end on magnetic monopoles, so if they exist, they would give exceptions to the rule that magnetic field lines neither start nor end. Modern interest in this concept stems from particle theories, notably Grand Unified Theories and superstring theories, that predict either the existence, or the possibility, of magnetic monopoles. These theories and others have inspired extensive efforts to search for monopoles. Despite these efforts, no magnetic monopole has been observed to date.[55] In recent research, materials known as spin ices can simulate monopoles, but do not contain actual monopoles.

Notes
[1] Technically, a magnetic field is a pseudo vector; pseudo-vectors, which also include torque and rotational velocity, are similar to vectors except that they remain unchanged when the coordinates are inverted. [2] His Epistola Petri Peregrini de Maricourt ad Sygerum de Foucaucourt Militem de Magnete, which is often shortened to Epistola de magnete, is dated 1269 C.E. [3] Whittaker 1951, p.34 [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] Whittaker 1951, p.56 Whittaker 1951, p.59 Whittaker 1951, p.64 Whittaker 1951, p.88 From the outside, the field of a dipole of magnetic charge has the exact same form as that of a current loop when both are sufficiently small. Therefore, the two models differ only for magnetism inside magnetic material. [9] Whittaker 1951, p.222 [10] Whittaker 1951, p.244 [11] Whittaker 1951, p.422 [12] Purcell, E. (2011). Electricity and Magnetism (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp.1734. ISBN1107013607. [13] Electromagnetics, by Rothwell and Cloud, p23 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=jCqv1UygjA4C& pg=PA23) [14] R.P. Feynman, R.B. Leighton, M. Sands (1963). The Feynman Lectures on Physics, volume 2. [15] Edward Purcell, in Electricity and Magnetism, McGraw-Hill, 1963, writes, Even some modern writers who treat B as the primary field feel obliged to call it the magnetic induction because the name magnetic field was historically preempted by H. This seems clumsy and pedantic. If you go into the laboratory and ask a physicist what causes the pion trajectories in his bubble chamber to curve, he'll probably answer "magnetic field", not "magnetic induction." You will seldom hear a geophysicist refer to the Earth's magnetic induction, or an astrophysicist talk about the magnetic induction of the galaxy. We propose to keep on calling B the magnetic field. As for H, although other names have been invented for it, we shall call it "the field H" or even "the magnetic field H." In a similar vein, M Gerloch (1983). Magnetism and Ligand-field Analysis (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=Ovo8AAAAIAAJ& pg=PA110). Cambridge University Press. p.110. ISBN0-521-24939-2. . says: "So we may think of both B and H as magnetic fields, but drop the word 'magnetic' from H so as to maintain the distinction ... As Purcell points out, 'it is only the names that give trouble, not the symbols'." [16] This can be seen from the magnetic part of the Lorentz force law F = qvBsin. [17] "International system of units (SI)" (http:/ / physics. nist. gov/ cuu/ Units/ units. html). NIST reference on constants, units, and uncertainty. National Institute of Standards and Technology. . Retrieved 9 May 2012. [18] "Gravity Probe B Executive Summary" (http:/ / www. nasa. gov/ pdf/ 168808main_gp-b_pfar_cvr-pref-execsum. pdf). pp.10, 21. . [19] "With record magnetic fields to the 21st Century" (http:/ / ieeexplore. ieee. org/ xpl/ freeabs_all. jsp?arnumber=823621). IEEE Xplore. . [20] Kouveliotou, C.; Duncan, R. C.; Thompson, C. (February 2003). " Magnetars (http:/ / solomon. as. utexas. edu/ ~duncan/ sciam. pdf)". Scientific American; Page 36. [21] The use of iron filings to display a field presents something of an exception to this picture; the filings alter the magnetic field so that it is much larger along the "lines" of iron, due to the large permeability of iron relative to air. [22] Here 'small' means that the observer is sufficiently far away that it can be treated as being infinitesimally small. 'Larger' magnets need to include more complicated terms in the expression and depend on the entire geometry of the magnet not just m. [23] Magnetic field lines may also wrap around and around without closing but also without ending. These more complicated non-closing non-ending magnetic field lines are moot, though, since the magnetic field of objects that produce them are calculated by adding the magnetic fields of 'elementary parts' having magnetic field lines that do form closed curves or extend to infinity. [24] To see that this must be true imagine placing a compass inside a magnet. There, the north pole of the compass points toward the north pole of the magnet since magnets stacked on each other point in the same direction.

Magnetic field
[25] As discussed above, magnetic field lines are primarily a conceptual tool used to represent the mathematics behind magnetic fields. The total 'number' of field lines is dependent on how the field lines are drawn. In practice, integral equations such as the one that follows in the main text are used instead. [26] Either B or H may be used for the magnetic field outside of the magnet. [27] See Eq. 11.42 in E. Richard Cohen, David R. Lide, George L. Trigg (2003). AIP physics desk reference (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=JStYf6WlXpgC& pg=PA381) (3 ed.). Birkhuser. p.381. ISBN0-387-98973-0. . [28] Griffiths 1999, p.438 [29] In practice, the BiotSavart law and other laws of magnetostatics are often used even when the currents are changing in time as long as it is not changing too quickly. It is often used, for instance, for standard household currents which oscillate sixty times per second. [30] Griffiths 1999, pp.222225 [31] The BiotSavart law contains the additional restriction (boundary condition) that the B-field must go to zero fast enough at infinity. It also depends on the divergence of B being zero, which is always valid. (There are no magnetic charges.) [32] Deissler, R.J. (2008). "Dipole in a magnetic field, work, and quantum spin" (http:/ / academic. csuohio. edu/ deissler/ PhysRevE_77_036609. pdf). Physical Review E 77 (3, pt 2): 036609. Bibcode2008PhRvE..77c6609D. doi:10.1103/PhysRevE.77.036609. PMID18517545. . [33] Griffiths 1999, pp.266268 [34] John Clarke Slater, Nathaniel Herman Frank (1969). Electromagnetism (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=GYsphnFwUuUC& pg=PA69) (first published in 1947 ed.). Courier Dover Publications. p.69. ISBN0-486-62263-0. . [35] Griffiths 1999, p.332 [36] A third term is needed for changing electric fields and polarization currents; this displacement current term is covered in Maxwell's equations below. [37] RJD Tilley (2004). Understanding Solids (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=ZVgOLCXNoMoC& pg=PA368). Wiley. p.368. ISBN0-470-85275-5. . [38] Sshin Chikazumi, Chad D. Graham (1997). Physics of ferromagnetism (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=AZVfuxXF2GsC& printsec=frontcover) (2 ed.). Oxford University Press. p.118. ISBN0-19-851776-9. . [39] Amikam Aharoni (2000). Introduction to the theory of ferromagnetism (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=9RvNuIDh0qMC& pg=PA27) (2 ed.). Oxford University Press. p.27. ISBN0-19-850808-5. . [40] M Brian Maple et al. (2008). "Unconventional superconductivity in novel materials" (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=PguAgEQTiQwC& pg=PA640). In K. H. Bennemann, John B. Ketterson. Superconductivity. Springer. p.640. ISBN3-540-73252-7. . [41] Naoum Karchev (2003). "Itinerant ferromagnetism and superconductivity" (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=3AFo_yxBkD0C& pg=PA169). In Paul S. Lewis, D. Di (CON) Castro. Superconductivity research at the leading edge. Nova Publishers. p.169. ISBN1-59033-861-8. . [42] A complete expression for Faraday's law of induction in terms of the electric E and magnetic fields can be written as: where (t) is the moving closed path bounding the moving surface (t), and dA is an element of surface area of (t). The first integral calculates the work done moving a charge a distance d based upon the Lorentz force law. In the case where the bounding surface is stationary, the KelvinStokes theorem can be used to show this equation is equivalent to the MaxwellFaraday equation. [43] C. Doran and A. Lasenby (2003) Geometric Algebra for Physicists, Cambridge University Press, p.233 [44] E. J. Konopinski (1978). "What the electromagnetic vector potential describes". Am. J. Phys. 46 (5): 499502. Bibcode1978AmJPh..46..499K. doi:10.1119/1.11298. [45] Griffiths 1999, p.422 [46] For a good qualitative introduction see: Feynman, Richard (2006). QED: the strange theory of light and matter. Princeton University Press. ISBN0-691-12575-9. [47] Herbert, Yahreas (June 1954). "What makes the earth Wobble" (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=NiEDAAAAMBAJ& pg=PA96& dq=What+ makes+ the+ earth+ wobble& q=What makes the earth wobble). Popular Science (New York: Godfrey Hammond): 266. . [48] Serway, Raymond A.; Chris Vuille, Jerry S. Faughn (2009). College physics (8th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning. p.628. ISBN978-0-495-38693-3. [49] Kurtus, Ron (2004). "Magnets" (http:/ / www. school-for-champions. com/ science/ magnets. htm). School for champions: Physics topics. . Retrieved 17 July 2010. [50] http:/ / www. google. com/ patents?vid=381968 [51] The Solar Dynamo (http:/ / www. cora. nwra. com/ ~werne/ eos/ text/ dynamo. html), retrieved September 15, 2007. [52] I. S. Falconer and M. I. Large (edited by I. M. Sefton), " Magnetism: Fields and Forces (http:/ / www. physics. usyd. edu. au/ super/ life_sciences/ electricity. html)" Lecture E6, The University of Sydney, retrieved 3 October 2008 [53] Robert Sanders, " Astronomers find magnetic Slinky in Orion (http:/ / berkeley. edu/ news/ media/ releases/ 2006/ 01/ 12_helical. shtml)", 12 January 2006 at UC Berkeley. Retrieved 3 October 2008 [54] (See magnetic moment for further information.)

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B. D. Cullity, C. D. Graham (2008). Introduction to Magnetic Materials (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=ixAe4qIGEmwC&pg=PA103) (2 ed.). Wiley-IEEE. p.103. ISBN0-471-47741-9. .

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[55] Two experiments produced candidate events that were initially interpreted as monopoles, but these are now regarded to be inconclusive. For details and references, see magnetic monopole.

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References Further reading

Durney, Carl H. and Johnson, Curtis C. (1969). Introduction to modern electromagnetics. McGraw-Hill. ISBN0-07-018388-0. Furlani, Edward P. (2001). Permanent Magnet and Electromechanical Devices: Materials, Analysis and Applications. Academic Press Series in Electromagnetism. ISBN0-12-269951-3. OCLC162129430. Griffiths, David J. (1999). Introduction to Electrodynamics (3rd ed.). Prentice Hall. p.438. ISBN0-13-805326-X. OCLC40251748. Jiles, David (1994). Introduction to Electronic Properties of Materials (1st ed ed.). Springer. ISBN0-412-49580-5. Kraftmakher, Yaakov (2001). "Two experiments with rotating magnetic field" (http://www.iop.org/EJ/ abstract/0143-0807/22/5/302). Eur. J. Phys. 22: 477482. Melle, Sonia; Rubio, Miguel A.; Fuller, Gerald G. (2000). "Structure and dynamics of magnetorheological fluids in rotating magnetic fields" (http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PRE/v61/i4/p4111_1). Phys. Rev. E 61: 41114117. Bibcode2000PhRvE..61.4111M. doi:10.1103/PhysRevE.61.4111. Rao, Nannapaneni N. (1994). Elements of engineering electromagnetics (4th ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN0-13-948746-8. OCLC221993786. Mielnik, Bogdan (1989). "An electron trapped in a rotating magnetic field" (http://scitation.aip.org/getabs/ servlet/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=JMAPAQ000030000002000537000001&idtype=cvips&gifs=yes). Journal of Mathematical Physics 30 (2): 537549. Bibcode1989JMP....30..537M. doi:10.1063/1.528419. Thalmann, Julia K. (2010). Evolution of Coronal Magnetic Fields. uni-edition. ISBN978-3-942171-41-0. Tipler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Electricity, Magnetism, Light, and Elementary Modern Physics (5th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN0-7167-0810-8. OCLC51095685. Whittaker, E. T. (1951). A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity (http://www.archive.org/details/ historyoftheorie00whitrich). Dover Publications. p.34. ISBN0-486-26126-3.

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External links
Information
Crowell, B., " Electromagnetism (http:/ / www. lightandmatter. com/ html_books/ 0sn/ ch11/ ch11. html)". Nave, R., " Magnetic Field (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ magnetic/ magfie. html)". HyperPhysics. "Magnetism", The Magnetic Field (http:/ / theory. uwinnipeg. ca/ physics/ mag/ node2. html#SECTION00110000000000000000). theory.uwinnipeg.ca. Hoadley, Rick, " What do magnetic fields look like (http:/ / my. execpc. com/ ~rhoadley/ magfield. htm)?" 17 July 2005.

Rotating magnetic fields

" Rotating magnetic fields (http:/ / www. tpub. com/ neets/ book5/ 18a. htm)". Integrated Publishing. "Introduction to Generators and Motors", rotating magnetic field (http:/ / www. tpub. com/ content/ neets/ 14177/ css/ 14177_87. htm). Integrated Publishing. " Induction Motor Rotating Fields (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20050929102550/ http:/ / www. egr. msu. edu/ ~jurkovi4/ Experiment4. pdf)".

Field density
Oppelt, Arnulf (2 November 2006). "magnetic field strength" (http:/ / searchsmb. techtarget. com/ sDefinition/ 0,290660,sid44_gci763586,00. html). Retrieved 04 June 2007. "magnetic field strength converter" (http:/ / www. unitconversion. org/ unit_converter/ magnetic-field-strength. html). Retrieved 04 June 2007.

Diagrams
"AC Motor Theory" Figure 2 Rotating Magnetic Field (http:/ / www. tpub. com/ content/ doe/ h1011v4/ css/ h1011v4_23. htm). Integrated Publishing. "Magnetic Fields" Arc & Mitre Magnetic Field Diagrams (http:/ / www. first4magnets. com/ ekmps/ shops/ trainer27/ resources/ Other/ magnetic-fields. pdf). Magnet Expert Ltd.

Magnetic monopole
A magnetic monopole is a hypothetical particle in particle physics that is an isolated magnet with only one magnetic pole (a north pole without a south pole or vice-versa).[1][2] In more technical terms, a magnetic monopole would have a net "magnetic charge". Modern interest in the concept stems from particle theories, notably the grand unified and superstring theories, which predict their existence.[3][4] Magnetism in bar magnets and electromagnets does not arise from magnetic monopoles, and in fact there is no conclusive experimental evidence that magnetic monopoles exist at all in the universe. Effective (non-isolated) magnetic monopole quasi-particles exist in some condensed matter systems.
It is impossible to make magnetic monopoles from a bar magnet. If a bar magnet is cut in half, it is not the case that one half has the north pole and the other half has the south pole. Instead, each piece has its own north and south poles. A magnetic monopole cannot be created from normal matter such as atoms and electrons, but would instead be a new elementary particle.

Historical background
Pre-twentieth century

Many early scientists attributed the magnetism of lodestones to two different "magnetic fluids" ("effluvia"), a north-pole fluid at one end and a south-pole fluid at the other, which attracted and repelled each other in analogy to positive and negative electric charge.[5][6] However, an improved understanding of electromagnetism in the nineteenth century showed that the magnetism of lodestones was properly explained by Ampre's circuital law, not magnetic monopole fluids. It was concluded that magnetic monopoles did

Magnetic monopole not exist: One of Maxwell's equations, now called Gauss's law for magnetism, is the mathematical statement that there are no magnetic monopoles. Nevertheless, it was pointed out by Pierre Curie in 1894[7] that magnetic monopoles could conceivably exist, despite not having been seen so far.

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Twentieth century
The quantum theory of magnetic charge started with a paper by the physicist Paul A.M. Dirac in 1931.[8] In this paper, Dirac showed that if any magnetic monopoles exist in the universe, then all electric charge in the universe must be quantized.[9] The electric charge is, in fact, quantized, which is consistent with (but does not prove) the existence of monopoles.[9] Since Dirac's paper, several systematic monopole searches have been performed. Experiments in 1975[10] and 1982[11] produced candidate events that were initially interpreted as monopoles, but are now regarded as inconclusive.[12] Therefore, it remains an open question whether or not monopoles exist. Further advances in theoretical particle physics, particularly developments in grand unified theories and quantum gravity, have led to more compelling arguments that monopoles do exist. Joseph Polchinski, a string-theorist, described the existence of monopoles as "one of the safest bets that one can make about physics not yet seen".[13] These theories are not necessarily inconsistent with the experimental evidence. In some theoretical models, magnetic monopoles are unlikely to be observed, because they are too massive to be created in particle accelerators, and also too rare in the Universe to enter a particle detector with much probability.[13] Some condensed matter systems propose a structure superficially similar to a magnetic monopole, known as a flux tube. The ends of a flux tube form a magnetic dipole, but since they move independently, they can be treated for many purposes as independent magnetic monopole quasiparticles. Since 2009, numerous news reports from the popular media have incorrectly described these systems as the long-awaited discovery of the magnetic monopoles, but the two phenomena are only superficially related to one another.[14] These condensed-matter systems continue to be an area of active research. (See "Monopoles" in condensed-matter systems below.)

Poles and magnetism in ordinary matter

All matter ever isolated to dateincluding every atom on the periodic table and every particle in the standard modelhas no magnetic monopole charge. Therefore, the ordinary phenomena of magnetism and magnets have nothing to do with magnetic monopoles. Instead, magnetism in ordinary matter comes from two sources. First, electric currents create magnetic fields according to Ampre's law. Second, many elementary particles have an "intrinsic" magnetic moment, the most important of which is the electron magnetic dipole moment. (This magnetism is related to quantum-mechanical "spin".) Mathematically, the magnetic field of an object is often described in terms of a multipole expansion. This is an expression of the field as a superposition (sum) of component fields with specific mathematical forms. The first term in the expansion is called the "monopole" term, the second is called "dipole", then "quadrupole", then "octupole", and so on. Any of these terms can be present in the multipole expansion of an electric field, for example. However, in the multipole expansion of a magnetic field, the "monopole" term is always exactly zero (for ordinary matter). A magnetic monopole, if it exists, would have the defining property of producing a magnetic field whose "monopole" term is nonzero. A magnetic dipole is something whose magnetic field is predominantly or exactly described by the magnetic dipole term of the multipole expansion. The term "dipole" means "two poles", corresponding to the fact that a dipole magnet typically contains a "north pole" on one side and a "south pole" on the other side. This is analogous to an electric dipole, which has positive charge on one side and negative charge on the other. However, an electric dipole and magnetic dipole are fundamentally quite different. In an electric dipole, the positive charge is made of protons

Magnetic monopole and the negative charge is made of electrons, but a magnetic dipole does not have different types of matter creating the north pole and south pole. Instead, the two magnetic poles arise simultaneously from the aggregate effect of all the currents and intrinsic moments throughout the magnet. Because of this, the two poles of a magnetic dipole must always have equal and opposite strength, and the two poles cannot be separated from each other.

139

Maxwell's equations
Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism relate the electric and magnetic fields to each other and to the motions of electric charges. The standard equations provide for electric charges, but they posit no magnetic charges. Except for this difference, the equations are symmetric under the interchange of the electric and magnetic fields.[15] In fact, symmetric Maxwell's equations can be written when all charges (and hence electric currents) are zero, and this is how the electromagnetic wave equation is derived. Fully symmetric Maxwell's equations can also be written if one allows for the possibility of "magnetic charges" analogous to electric charges.[16] With the inclusion of a variable for the density of these magnetic charges, say m, there will also be a "magnetic current density" variable in the equations, jm. If magnetic charges do not exist or if they do exist but are not present in a region of space then the new terms in Maxwell's equations are all zero, and the extended equations reduce to the conventional equations of electromagnetism such as B=0 (where is divergence and B is the magnetic B field).

In Gaussian cgs units

The extended Maxwell's equations are as follows, in Gaussian cgs units:[17]

Maxwell's equations and Lorentz force equation with magnetic monopoles: Gaussian cgs units
Name Gauss's law Gauss's law for magnetism Faraday's law of induction Ampre's law (with Maxwell's extension) [17][18] Without magnetic monopoles With magnetic monopoles

Lorentz force law

In these equations m is the magnetic charge density, jm is the magnetic current density, and qm is the magnetic charge of a test particle, all defined analogously to the related quantities of electric charge and current; v is the particle's velocity and c is the speed of light. For all other definitions and details, see Maxwell's equations. For the equations in nondimensionalized form, remove the factors ofc.

Magnetic monopole

140

In SI units
In SI units, there are two conflicting units in use for magnetic charge qm: webers (Wb) and amperemeters (Am). The conversion between them is qm(Wb) = 0qm(Am), since the units are 1 Wb = 1 HA = (1 Hm1)(1 Am) by dimensional analysis (H is the Henry the SI unit of inductance). Maxwell's equations then take the following forms (using the same notation above):[19]

Maxwell's equations and Lorentz force equation with magnetic monopoles: SI units
Name Gauss's Law Gauss's Law for magnetism Faraday's Law of induction Ampre's Law (with Maxwell's extension) Lorentz force equation Without magnetic monopoles Weber convention Amperemeter convention

Dirac's quantization
One of the defining advances in quantum theory was Paul Dirac's work on developing a relativistic quantum electromagnetism. Before his formulation, the presence of electric charge was simply "inserted" into the equations of quantum mechanics (QM), but in 1931 Dirac showed that a discrete charge naturally "falls out" of QM. That is to say, we can maintain the form of Maxwell's equations and still have magnetic charges. Consider a system consisting of a single stationary electric monopole (an electron, say) and a single stationary magnetic monopole. Classically, the electromagnetic field surrounding them has a momentum density given by the Poynting vector, and it also has a total angular momentum, which is proportional to the product qeqm, and independent of the distance between them. Quantum mechanics dictates, however, that angular momentum is quantized in units of , so therefore the product qeqm must also be quantized. This means that if even a single magnetic monopole existed in the universe, and the form of Maxwell's equations is valid, all electric charges would then be quantized. What are the units in which magnetic charge would be quantized? Although it would be possible simply to integrate over all space to find the total angular momentum in the above example, Dirac took a different approach. This led him to new ideas. He considered a point-like magnetic charge whose magnetic field behaves as qm/r2 and is directed in the radial direction, located at the origin. Because the divergence of B is equal to zero almost everywhere, except for the locus of the magnetic monopole at r=0, one can locally define the vector potential such that the curl of the vector potential A equals the magnetic field B. However, the vector potential cannot be defined globally precisely because the divergence of the magnetic field is proportional to the Dirac delta function at the origin. We must define one set of functions for the vector potential on the "northern hemisphere" (the half-space z > 0 above the particle), and another set of functions for the "southern hemisphere". These two vector potentials are matched at the "equator" (the plane z = 0 through the particle), and they differ by a gauge transformation. The wave function of an electrically-charged particle (a "probe charge") that orbits the "equator" generally changes by a phase, much like in the AharonovBohm effect. This phase is proportional to the electric charge qe of the probe, as well as to the magnetic charge qm of the source. Dirac was originally considering an electron whose wave function is described by the Dirac equation.

Magnetic monopole Because the electron returns to the same point after the full trip around the equator, the phase of its wave function exp(i) must be unchanged, which implies that the phase added to the wave function must be a multiple of 2:
Units Gaussian-cgs units [20] Condition

141

SI units (weber convention)

SI units (amperemeter convention)

where 0 is the vacuum permittivity, = h/2 is the reduced Planck's constant, c is the speed of light, and is the set of integers. This is known as the Dirac quantization condition. The hypothetical existence of a magnetic monopole would imply that the electric charge must be quantized in certain units; also, the existence of the electric charges implies that the magnetic charges of the hypothetical magnetic monopoles, if they exist, must be quantized in units inversely proportional to the elementary electric charge. At the time it was not clear if such a thing existed, or even had to. After all, another theory could come along that would explain charge quantization without need for the monopole. The concept remained something of a curiosity. However, in the time since the publication of this seminal work, no other widely accepted explanation of charge quantization has appeared. (The concept of local gauge invariancesee gauge theory belowprovides a natural explanation of charge quantization, without invoking the need for magnetic monopoles; but only if the U(1) gauge group is compact, in which case we will have magnetic monopoles anyway.) If we maximally extend the definition of the vector potential for the southern hemisphere, it will be defined everywhere except for a semi-infinite line stretched from the origin in the direction towards the northern pole. This semi-infinite line is called the Dirac string and its effect on the wave function is analogous to the effect of the solenoid in the AharonovBohm effect. The quantization condition comes from the requirement that the phases around the Dirac string are trivial, which means that the Dirac string must be unphysical. The Dirac string is merely an artifact of the coordinate chart used and should not be taken seriously. The Dirac monopole is a singular solution of Maxwell's equation (because it requires removing the worldline from spacetime); in more complicated theories, it is superseded by a smooth solution such as the 't HooftPolyakov monopole.

Topological interpretation
Dirac string
A gauge theory like electromagnetism is defined by a gauge field, which associates a group element to each path in space time. For infinitesimal paths, the group element is close to the identity, while for longer paths the group element is the successive product of the infinitesimal group elements along the way. In electrodynamics, the group is U(1), unit complex numbers under multiplication. For infinitesimal paths, the group element is 1+iAdx which implies that for finite paths parametrized by s, the group element is:

The map from paths to group elements is called the Wilson loop or the holonomy, and for a U(1) gauge group it is the phase factor which the wavefunction of a charged particle acquires as it traverses the path. For a loop:

Magnetic monopole So that the phase a charged particle gets when going in a loop is the magnetic flux through the loop. When a small solenoid has a magnetic flux, there are interference fringes for charged particles which go around the solenoid, or around different sides of the solenoid, which reveal its presence. But if all particle charges are integer multiples of e, solenoids with a flux of 2/e have no interference fringes, because the phase factor for any charged particle is e2i=1. Such a solenoid, if thin enough, is quantum-mechanically invisible. If such a solenoid were to carry a flux of 2/e, when the flux leaked out from one of its ends it would be indistinguishable from a monopole. Dirac's monopole solution in fact describes an infinitesimal line solenoid ending at a point, and the location of the solenoid is the singular part of the solution, the Dirac string. Dirac strings link monopoles and antimonopoles of opposite magnetic charge, although in Dirac's version, the string just goes off to infinity. The string is unobservable, so you can put it anywhere, and by using two coordinate patches, the field in each patch can be made nonsingular by sliding the string to where it cannot be seen.

142

Grand unified theories

In a U(1) gauge group with quantized charge, the group is a circle of radius 2/e. Such a U(1) gauge group is called compact. Any U(1) which comes from a Grand Unified Theory is compact because only compact higher gauge groups make sense. The size of the gauge group is a measure of the inverse coupling constant, so that in the limit of a large-volume gauge group, the interaction of any fixed representation goes to zero. The case of the U(1) gauge group is a special case because all its irreducible representations are of the same size the charge is bigger by an integer amount, but the field is still just a complex number so that in U(1) gauge field theory it is possible to take the decompactified limit with no contradiction. The quantum of charge becomes small, but each charged particle has a huge number of charge quanta so its charge stays finite. In a non-compact U(1) gauge group theory, the charges of particles are generically not integer multiples of a single unit. Since charge quantization is an experimental certainty, it is clear that the U(1) gauge group of electromagnetism is compact. GUTs lead to compact U(1) gauge groups, so they explain charge quantization in a way that seems to be logically independent from magnetic monopoles. However, the explanation is essentially the same, because in any GUT which breaks down into a U(1) gauge group at long distances, there are magnetic monopoles. The argument is topological: 1. The holonomy of a gauge field maps loops to elements of the gauge group. Infinitesimal loops are mapped to group elements infinitesimally close to the identity. 2. If you imagine a big sphere in space, you can deform an infinitesimal loop which starts and ends at the north pole as follows: stretch out the loop over the western hemisphere until it becomes a great circle (which still starts and ends at the north pole) then let it shrink back to a little loop while going over the eastern hemisphere. This is called lassoing the sphere. 3. Lassoing is a sequence of loops, so the holonomy maps it to a sequence of group elements, a continuous path in the gauge group. Since the loop at the beginning of the lassoing is the same as the loop at the end, the path in the group is closed. 4. If the group path associated to the lassoing procedure winds around the U(1), the sphere contains magnetic charge. During the lassoing, the holonomy changes by the amount of magnetic flux through the sphere. 5. Since the holonomy at the beginning and at the end is the identity, the total magnetic flux is quantized. The magnetic charge is proportional to the number of windings N, the magnetic flux through the sphere is equal to 2N/e. This is the Dirac quantization condition, and it is a topological condition which demands that the long distance U(1) gauge field configurations be consistent. 6. When the U(1) gauge group comes from breaking a compact Lie group, the path which winds around the U(1) group enough times is topologically trivial in the big group. In a non-U(1) compact Lie group, the covering space is a Lie group with the same Lie algebra, but where all closed loops are contractible. Lie groups are homogenous,

Magnetic monopole so that any cycle in the group can be moved around so that it starts at the identity, then its lift to the covering group ends at P, which is a lift of the identity. Going around the loop twice gets you to P2, three times to P3, all lifts of the identity. But there are only finitely many lifts of the identity, because the lifts can't accumulate. This number of times one has to traverse the loop to make it contractible is small, for example if the GUT group is SO(3), the covering group is SU(2), and going around any loop twice is enough. 7. This means that there is a continuous gauge-field configuration in the GUT group allows the U(1) monopole configuration to unwind itself at short distances, at the cost of not staying in the U(1). In order to do this with as little energy as possible, you should leave only the U(1) gauge group in the neighborhood of one point, which is called the core of the monopole. Outside the core, the monopole has only magnetic field energy. Hence, the Dirac monopole is a topological defect in a compact U(1) gauge theory. When there is no GUT, the defect is a singularity the core shrinks to a point. But when there is some sort of short-distance regulator on space time, the monopoles have a finite mass. Monopoles occur in lattice U(1), and there the core size is the lattice size. In general, they are expected to occur whenever there is a short-distance regulator.

143

String theory
In our universe, quantum gravity provides the regulator. When gravity is included, the monopole singularity can be a black hole, and for large magnetic charge and mass, the black hole mass is equal to the black hole charge, so that the mass of the magnetic black hole is not infinite. If the black hole can decay completely by Hawking radiation, the lightest charged particles cannot be too heavy. The lightest monopole should have a mass less than or comparable to its charge in natural units. So in a consistent holographic theory, of which string theory is the only known example, there are always finite-mass monopoles. For ordinary electromagnetism, the mass bound is not very useful because it is about same size as the Planck mass.

Mathematical formulation
In mathematics, a gauge field is defined as a connection over a principal G-bundle over spacetime. G is the gauge group, and it acts on each fiber of the bundle separately. A connection on a G bundle tells you how to glue F's together at nearby points of M. It starts with a continuous symmetry group G which acts on F, and then it associates a group element with each infinitesimal path. Group multiplication along any path tells you how to move from one point on the bundle to another, by acting the G element of a path on the fiber F. In mathematics, the definition of bundle is designed to emphasize topology, so the notion of connection is added on as an afterthought. In physics, the connection is the fundamental physical object. One of the fundamental observations in the theory of characteristic classes in algebraic topology is that many homotopical structures of nontrivial principal bundles may be expressed as an integral of some polynomial over any connection over it. Note that any connection over a trivial bundle can never give us a nontrivial principal bundle. If space time has no topology, if it is R4 the space of all possible connections of the G-bundle is connected. But consider what happens when we remove a timelike worldline from spacetime. The resulting spacetime is homotopically equivalent to the topological sphere S2. A principal G-bundle over S2 is defined by covering S2 by two charts, each homeomorphic to the open 2-ball such that their intersection is homeomorphic to the strip S1I. 2-balls are homotopically trivial and the strip is homotopically equivalent to the circle S1. So a topological classification of the possible connections is reduced to classifying the transition functions. The transition function maps the strip to G, and the different ways of mapping a strip into G are given by the first homotopy group of G.

Magnetic monopole So in the G-bundle formulation, a gauge theory admits Dirac monopoles provided G is not simply connected, whenever there are paths that go around the group that cannot be deformed to nothing. U(1), which has quantized charges, is not simply connected and can have Dirac monopoles while R, its universal covering group, is simply connected, doesn't have quantized charges and does not admit Dirac monopoles. The mathematical definition is equivalent to the physics definition provided that, following Dirac, gauge fields are allowed which are defined only patch-wise and the gauge field on different patches are glued after a gauge transformation. The total magnetic flux is none other than the first Chern number of the principal bundle, and depends only upon the choice of the principal bundle, and not the specific connection over it. In other words, it's a topological invariant. This argument for monopoles is a restatement of the lasso argument for a pure U(1) theory. It generalizes to d+1 dimensions with d2 in several ways. One way is to extend everything into the extra dimensions, so that U(1) monopoles become sheets of dimension d3. Another way is to examine the type of topological singularity at a point with the homotopy group d2(G).

144

Grand unified theories

In more recent years, a new class of theories has also suggested the existence of magnetic monopoles. During the early 1970s, the successes of quantum field theory and gauge theory in the development of electroweak theory and the mathematics of the strong nuclear force led many theorists to move on to attempt to combine them in a single theory known as a Grand Unified Theory (GUT). Several GUTs were proposed, most of which had the curious feature of implying the presence of a real magnetic monopole particle. More accurately, GUTs predicted a range of particles known as dyons, of which the most basic state was a monopole. The charge on magnetic monopoles predicted by GUTs is either 1 or 2 gD, depending on the theory. The majority of particles appearing in any quantum field theory are unstable, and they decay into other particles in a variety of reactions that must satisfy various conservation laws. Stable particles are stable because there are no lighter particles into which they can decay and still satisfy the conservation laws. For instance, the electron has a lepton number of one and an electric charge of one, and there are no lighter particles that conserve these values. On the other hand, the muon, essentially a heavy electron, can decay into the electron plus two quanta of energy, and hence it is not stable. The dyons in these GUTs are also stable, but for an entirely different reason. The dyons are expected to exist as a side effect of the "freezing out" of the conditions of the early universe, or a symmetry breaking. In this scenario, the dyons arise due to the configuration of the vacuum in a particular area of the universe, according to the original Dirac theory. They remain stable not because of a conservation condition, but because there is no simpler topological state into which they can decay. The length scale over which this special vacuum configuration exists is called the correlation length of the system. A correlation length cannot be larger than causality would allow, therefore the correlation length for making magnetic monopoles must be at least as big as the horizon size determined by the metric of the expanding universe. According to that logic, there should be at least one magnetic monopole per horizon volume as it was when the symmetry breaking took place. Other arguments based on the critical density of the universe indicate that monopoles should be fairly common; the apparent problem of the observed scarcity of monopoles is resolved by cosmic inflation in the early universe, which greatly reduces the expected abundance of magnetic monopoles. For these reasons, monopoles became a major interest in the 1970s and 80s, along with the other "approachable" predictions of GUTs such as proton decay. Many of the other particles predicted by these GUTs were beyond the abilities of current experiments to detect. For instance, a wide class of particles known as the X and Y bosons are predicted to mediate the coupling of the electroweak and strong forces, but these particles are extremely heavy and well beyond the capabilities of any reasonable particle accelerator to create.

Magnetic monopole

145

Searches for magnetic monopoles

A number of attempts have been made to detect magnetic monopoles. One of the simpler ones is to use a loop of superconducting wire to look for even tiny magnetic sources, a so-called "superconducting quantum interference device", or SQUID. Given the predicted density, loops small enough to fit on a lab bench would expect to see about one monopole event per year. Although there have been tantalizing events recorded, in particular the event recorded by Blas Cabrera on the night of February 14, 1982 (thus, sometimes referred to as the "Valentine's Day Monopole"[21]), there has never been reproducible evidence for the existence of magnetic monopoles.[11] The lack of such events places a limit on the number of monopoles of about one monopole per 1029 nucleons. Another experiment in 1975 resulted in the announcement of the detection of a moving magnetic monopole in cosmic rays by the team led by P. Buford Price.[10] Price later retracted his claim, and a possible alternative explanation was offered by Alvarez.[22] In his paper it was demonstrated that the path of the cosmic ray event that was claimed to have been be due to a magnetic monopole could be reproduced by the path followed by a platinum nucleus decaying first to osmium, and then to tantalum. Other experiments rely on the strong coupling of monopoles with photons, as is the case for any electrically-charged particle as well. In experiments involving photon exchange in particle accelerators, monopoles should be produced in reasonable numbers, and detected due to their effect on the scattering of the photons. The probability of a particle being created in such experiments is related to their mass with heavier particles being less likely to be created so by examining the results of such experiments, limits on the mass of a magnetic monopole can be calculated. The most recent such experiments suggest that monopoles with masses below 600GeV/c2 do not exist, while upper limits on their mass due to the very existence of the universe which would have collapsed by now if they were too heavy are about 1017GeV/c2. The MoEDAL experiment, installed at the Large Hadron Collider, is currently searching for magnetic monopoles and large supersymmetric particles using layers of special plastic sheets attached to the walls around LHCb's VELO detector. The particles it is looking for will damage the sheets along their path, with various identifying features.

"Monopoles" in condensed-matter systems

While the (currently understood) laws of physics (specifically the law B=0) forbid the existence of monopoles in B, no such restriction applies to the magnetic H field when defined macroscopically. As a result, while all known particles (including the protons, neutrons, and electrons that make up the periodic table) have zero magnetic charge, the phenomenon of fractionalization can lead to quasiparticles that are monopoles of H. There are indeed a number of examples in condensed-matter physics where collective behavior leads to emergent phenomena that resemble magnetic monopoles in certain respects,[23][24][25] including most prominently the spin ice materials.[26][27] While these should not be confused with hypothetical elementary monopoles existing in the vacuum, they nonetheless have similar properties and can be probed using similar techniques. One example of the work on magnetic monopole quasiparticles is a paper published in the journal Science in September 2009, in which researchers Jonathan Morris and Alan Tennant from the Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin fr Materialien und Energie (HZB) along with Santiago Grigera from Instituto de Fsica de Lquidos y Sistemas Biolgicos (IFLYSIB, CONICET) and other colleagues from Dresden University of Technology, University of St. Andrews and Oxford University described the observation of quasiparticles resembling magnetic monopoles. A single crystal of the spin ice material dysprosium titanate was cooled to a temperature between 0.6 kelvin and 2.0 kelvin. Using observations of neutron scattering, the magnetic moments were shown to align into interwoven tubelike bundles resembling Dirac strings. At the defect formed by the end of each tube, the magnetic field looks like that of a monopole. Using an applied magnetic field to break the symmetry of the system, the researchers were able to control the density and orientation of these strings. A contribution to the heat capacity of the system from an effective gas of these quasiparticles was also described.[28][29]

Magnetic monopole Another example is a paper in the February 11, 2011 issue of Nature Physics which describes creation and measurement of long-lived magnetic monopole quasiparticle currents in spin ice. By applying a magnetic-field pulse to crystal of dysprosium titanate at 0.36 K, the authors created a relaxing magnetic current that lasted for several minutes. They measured the current by means of the electromotive force it induced in a solenoid coupled to a sensitive amplifier, and quantitatively described it using a chemical kinetic model of point-like charges obeying the OnsagerWien mechanism of carrier dissociation and recombination. They thus derived the microscopic parameters of monopole motion in spin ice and identified the distinct roles of free and bound magnetic charges.[30] This research went onto win the 2012 Europhysics Prize for condensed matter physics

146

Appendix
In physics the phrase "magnetic monopole" usually denoted a YangMills potential A and Higgs field whose equations of motion are determined by the YangMills action

In mathematics, the phrase custumarily refers to a static solution to these equation in the BogomolnyParasadSommerfeld limit which realizes, within topological class, the absolutes minimum of the functional

This means that it in a connection A on a principal G-bundle over R3 (c.f. also Connections on a manifold; principal G-object) and a section of the associated adjoint bundle of Lie algebras such that the curvature FA and covariant derivative DA satisfy the Bogomolny equations and the boundary conditions.

Pure mathematical advances in the theory of monopoles from the 1980's onwards have often proceeded on the basis of physically motived questions. The equations themselves are invariant under gauge transformation and orientation-preserving symmetries. When is large, /|||| defines a mapping from a 2-sphere of radius in R3 to an adjoint orbit G/k and the homotopy class of this mapping is called the magnetic charge. Most work has been done in the case G = SU(2), where the charge is a positive integer k. The absolute minimum value of the functional is then 8k and the coefficient m in the asymptotic expansion of /|||| is k/2. The first SU(2) solution was found by E. B. Bogomolny, J. K. Parasad and C. M. Sommerfield in 1975. It is spherically symmetric of charge 1 and has the form

In 1980, C.H.Taubes[31] showed by a gluing construction that there exist solutions for all large k and soon after explicit axially-symmetric solutions were found. The first exact solution in the general case was given in 1981 by R.S.Ward for in terms of elliptic function. There are two ways of solving the Bogomolny equations. The first is by twistor methods. In the formulation of N.J.Hitchin[32], an arbitrary solution corresponds to a holomorphic vector bundle over the complex surface TP1, the tangent bundle of the projective line. This is naturally isomorphic to the space of oriented straight lines in R3.

Magnetic monopole The boundary condition show that the holomorphic bundle is an extension of line bundles determined by a compact algebraic curve of genus (k1)2 (the spectral curve) in TP1, satisfying certain constraints. The second method, due to W.Nahm[33], involves solving an eigen value problem for the coupled Dirac operator and transforming the equations with their boundary conditions into a system of ordinary differential equations, the Nahm equations.

147

where Ti(s) is a kk -matrix valued function on (0,2). Both constructions are based on analogous procedures for instantons, the key observation due to N.S.Manton being of the self-dual YangMills equations (c.f. also YangMills field) in R4. The equivalence of the two methods for SU(2) and their general applicability was established in [34] (see also [35]). Explicit formulas for A and are difficult to obtain by either method, despite some exact solutions of Nahm's equations in symmetric situations [36]. The case of a more general Lie group G, where the stabilizer of at infinity is a maximal torus, was treated by M.K.Murray [37] from the twistor point of view, where the single spectral curve of an SU(2)-monopole is replaced by a collection of curves indexed by the vortices of the Dynkin diagram of G. The corresponding Nahm construction was designed by J.Hustubise and Murray [38]. The moduli space (c.f. also Moduli theory) of all SU(2) monopoles of charge k up to gauge equivalence was shown by Taubes[39] to be a smooth non-compact manifold fo dimension 4k1. Restricting to gauge transformations that preserve the connection at infinity gives a 4k-dimensional manifold Mk, which is a circle bundle over the true moduli space and carries a natural complete hyperKhler metric [40] (c.f. also KhlerEinstein manifold). With suspected to any of the complex structures of the hyper-Khler family, this manifold is holomorphically equivalent to the space of based rational mapping of degree k from P1 to itself [41]. The metric is known in twistor terms [42], and its Khler potential can be written using the Riemann theta functions of the spectral curve[43], but only the case k = 2 is known in a more conventional and usable form[44] (as of 2000). This AtiyahHitchin manifold, the Einstein Taub-NUT metric and R4 are the only 4-dimensional complete hyperKhler manifolds with a non-triholomorphic SU(2) action. Its geodesics have been studied and a programme of Manton concerning monopole dynamics put into effect. Further dynamical features have been elucidated by numerical and analytical techniques. A cyclic k-fold conering of Mk splits isometrically us a product , where is the space of strongly centred monopoles. This space features in an application of S-duality in theoretical physics, and in [45] G.B.Segal and A.Selby studied its topology and the L2 harmonic forms defined on it, partially confirming the physical prediction. Magnetic monopole on hyperbolic three-space were investigated from the twistor point of view b M.F.Atiyah [46] (replacing the complex surface TP1 by the comoplement of the anti-diagonal in P1 P1) and in terms of discrete Nahm equations by Murray and M.A.Singer [47].

Magnetic monopole

148

Notes
[1] Dark Cosmos: In Search of Our Universe's Missing Mass and Energy, by Dan Hooper, p192 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=tGBUvLpgmUMC& pg=PA192) [2] Particle Data Group summary of magnetic monopole search (http:/ / pdg. lbl. gov/ 2004/ listings/ s028. pdf) [3] Wen, Xiao-Gang; Witten, Edward, Electric and magnetic charges in superstring models,Nuclear Physics B, Volume 261, p. 651677 [4] S. Coleman, The Magnetic Monopole 50 years Later, reprinted in Aspects of Symmetry [5] The encyclopdia britannica, Volume 17, p352 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=N1YEAAAAYAAJ& pg=PA352) [6] Principles of Physics by William Francis Magie, p424 (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=6rYXAAAAIAAJ& pg=PA424) [7] Pierre Curie, Sur la possibilit d'existence de la conductibilit magntique et du magntisme libre (On the possible existence of magnetic conductivity and free magnetism), Sances de la Socit Franaise de Physique (Paris), p76 (1894). (French) Free access online copy (http:/ / www. archive. org/ stream/ sancesdelasocit19physgoog). [8] Paul Dirac, "Quantised Singularities in the Electromagnetic Field". Proc. Roy. Soc. (London) A 133, 60 (1931). Free web link (http:/ / users. physik. fu-berlin. de/ ~kleinert/ files/ dirac1931. pdf). [9] Lecture notes by Robert Littlejohn (http:/ / bohr. physics. berkeley. edu/ classes/ 221/ 0708/ lectures/ Lecture. 2007. 10. 11. pdf), University of California, Berkeley, 20078 [10] P. B. Price; E. K. Shirk; W. Z. Osborne; L. S. Pinsky (25 August 1975). "Evidence for Detection of a Moving Magnetic Monopole". Physical Review Letters (American Physical Society) 35 (8): 487490. Bibcode1975PhRvL..35..487P. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.35.487. [11] Blas Cabrera (17 May 1982). "First Results from a Superconductive Detector for Moving Magnetic Monopoles". Physical Review Letters (American Physical Society) 48 (20): 13781381. Bibcode1982PhRvL..48.1378C. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.48.1378. [12] Milton p.60 [13] Polchinski, arXiv 2003 (http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ hep-th/ 0304042) [14] Magnetic monopoles spotted in spin ices (http:/ / physicsworld. com/ cws/ article/ news/ 40302), 3 September 2009. "Oleg Tchernyshyov at Johns Hopkins University [a researcher in this field] cautions that the theory and experiments are specific to spin ices, and are not likely to shed light on magnetic monopoles as predicted by Dirac." [15] The fact that the electric and magnetic fields can be written in a symmetric way is specific to the fact that space is three-dimensional. When the equations of electromagnetism are extrapolated to other dimensions, the magnetic field is described as being a rank-two antisymmetric tensor, whereas the electric field remains a true vector. In dimensions other than three, these two mathematical objects do not have the same number of components. [16] http:/ / www. ieeeghn. org/ wiki/ index. php/ STARS:Maxwell%27s_Equations [17] F. Moulin (2001). "Magnetic monopoles and Lorentz force". Nuovo Cimento B 116 (8): 869877. arXiv:math-ph/0203043. Bibcode2001NCimB.116..869M. [18] Wolfgang Rindler (November 1989). "Relativity and electromagnetism: The force on a magnetic monopole". American Journal of Physics (American Journal of Physics) 57 (11): 993994. Bibcode1989AmJPh..57..993R. doi:10.1119/1.15782. [19] For the convention where magnetic charge has units of webers, see Jackson 1999. In particular, for Maxwell's equations, see section 6.11, equation (6.150), page 273, and for the Lorentz force law, see page 290, exercise 6.17(a). For the convention where magnetic charge has units of ampere-meters, see (for example) arXiv:physics/0508099v1 (http:/ / arxiv. org/ abs/ physics/ 0508099v1), eqn (4). [20] Jackson 1999, section 6.11, equation (6.153), page 275 [21] http:/ / www. nature. com/ nature/ journal/ v429/ n6987/ full/ 429010a. html [22] Alvarez, Luis W. "Analysis of a Reported Magnetic Monopole" (http:/ / usparc. ihep. su/ spires/ find/ hep/ www?key=93726). In ed. Kirk, W. T.. Proceedings of the 1975 international symposium on lepton and photon interactions at high energies. International symposium on lepton and photon interactions at high energies, 21 Aug 1975. pp.967. . [23] Zhong, Fang; Naoto Nagosa, Mei S. Takahashi, Atsushi Asamitsu, Roland Mathieu, Takeshi Ogasawara, Hiroyuki Yamada, Masashi Kawasaki, Yoshinori Tokura, Kiyoyuki Terakura (October 3, 2003). "The Anomalous Hall Effect and Magnetic Monopoles in Momentum Space". Science 302 (5642): 9295. doi:10.1126/science.1089408. ISSN 1095-9203. http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 302/ 5642/ 92. Retrieved on 2 August 2007. [24] Making magnetic monopoles, and other exotica, in the lab (http:/ / www. symmetrymagazine. org/ breaking/ 2009/ 01/ 29/ making-magnetic-monopoles-and-other-exotica-in-the-lab/ ), Symmetry Breaking, 29 January 2009. Retrieved 31 January 2009. [25] Inducing a Magnetic Monopole with Topological Surface States (http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 1167747), American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) Science Express magazine, Xiao-Liang Qi, Rundong Li, Jiadong Zang, Shou-Cheng Zhang, 29 January 2009. Retrieved 31 January 2009. [26] Magnetic monopoles in spin ice (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1038/ nature06433), C. Castelnovo, R. Moessner and S. L. Sondhi, Nature 451, 4245 (3 January 2008) [27] Nature 461, 956959 (15 October 2009); (http:/ / www. nature. com/ nature/ journal/ v461/ n7266/ abs/ nature08500. html) doi:10.1038/nature08500, Steven Bramwell et al [28] "Magnetic Monopoles Detected In A Real Magnet For The First Time" (http:/ / www. sciencedaily. com/ releases/ 2009/ 09/ 090903163725. htm). Science Daily. 4 September 2009. . Retrieved 4 September 2009. [29] D.J.P. Morris, D.A. Tennant, S.A. Grigera, B. Klemke, C. Castelnovo, R. Moessner, C. Czter-nasty, M. Meissner, K.C. Rule, J.-U. Hoffmann, K. Kiefer, S. Gerischer, D. Slobinsky, and R.S. Perry (3 September 2009). "Dirac Strings and Magnetic Monopoles in Spin Ice

Magnetic monopole
Dy2Ti2O7". Science. arXiv:1011.1174. Bibcode2009Sci...326..411M. doi:10.1126/science.1178868. PMID19729617. [30] S. R. Giblin, S. T. Bramwell, P. C. W. Holdsworth, D. Prabhakaran & I. Terry (13 February 2011). Creation and measurement of long-lived magnetic monopole currents in spin ice (http:/ / www. nature. com/ nphys/ journal/ v7/ n3/ full/ nphys1896. html). Nature Physics. Bibcode2011NatPh...7..252G. doi:10.1038/nphys1896. . Retrieved 28 February 2011. [31] A.Jaffe, C.H.Taubes (1980). Vortices and monopoles. [32] N.J.Hitchin (1982). Monopoles and geodesics. [33] W.Nahm (1982). The construction of all self-dual monopoles by the ADHM mothod. [34] N.J.Hitchin (1983). On the construction of monopoles. [35] N.J.Hitchin (1999). Integrable sustems in Riemannian geometry (K.Uhlenbeck ed.). C-L.Terng (ed.). [36] N.J.Hitchin, N.S.Manton, M.K.Murray (1995). Symmetric Monopoles. [37] M.K.Murray (1983). Monopoles and spectral curves for arbitrary Lie groups. [38] J.Hurtubise, M.K.Murray (1989). On the construction of Monopoles for the classical groups. [39] C.H.Taubes (1983). Stability in YangMills theories. [40] M.F.Atiyah, N.J.Hitchin (1988). The geometry and dynamics of magnetic monopoles. Princeton Univ.Press. [41] S.K.Donaldson (1984). Nahms equations and the classification of monopoles. [42] M.F.Atiyah, N.J.Hitchin (1988). The geometry and dynamics of magnetic monopoles. Princeton Univ.Press. [43] N.J.Hitchin (1999). Integrable sustems in Riemannian geometry (K.Uhlenbeck ed.). C-L.Terng (ed.). [44] M.F.Atiyah, N.J.Hitchin (1988). The geometry and dynamics of magnetic monopoles. Princeton Univ.Press. [45] G.B.Segal, A.Selby (1996). The cohomology of the space of magnetic monopoles. [46] M.F.Atiyah (1987). Magnetic monopoles in hyperbolic space, Vector bundles on algebraic varieties. Oxford Univ.Press. [47] M.K.Murray (2000). On the complete integrability of the discrete Nahm equations.

149

[4] N.J.Hitchin, M.K.Murray (1988). Spectral curves and the ADHM method. [15] P.M.Sutcliffe (1997). BPS monopoles.

References
Brau, Charles A. (2004). Modern Problems in Classical Electrodynamics. Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-514665-4. Jackson, John David (1999). Classical Electrodynamics (3rd ed.). New York: Wiley. ISBN0-471-30932-X. Milton, Kimball A. (June 2006). "Theoretical and experimental status of magnetic monopoles". Reports on Progress in Physics 69 (6): 16371711. arXiv:hep-ex/0602040. Bibcode2006RPPh...69.1637M. doi:10.1088/0034-4885/69/6/R02. Shnir, Yakov M. (2005). Magnetic Monopoles. Springer-Verlag. ISBN3-540-25277-0.

External links
Magnetic Monopole Searches (lecture notes) (http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ex/0302011) Particle Data Group summary of magnetic monopole search (http://pdg.lbl.gov/2004/listings/s028.pdf) 'Race for the Pole' Dr David Milstead (http://www.vega.org.uk/video/programme/56) Freeview 'Snapshot' video by the Vega Science Trust and the BBC/OU. Interview with Jonathan Morris (http://www.drillingsraum.com/magnetic_monopole/magnetic_monopole. html) about magnetic monopoles and magnetic monopole quasiparticles. Drillingsraum, 16 April 2010 This article incorporates material from N. Hitchin (2001), "Magnetic Monopole" (http://www.encyclopediaofmath. org/ index. php?title=magnetic_monopole), in Hazewinkel, Michiel, Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer, ISBN978-1-55608-010-4, which is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike License and GNU Free Documentation License.

Magnetic refrigeration

150

Magnetic refrigeration
Magnetic refrigeration is a cooling technology based on the magnetocaloric effect. This technique can be used to attain extremely low temperatures, as well as the ranges used in common refrigerators, depending on the design of the system. The effect was first observed by the German physicist Emil Warburg (1880) and the fundamental principle was suggested by Debye (1926) and Giauque (1927).[1] The first working magnetic refrigerators were constructed by several groups Gadolinium alloy heats up inside the magnetic field and loses thermal energy to the beginning in 1933. Magnetic environment, so it exits the field cooler than when it entered. refrigeration was the first method developed for cooling below about 0.3K (a temperature attainable by 3He refrigeration, that is pumping on the 3He vapors).

The magnetocaloric effect

The magnetocaloric effect (MCE, from magnet and calorie) is a magneto-thermodynamic phenomenon in which a reversible change in temperature of a suitable material is caused by exposing the material to a changing magnetic field. This is also known by low temperature physicists as adiabatic demagnetization, due to the application of the process specifically to create a temperature drop. In that part of the overall refrigeration process, a decrease in the strength of an externally applied magnetic field allows the magnetic domains of a chosen (magnetocaloric) material to become disoriented from the magnetic field by the agitating action of the thermal energy (phonons) present in the material. If the material is isolated so that no energy is allowed to (re)migrate into the material during this time, i.e., an adiabatic process, the temperature drops as the domains absorb the thermal energy to perform their reorientation. The randomization of the domains occurs in a similar fashion to the randomization at the curie temperature of a ferromagnetic material, except that magnetic dipoles overcome a decreasing external magnetic field while energy remains constant, instead of magnetic domains being disrupted from internal ferromagnetism as energy is added. One of the most notable examples of the magnetocaloric effect is in the chemical element gadolinium and some of its alloys. Gadolinium's temperature is observed to increase when it enters certain magnetic fields. When it leaves the magnetic field, the temperature drops. The effect is considerably stronger for the gadolinium alloy Gd5(Si2Ge2).[2] Praseodymium alloyed with nickel (PrNi5) has such a strong magnetocaloric effect that it has allowed scientists to approach within one thousandth of a degree of absolute zero.[3]

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151

Thermodynamic cycle
The cycle is performed as a refrigeration cycle, analogous to the Carnot cycle, and can be described at a starting point whereby the chosen working substance is introduced into a magnetic field, i.e., the magnetic flux density is increased. The working material is the refrigerant, and starts in thermal equilibrium with the refrigerated environment. Adiabatic magnetization: A magnetocaloric substance is placed in an insulated environment. The increasing external magnetic field (+H) causes the magnetic dipoles of the atoms to align, thereby decreasing the material's magnetic entropy and heat capacity. Since overall energy is not lost (yet) and therefore total entropy is not reduced (according to thermodynamic laws), the net result is that the item heats up (T + Tad).

Analogy between magnetic refrigeration and vapor cycle or conventional refrigeration. H = externally applied magnetic field; Q = heat quantity; P = pressure; Tad = adiabatic temperature variation

Isomagnetic enthalpic transfer: This added heat can then be removed (-Q) by a fluid or gas gaseous or liquid helium, for example. The magnetic field is held constant to prevent the dipoles from reabsorbing the heat. Once sufficiently cooled, the magnetocaloric substance and the coolant are separated (H=0). Adiabatic demagnetization: The substance is returned to another adiabatic (insulated) condition so the total entropy remains constant. However, this time the magnetic field is decreased, the thermal energy causes the magnetic moments to overcome the field, and thus the sample cools, i.e., an adiabatic temperature change. Energy (and entropy) transfers from thermal entropy to magnetic entropy (disorder of the magnetic dipoles). Isomagnetic entropic transfer: The magnetic field is held constant to prevent the material from heating back up. The material is placed in thermal contact with the environment being refrigerated. Because the working material is cooler than the refrigerated environment (by design), heat energy migrates into the working material (+Q). Once the refrigerant and refrigerated environment are in thermal equilibrium, the cycle begins again.

Applied technique
The basic operating principle of an adiabatic demagnetization refrigerator (ADR) is the use of a strong magnetic field to control the entropy of a sample of material, often called the "refrigerant". Magnetic field constrains the orientation of magnetic dipoles in the refrigerant. The stronger the magnetic field, the more aligned the dipoles are, and this corresponds to lower entropy and heat capacity because the material has (effectively) lost some of its internal degrees of freedom. If the refrigerant is kept at a constant temperature through thermal contact with a heat sink (usually liquid helium) while the magnetic field is switched on, the refrigerant must lose some energy because it is equilibrated with the heat sink. When the magnetic field is subsequently switched off, the heat capacity of the refrigerant rises again because the degrees of freedom associated with orientation of the dipoles are once again

Magnetic refrigeration liberated, pulling their share of equipartitioned energy from the motion of the molecules, thereby lowering the overall temperature of a system with decreased energy. Since the system is now insulated when the magnetic field is switched off, the process is adiabatic, i.e., the system can no longer exchange energy with its surroundings (the heat sink), and its temperature decreases below its initial value, that of the heat sink. The operation of a standard ADR proceeds roughly as follows. First, a strong magnetic field is applied to the refrigerant, forcing its various magnetic dipoles to align and putting these degrees of freedom of the refrigerant into a state of lowered entropy. The heat sink then absorbs the heat released by the refrigerant due to its loss of entropy. Thermal contact with the heat sink is then broken so that the system is insulated, and the magnetic field is switched off, increasing the heat capacity of the refrigerant, thus decreasing its temperature below the temperature of the helium heat sink. In practice, the magnetic field is decreased slowly in order to provide continuous cooling and keep the sample at an approximately constant low temperature. Once the field falls to zero or to some low limiting value determined by the properties of the refrigerant, the cooling power of the ADR vanishes, and heat leaks will cause the refrigerant to warm up.

152

Working materials
The magnetocaloric effect is an intrinsic property of a magnetic solid. This thermal response of a solid to the application or removal of magnetic fields is maximized when the solid is near its magnetic ordering temperature. The magnitudes of the magnetic entropy and the adiabatic temperature changes are strongly dependent upon the magnetic order process: the magnitude is generally small in antiferromagnets, ferrimagnets and spin glass systems; it can be substantial for normal ferromagnets which undergo a second order magnetic transition; and it is generally the largest for a ferromagnet which undergoes a first order magnetic transition. Also, crystalline electric fields and pressure can have a substantial influence on magnetic entropy and adiabatic temperature changes. Currently, alloys of gadolinium producing 3 - 4 K per tesla [K/T] of change in a magnetic field can be used for magnetic refrigeration. Recent research on materials that exhibit a giant entropy change showed that Gd5(SixGe1x)4, La(FexSi1x)13Hx and MnFeP1xAsx alloys, for example, are some of the most promising substitutes for gadolinium and its alloys GdDy, GdTb, etc. These materials are called giant magnetocaloric effect (GMCE) materials. Gadolinium and its alloys are the best material available today for magnetic refrigeration near room temperature since they undergo second-order phase transitions which have no magnetic or thermal hysteresis involved.

Paramagnetic salts
The originally suggested refrigerant was a paramagnetic salt, such as cerium magnesium nitrate. The active magnetic dipoles in this case are those of the electron shells of the paramagnetic atoms. In a paramagnetic salt ADR, the heat sink is usually provided by a pumped 4He (about 1.2K) or 3He (about 0.3K) cryostat. An easily attainable 1T magnetic field is generally required for the initial magnetization. The minimum temperature attainable is determined by the self-magnetization tendencies of the chosen refrigerant salt, but temperatures from 1 to 100 mK are accessible. Dilution refrigerators had for many years supplanted paramagnetic salt ADRs, but interest in space-based and simple to use lab-ADRs has remained, due to the complexity and unreliability of the dilution refrigerator Eventually paramagnetic salts become either diamagnetic or ferromagnetic, limiting the lowest temperature which can be reached using this method.

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153

Nuclear demagnetization
One variant of adiabatic demagnetization that continues to find substantial research application is nuclear demagnetization refrigeration (NDR). NDR follows the same principle described above, but in this case the cooling power arises from the magnetic dipoles of the nuclei of the refrigerant atoms, rather than their electron configurations. Since these dipoles are of much smaller magnitude, they are less prone to self-alignment and have lower intrinsic minimum fields. This allows NDR to cool the nuclear spin system to very low temperatures, often 1 K or below. Unfortunately, the small magnitudes of nuclear magnetic dipoles also makes them less inclined to align to external fields. Magnetic fields of 3 teslas or greater are often needed for the initial magnetization step of NDR. In NDR systems, the initial heat sink must sit at very low temperatures (10100 mK). This precooling is often provided by the mixing chamber of a dilution refrigerator or a paramagnetic salt.

Commercial development
This refrigeration, once proven viable, could be used in any possible application where cooling, heating or power generation is used today. Since it is only at an early stage of development, there are several technical and efficiency issues that should be analyzed. The magnetocaloric refrigeration system is composed of pumps, electric motors, secondary fluids, heat exchangers of different types, magnets and magnetic materials. These processes are greatly affected by irreversibilities and should be adequately considered. Appliances using this method could have a smaller environmental impact if the method is perfected and replaces hydrofluorocarbon (HFCs) refrigerators (some refrigerators still use HFCs which have considerable effect on the ozone layer. At present, however, the superconducting magnets that are used in the process have to themselves be cooled down to the temperature of liquid nitrogen, or with even colder, and relatively expensive, liquid helium. Considering these fluids have boiling points of 77.36K and 4.22K respectively, the technology is clearly not costand energy-efficient for home appliances, but for experimental, laboratory, and industrial use only. Recent research on materials that exhibit a large entropy change showed that alloys are some of the most promising substitutes of gadolinium and its alloys GdDy, GdTb, etc. Gadolinium and its alloys are the best material available today for magnetic refrigeration near room temperature. There are still some thermal and magnetic hysteresis problems to be solved for them to become truly useful [V. Provenzano, A.J. Shapiro, and R.D. Shull, Nature 429, 853 (2004)] and scientists are working hard to achieve this goal. Thermal hysteresis problems is solved therefore in adding ferrite (5:4). Research and a demonstration proof of concept in 2001 succeeded in applying commercial-grade materials and permanent magnets at room temperatures to construct a magnetocaloric refrigerator which promises wide use.[4] This technique has been used for many years in cryogenic systems for producing further cooling in systems already cooled to temperatures of 4K and lower. In England, a company called Cambridge Magnetic Refrigeration [5] produces cryogenic systems based on the magnetocaloric effect. On August 20, 2007, the Ris National Laboratory (Denmark) at the Technical University of Denmark, claimed to have reached a milestone in their magnetic cooling research when they reported a temperature span of 8.7 C.[6] They hope to introduce the first commercial applications of the technology by 2010.

Current and future uses

There are still some thermal and magnetic hysteresis problems to be solved for these first-order phase transition materials that exhibit the GMCE to become really useful; this is a subject of current research. A useful review on magnetocaloric materials published in 2005 is entitled "Recent developments in magnetocaloric materials" by Dr. Karl A. Gschneidner, et al.[7] This effect is currently being explored to produce better refrigeration techniques, especially for use in spacecraft. This technique is already used to achieve cryogenic temperatures in the laboratory setting (below 10K). As an object displaying MCE is moved into a magnetic field, the magnetic spins align, lowering

Magnetic refrigeration the entropy. Moving that object out of the field allows the object to increase its entropy by absorbing heat from the environment and disordering the spins. In this way, heat can be taken from one area to another. Should materials be found to display this effect near room temperature, refrigeration without the need for compression may be possible, increasing energy efficiency. The use of this technology to replace larger vapor-compression refrigeration units, which typically achieve performance coefficients of 60% of that of a theoretical ideal Carnot cycle is unlikely in the near term. Small domestic refrigerators are however much less efficient. [8] This technology could eventually compete with other cryogenic heat pumps for gas liquefaction purposes. Gschneidner stated in 1999 that: "large-scale applications using magnetic refrigeration, such as commercial air conditioning and supermarket refrigeration systems, could be available within 510 years. Within 1015 years, the technology could be available in home refrigerators and air conditioners."[9]

154

History
The effect was discovered in pure iron in 1880 by German physicist Emil Warburg. Originally, the cooling effect varied between 0.5 to 2K/T. Major advances first appeared in the late 1920s when cooling via adiabatic demagnetization was independently proposed by two scientists, Peter Debye in 1926 and William Giauque in 1927. This cooling technology was first demonstrated experimentally by chemist Nobel Laureate William F. Giauque and his colleague D. P. MacDougall in 1933 for cryogenic purposes when they reached 0.25K.[10] Between 1933 and 1997, a number of advances in utilization of the MCE for cooling occurred.[11][12][13][14] In 1997, the first near room temperature proof of concept magnetic refrigerator was demonstrated by Karl A. Gschneidner, Jr. by the Iowa State University at Ames Laboratory. This event attracted interest from scientists and companies worldwide who started developing new kinds of room temperature materials and magnetic refrigerator designs.[2] A major breakthrough came 2002 when a group at the University of Amsterdam demonstrated the giant magnetocaloric effect in MnFe(P,As) alloys that are based on earth abundant materials.[15] Refrigerators based on the magnetocaloric effect have been demonstrated in laboratories, using magnetic fields starting at 0.6T up to 10T. Magnetic fields above 2T are difficult to produce with permanent magnets and are produced by a superconducting magnet (1T is about 20,000 times the Earth's magnetic field).

Room temperature devices

Some recent research has focused on the use of the process to perform refrigeration near "room temperature". Constructed examples of room temperature magnetic refrigerators are listed in the table below:
Room temperature magnetic refrigerators Institute/Company Location Announcement date Type Max. Max Magnetic cooling T field (T) power (K)[2] (W)[1] 10 5 (S) Solid refrigerant Quantity (kg)

Ames, February 20, Ames [16] Iowa/Madison, 1997 Laboratory/Astronautics Wisconsin, USA Mater. Science Institute [17] Barcelona Barcelona, Spain May 2000

Reciprocating 600

Gd spheres

Rotary

0.95 (P)

Gd foil

Magnetic refrigeration

155
Summer 2000 July 2001 Reciprocating 100 Reciprocating 2 21 14 4 (S) 2 (S) Gd spheres Gd & Gd1xTbx L.B.

Chubu Electric/Toshiba University of [19][20][21] Victoria

[18] Yokohama,

Japan Victoria, British Columbia Canada Madison, Wisconsin, USA

Astronautics

[22]

September 18, 2001 23 April 2002

Rotary

95

25

1.5 (P)

Gd spheres

Sichuan Inst. Tech./Nanjing Nanjing, [23] China University Chubu Electric/Toshiba Chubu Electric/Toshiba
[24] Yokohama,

Reciprocating ?

23

1.4 (P)

Gd spheres and Gd5Si1.985Ge1.985Ga0.03 powder Gd1xDyx L.B. Gd 1xDyx L.B. Gd foil 1

October 5, 2002 Reciprocating 40 March 4, 2003 April 2003 Rotary 60

27 10 4

0.6 (P) 0.76 (P) 0.8 (P)

Japan
[24] Yokohama,

Japan Grenoble, France USA Reciprocating 8.8

Lab. dElectrotechnique [25] Grenoble George Washington [26] University Astronautics

[27]

July 2004

Reciprocating ?

2 (P)

Gd foil

Madison, Wisconsin, USA

[28]

2004

Rotary

95

25

1.5 (P)

Gd and GdEr spheres / La(Fe0.88Si0.12)13H1.0 Gd, Gd0.74Tb0.26 and Gd0.85Er0.15 pucks 0.12

University of Victoria

Victoria, British Columbia Canada

2006

Reciprocating 15

50

2 (S)

maximum cooling power at zero temperature difference (T=0); 2maximum temperature span at zero cooling capacity (W=0); L.B. = layered bed; P = permanent magnet; S = superconducting magnet

In one example, Prof. Karl A. Gschneidner, Jr. unveiled a proof of concept magnetic refrigerator near room temperature on February 20, 1997. He also announced the discovery of the GMCE in Gd5Si2Ge2 on June 9, 1997 [29] (see below). Since then, hundreds of peer-reviewed articles have been written describing materials exhibiting magnetocaloric effects.

References
[1] Zemansky, Mark W. (1981). Temperatures very low and very high. New York: Dover. p.50. ISBN0-486-24072-X. [2] Karl Gschneidner, Jr. and Kerry Gibson (December 7, 2001). "Magnetic Refrigerator Successfully Tested" (http:/ / www. external. ameslab. gov/ news/ release/ 01magneticrefrig. htm). Ames Laboratory News Release. Ames Laboratory. . Retrieved 2006-12-17. [3] Emsley, John (2001). Nature's Building Blocks. Oxford University Press. p.342. ISBN0-19-850341-5. [4] Gibson, Kerry (November 2001). "Magnetic Refrigerator Successfully Tested: Ames Laboratory develoments help push boundaries of new refrigeration technology" (http:/ / www. ameslab. gov/ news/ ins01-11Magnetic. htm). INSIDER Newsletter for employees of Ames Laboratory. .(Vol. 112, No.10 ) [5] http:/ / www. cmr. uk. com/ [6] Milestone in magnetic cooling, Ris News, August 20, 2007 (http:/ / www. risoe. dk/ News_archives/ News/ 2007/ 0820_magnetisk_koeling. aspx). Retrieved August 28, 2007. [7] Gschneidner, Karl A., Jr.; Pecharsky, V. K. and Tsokol1, A.O. Recent developments in magnetocaloric materials (http:/ / www. iop. org/ EJ/ abstract/ 0034-4885/ 68/ 6/ R04/ ) Report on Progress in Physics. (2005) Volume 68, pages 14791539. [8] http:/ / www. osti. gov/ bridge/ purl. cover. jsp?purl=/ 40784-UgOxYh/ webviewable/ 40784. pdf [9] http:/ / www. ameslab. gov/ final/ News/ 1999rel/ 99crada. html

Magnetic refrigeration
[10] Giauque, W. F.; MacDougall, D. P. (1933). "Attainment of Temperatures Below 1 Absolute by Demagnetization of Gd2(SO4)38H2O". Phys. Rev. 43 (9): 768. Bibcode1933PhRv...43..768G. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.43.768. [11] Gschneidner, K. A. Jr.; Pecharsky, V. K. (1997). Bautista, R. G.; et al.. eds. Rare Earths: Science, Technology and Applications III. Warrendale, PA: The Minerals, Metals and Materials Society. p.209. [12] Pecharsky, V. K.; Gschneidner, K. A. Jr. (1999). "Magnetocaloric Effect and Magnetic Refrigeration". J. Magn. Magn. Mater. 200 (13): 4456. Bibcode1999JMMM..200...44P. doi:10.1016/S0304-8853(99)00397-2. [13] Gschneidner, K. A. Jr.; Pecharsky, V. K. (2000). "Magnetocaloric Materials". Annu. Rev. Mater. Sci. 30 (1): 387429. Bibcode2000AnRMS..30..387G. doi:10.1146/annurev.matsci.30.1.387. [14] Gschneidner, K. A. Jr.; Pecharsky, V. K. (2002). Chandra, D.; Bautista, R. G.. eds. Fundamentals of Advanced Materials for Energy Conversion. Warrendale, PA: The Minerals, Metals and Materials Society. p.9. [15] Tegus, O.; Brck, E.; de Boer, F. R.; Buschow, K. H. J. (2002). "Transition-metal-based magnetic refrigerants for room-temperature applications". Nature 415 (6868): 150152. Bibcode2002Natur.415..150T. doi:10.1038/415150a. [16] Zimm C, Jastrab A., Sternberg A., Pecharsky V.K., Gschneidner K.A. Jr., Osborne M. and Anderson I., Adv. Cryog. Eng. 43, 1759 (1998). [17] Bohigas X., Molins E., Roig A., Tejada J. and Zhang X.X., IEEE Trans. Magn. 36 538 (2000). [18] Hirano N., Nagaya S., Takahashi M., Kuriyama T., Ito K. and Nomura S. 2002 Adv. Cryog. Eng. 47 1027 [19] Rowe A.M. and Barclay J.A., Adv. Cryog. Eng. 47 995 (2002). [20] Rowe A.M. and Barclay J.A., Adv. Cryog. Eng. 47 1003 (2002). [21] Richard M.A., Rowe A.M. and Chahine R., J. Appl. Phys. 95 2146 (2004). [22] Zimm C, Paper No K7.003 Am. Phys. Soc. Meeting, March 4, Austin, Texas (2003) (http:/ / www. aps. org/ meet/ MAR03/ baps/ tocK. html) [23] Wu W., Paper No. K7.004 Am. Phys. Soc. Meeting, March 4, Austin, Texas (2003) (http:/ / www. aps. org/ meet/ MAR03/ baps/ tocK. html) [24] Hirano N., Paper No. K7.002 Am. Phys. Soc. Meeting March 4, Austin, Texas, (http:/ / www. aps. org/ meet/ MAR03/ baps/ tocK. html) [25] Clot P., Viallet D., Allab F., Kedous-LeBouc A., Fournier J.M. and Yonnet J.P., IEEE Trans. Magn. 30 3349 (2003). [26] F. Shir, C. Mavriplis, L.H. Bennett, E. Della Torre, "Analysis of room temperature magnetic regenerative refrigeration," International Journal of Refrigeration, 28, 4 (2005) 616. [27] Zimm C, Paper No. K7.003 Am. Phys. Soc. Meeting, March 4, Austin, Texas (2003) (http:/ / www. aps. org/ meet/ MAR03/ baps/ tocK. html) [28] Rowe A.M. and Tura A., International Journal of Refrigeration 29 12861293 (2006). [29] http:/ / prola. aps. org/ abstract/ PRL/ v78/ i23/ p4494_1

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Further reading
Lounasmaa, Experimental Principles and Methods Below 1K, Academic Press (1974). Richardson and Smith, Experimental Techniques in Condensed Matter Physics at Low Temperatures, Addison Wesley (1988). Lucia, U. General approach to obtain the magnetic refrigeretion ideal Coefficient of Performance COP, Physica A: Statistical Mechanics and its Applications, 387/14 (2008) 34773479, doi:10.1016/j.physa.2008.02.026; see also http://arxiv.org/abs/1011.1684

External links
NASA How does an Adiabatic Demagnetization Refrigerator Work ? (http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/ teachers/lessons/xray_spectra/background-adr.html) What is magnetocaloric effect and what materials exhibit this effect the most? (http://www.physlink.com/ Education/AskExperts/ae488.cfm) Magnetocaloric materials keep fridges cool by C. Wu (http://www.sciencenews.org/pages/sn_arc98/3_28_98/ fob3.htm) Ames Laboratory news release, May 25, 1999, Work begins on prototype magnetic-refrigeration unit (http:// www.ameslab.gov/News/release/crada.html). Magnetic refrigerator successfully tested (http://www.eurekalert.org/features/doe/2001-11/dl-mrs062802. php) Refrigeration Systems (http://lorien.ncl.ac.uk/ming/cleantech/refrigeration.htm) Terry Heppenstall's notes, University of Newcastle upon Tyne (November 2000)

Magnetic refrigeration XRS Adiabatic Demagnetization Refrigerator (http://www.universe.nasa.gov/xrays/programs/astroe/eng/ adr.html) Executive Summary: A Continuous Adiabatic Demagnetization Refrigerator (http://www.cs.wpi.edu/~dfinkel/ Sponsor/PH1.doc) (.doc format) ( Google cache (http://google.com/search?q=cache:www.cs.wpi.edu/ ~dfinkel/Sponsor/PH1.doc)) Origin and tuning of the magnetocaloric effect in the magnetic refrigerant Mn1.1Fe0.9(P0.8Ge0.2) (http://link. aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevB.79.014435) Magnetic technology revolutionizes refrigeration (http://www.basf.com/group/pressrelease/P-09-348) Evaluation of thermodynamic quantities in magnetic refrigeration (http://arxiv.org/abs/1011.1684)

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Magnetic stirrer

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Magnetic stirrer
Magnetic stirrer

A stir bar mixing a solution on a combined hot-plate magnetic-stirrer device. The left knob controls the stirring rate and the right knob controls heating. Other names Uses Inventor Related items Magnetic mixer Liquid mixing Arthur Rosinger Stir bar Vortex mixer Static mixer

A magnetic stirrer or magnetic mixer is a laboratory device that employs a rotating magnetic field to cause a stir bar (also called "flea") immersed in a liquid to spin very quickly, thus stirring it. The rotating field may be created either by a rotating magnet or a set of stationary electromagnets, placed beneath the vessel with the liquid. Magnetic stirrers often include a hot plate or some other means for heating the liquid. Magnetic stirrers are often used in chemistry and biology. They are preferred over gear-driven motorized stirrers because they are quieter, more efficient, and have no moving external parts to break or wear out (other than the simple bar magnet itself). Due to its small size, a stirring bar is more easily cleaned and sterilized than other stirring devices. They do not require lubricants which could contaminate the reaction vessel and the product. They can be used inside hermetically closed vessels or systems, without the need for complicated rotary seals. On the other hand, the limited size of the bar means that magnetic stirrers can only be used for relatively small (under 4 liters) experiments. They also have difficulty dealing with viscous liquids or thick suspensions.

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History
Arthur Rosinger of Newark, New Jersey, U.S.A. obtained US Patent 2,350,534, titled Magnetic Stirrer on 6 June 1944, having filed an application therefor on 5 October 1942.[1] Mr. Rosinger's patent includes a description of a coated bar magnet placed in a vessel, which is driven by a rotating magnet in a base below the vessel. Mr. Rosinger also explains in his patent that coating the magnet in plastic or covering it with glass or porcelain makes it chemically inert. The plastic-coated bar magnet was independently invented in the late 1940s by Edward McLaughlin, of the Torpedo Experimental Establishment (TEE), Greenock, Scotland, who named it the 'flea' because of the way it jumps about if the rotating magnet is driven too

Different sizes of magnetic stir bars

fast. An even earlier patent for a magnetic mixer is US 1,242,493, issued 9 October 1917 to Richard H. Stringham of Bountiful, Utah, U.S.A. Mr. Stringman's mixer used stationary electromagnets in the base, rather than a rotating permanent magnet, to rotate the stirrer. The first multipoint magnetic stirrer was developed and patented by Salvador Bonet of SBS Company in 1977. He also introduced the practice of noting the denomination of stirring power in "liters of water", which is a market standard today. Heating elements may range from 120 W or lower to 500 W or more. The maximum reachable fluid temperature depends on the size of the flask, the quantity of solution to be heated, and the power of the heating element.

References
[1] "MAGNETIC STIRRER Arthur Rosinger" (http:/ / www. google. com/ patents/ about?id=3CxTAAAAEBAJ& dq=US+ Patent+ 2,350,534). Google patents. .

External links
DIY Stir plate (http://brewiki.org/StirPlate) Make your own stir plate from an old computer fan. Short video of a home made stir plate. (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tdhXESny0II) (http://www.google.com/patents/about?id=3CxTAAAAEBAJ&dq=US+Patent+2,350,534) Arthur Rosinger's patent on "Magnetic Stirrer"

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Magnetic structure
The term magnetic structure of a material pertains to the ordered arrangement of magnetic spins, typically within an ordered crystallographic lattice. Its study is a branch of solid-state chemistry.

A very simple antiferromagnetic structure

Magnetic structures
Most solid materials are Pauli-paramagnetic. These materials either do not have electron spins or these spins are not ordered unless an external field induces some non-random orientation. Such materials are not considered to 'have' a magnetic structure. This is different for ferro-, ferri- and antiferromagnetic materials. They differ in the relative ordering of their spins within the lattice. In some ferromagnetic cases A very simple ferromagnetic structure the structure may be relatively simple in that all spins point in the same direction, or at least that would be the case at very low temperatures. Towards higher temperatures there will be more and more 'rebellious' spins defying the order of the magnetic structure and at a certain temperature the order will break down and the spins will point in random directions. In some materials the pattern in which the spins order is much more complicated[1]. In antiferromagnetic materials spins point in opposite directions so that the overall magnetic moment is zero. However, this is not necessarily achieved by a simple up and down pattern. Much more complicated structures can arise. At times one can recognize layers in which all spins point in one direction (as in a ferromagnet) but in the next layer they point in the opposite direction giving an overall antiferromagnetic arrangement. The possible number of arrangements is very large and can include spirals, clusters, tetrahedra etc.

Techniques to study them

Such ordering can be studied by observing the magnetic susceptibility as a function of temperature and/or the size of the applied magnetic field, but a truly three-dimensional picture of the arrangement of the spins is best obtained by means of neutron diffraction[2][3]. Neutrons are primarily scattered by the nuclei of the atoms in the structure. At a temperature above the ordering point of the magnetic moments, where the material behaves as a paramagnetic one, neutron A different simple diffraction will therefore give a picture of the crystallographic structure only. antiferromagnetic arrangement in Below the ordering point, e.g. the Nel temperature of an antiferromagnet or the 2D Curie-point of a ferromagnet the neutrons will also experience scattering from the magnetic moments because they themselves possess spin. The intensities of the Bragg reflections will therefore change. In fact in some cases entirely new Bragg-reflections will occur if the unit cell of the ordering is larger than

Magnetic structure that of the crystallographic structure. This is a form of superstructure formation. Thus the symmetry of the total structure may well differ from the crystallographic substructure. It needs to be described by one of the 1651 magnetic (Shubnikov) groups[4] rather than one of the non-magnetic space groups. Although ordinary X-ray diffraction is 'blind' to the arrangement of the spins, it has become possible to use a special form of X-ray diffraction to study magnetic structure. If a wavelength is selected that is close to an absorption edge of one of elements contained in the materials the scattering becomes anomalous and this component to the scattering is (somewhat) sensitive to the non-spherical shape of the outer electrons of an atom with an unpaired spin. This means that this type of anomalous X-ray diffraction does contain information of the desired type.

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References
[1] an example (http:/ / www. ftj. agh. edu. pl/ ~Pytlik/ msdb/ magngif. htm) [2] Neutron diffraction of magnetic materials / Yu. A. Izyumov, V.E. Naish, and R.P. Ozerov ; translated from Russian by Joachim Bchner. New York : Consultants Bureau, c1991.ISBN 030611030X [3] A demonstration by Brian Toby (http:/ / www. aps. anl. gov/ Xray_Science_Division/ Powder_Diffraction_Crystallography/ 2006ACNSmagnetGSAS/ YBAFEOexampleMovie/ YBAFEOexample. html) [4] p.428 Group Theoretical Methods and Applications to Molecules and Crystals. By Shoon Kyung Kim.1999. Cambridge University. Press.ISBN 0521640628

Magnetism
Magnetism is a property of materials that respond to an applied magnetic field. Permanent magnets have persistent magnetic fields caused by ferromagnetism. That is the strongest and most familiar type of magnetism. However, all materials are influenced varyingly by the presence of a magnetic field. Some are attracted to a magnetic field (paramagnetism); others are repulsed by a magnetic field (diamagnetism); others have a much more complex relationship with an applied magnetic field (spin glass behavior and antiferromagnetism). Substances that are negligibly affected by magnetic fields are known as non-magnetic substances. They include copper, aluminium, gases, and plastic. Pure oxygen exhibits magnetic properties when cooled to a liquid state. The magnetic state (or phase) of a material depends on temperature (and other variables such as pressure and applied magnetic field) so that a material may exhibit more than one form of magnetism depending on its temperature, etc.

History
Aristotle attributed the first of what could be called a scientific discussion on magnetism to Thales of Miletus, who lived from about 625 BC to about 545 BC.[1] Around the same time, in ancient India, the Indian surgeon, Sushruta, was the first to make use of the magnet for surgical purposes.[2] In ancient China, the earliest literary reference to magnetism lies in a 4th century BC book named after its author, The Master of Demon Valley ( ): "The lodestone makes iron come or it attracts it."[3] The earliest mention of the attraction of a needle appears in a work composed between AD 20 and 100 (Louen-heng): "A lodestone attracts a needle."[4] The ancient Chinese scientist Shen Kuo (10311095) was the first person to write of the magnetic needle compass and that it improved the accuracy of navigation by employing the astronomical concept of true north (Dream Pool Essays, AD 1088), and by the 12th century the Chinese were known to use the lodestone compass for navigation. They sculpted a directional spoon from lodestone in such a way that the handle of the spoon always pointed south. Alexander Neckham, by 1187, was the first in Europe to describe the compass and its use for navigation. In 1269, Peter Peregrinus de Maricourt wrote the Epistola de magnete, the first extant treatise describing the properties of magnets. In 1282, the properties of magnets and the dry compass were discussed by Al-Ashraf, a Yemeni physicist, astronomer, and geographer.[5]

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In 1600, William Gilbert published his De Magnete, Magneticisque Corporibus, et de Magno Magnete Tellure (On the Magnet and Magnetic Bodies, and on the Great Magnet the Earth). In this work he describes many of his experiments with his model earth called the terrella. From his experiments, he concluded that the Earth was itself magnetic and that this was the reason compasses pointed north (previously, some believed that it was the pole star (Polaris) or a large magnetic island on the north pole that attracted the compass). An understanding of the relationship between electricity and magnetism began in 1819 with work by Hans Christian Oersted, a professor at the University of Copenhagen, who discovered more or less by accident that an electric current could influence a compass needle. This landmark experiment is known as Oersted's Experiment. Several other experiments Michael Faraday, 1842 followed, with Andr-Marie Ampre, who in 1820 discovered that the magnetic field circulating in a closed-path was related to the current flowing through the perimeter of the path; Carl Friedrich Gauss; Jean-Baptiste Biot and Flix Savart, both of which in 1820 came up with the Biot-Savart Law giving an equation for the magnetic field from a current-carrying wire; Michael Faraday, who in 1831 found that a time-varying magnetic flux through a loop of wire induced a voltage, and others finding further links between magnetism and electricity. James Clerk Maxwell synthesized and expanded these insights into Maxwell's equations, unifying electricity, magnetism, and optics into the field of electromagnetism. In 1905, Einstein used these laws in motivating his theory of special relativity,[6] requiring that the laws held true in all inertial reference frames. Electromagnetism has continued to develop into the 21st century, being incorporated into the more fundamental theories of gauge theory, quantum electrodynamics, electroweak theory, and finally the standard model.

Sources of magnetism
Magnetism, at its root, arises from two sources: 1. Electric currents or more generally, moving electric charges create magnetic fields (see Maxwell's Equations). 2. Many particles have nonzero "intrinsic" (or "spin") magnetic moments. Just as each particle, by its nature, has a certain mass and charge, each has a certain magnetic moment, possibly zero. It was found hundreds of years ago that certain materials have a tendency to orient in a particular direction. For example ancient people knew that "lodestones," when suspended from a string and allowed to freely rotate, come to rest horizontally in the North-South direction. Ancient Mariners used lodestones for navigational purposes. In magnetic materials, sources of magnetization are the electrons' orbital angular motion around the nucleus, and the electrons' intrinsic magnetic moment (see electron magnetic dipole moment). The other sources of magnetism are the nuclear magnetic moments of the nuclei in the material which are typically thousands of times smaller than the electrons' magnetic moments, so they are negligible in the context of the magnetization of materials. Nuclear magnetic moments are important in other contexts, particularly in nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Ordinarily, the enormous number of electrons in a material are arranged such that their magnetic moments (both orbital and intrinsic) cancel out. This is due, to some extent, to electrons combining into pairs with opposite intrinsic magnetic moments as a result of the Pauli exclusion principle (see electron configuration), or combining into filled subshells with zero net orbital motion. In both cases, the electron arrangement is so as to exactly cancel the magnetic moments from each electron. Moreover, even when the electron configuration is such that there are unpaired electrons and/or non-filled subshells, it is often the case that the various electrons in the solid will contribute

Magnetism magnetic moments that point in different, random directions, so that the material will not be magnetic. However, sometimes either spontaneously, or owing to an applied external magnetic field each of the electron magnetic moments will be, on average, lined up. Then the material can produce a net total magnetic field, which can potentially be quite strong. The magnetic behavior of a material depends on its structure, particularly its electron configuration, for the reasons mentioned above, and also on the temperature. At high temperatures, random thermal motion makes it more difficult for the electrons to maintain alignment.

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Topics
Diamagnetism
Diamagnetism appears in all materials, and is the tendency of a material to oppose an applied magnetic field, and therefore, to be repelled by a magnetic field. However, in a material with paramagnetic properties (that is, with a tendency to enhance an external magnetic field), the paramagnetic behavior dominates.[8] Thus, despite its universal occurrence, diamagnetic behavior is observed only in a purely [7] Hierarchy of types of magnetism. diamagnetic material. In a diamagnetic material, there are no unpaired electrons, so the intrinsic electron magnetic moments cannot produce any bulk effect. In these cases, the magnetization arises from the electrons' orbital motions, which can be understood classically as follows: When a material is put in a magnetic field, the electrons circling the nucleus will experience, in addition to their Coulomb attraction to the nucleus, a Lorentz force from the magnetic field. Depending on which direction the electron is orbiting, this force may increase the centripetal force on the electrons, pulling them in towards the nucleus, or it may decrease the force, pulling them away from the nucleus. This effect systematically increases the orbital magnetic moments that were aligned opposite the field, and decreases the ones aligned parallel to the field (in accordance with Lenz's law). This results in a small bulk magnetic moment, with an opposite direction to the applied field. Note that this description is meant only as an heuristic; a proper understanding requires a quantum-mechanical description. Note that all materials undergo this orbital response. However, in paramagnetic and ferromagnetic substances, the diamagnetic effect is overwhelmed by the much stronger effects caused by the unpaired electrons.

Paramagnetism
In a paramagnetic material there are unpaired electrons, i.e. atomic or molecular orbitals with exactly one electron in them. While paired electrons are required by the Pauli exclusion principle to have their intrinsic ('spin') magnetic moments pointing in opposite directions, causing their magnetic fields to cancel out, an unpaired electron is free to align its magnetic moment in any direction. When an external magnetic field is applied, these magnetic moments will tend to align themselves in the same direction as the applied field, thus reinforcing it.

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Ferromagnetism
A ferromagnet, like a paramagnetic substance, has unpaired electrons. However, in addition to the electrons' intrinsic magnetic moment's tendency to be parallel to an applied field, there is also in these materials a tendency for these magnetic moments to orient parallel to each other to maintain a lowered-energy state. Thus, even when the applied field is removed, the electrons in the material maintain a parallel orientation. Every ferromagnetic substance has its own individual temperature, called the Curie temperature, or Curie point, above which it loses its ferromagnetic properties. This is because the thermal tendency to disorder overwhelms the energy-lowering due to ferromagnetic order.

A permanent magnet holding up several coins

Some well-known ferromagnetic materials that exhibit easily detectable magnetic properties (to form magnets) are nickel, iron, cobalt, gadolinium and their alloys. Magnetic domains The magnetic moment of atoms in a ferromagnetic material cause them to behave something like tiny permanent magnets. They stick together and align themselves into small regions of more or less uniform alignment called magnetic domains or Weiss domains. Magnetic domains can be observed with a magnetic force microscope to reveal magnetic domain boundaries that resemble white lines in the sketch. There are many scientific experiments that can physically show magnetic fields.

Magnetic domains in ferromagnetic material.

When a domain contains too many molecules, it becomes unstable and divides into two domains aligned in opposite directions so that they stick together more stably as shown at the right. When exposed to a magnetic field, the domain boundaries move so that the domains aligned with the magnetic field grow and dominate the structure as shown at the left. When the magnetizing field is removed, the domains may not return to an unmagnetized state. This results in the ferromagnetic material's being magnetized, forming a permanent magnet. When magnetized strongly enough that the prevailing domain overruns all others to result in only one single domain, the material is magnetically saturated. When a magnetized ferromagnetic material is heated to the Curie point temperature, the molecules are
Effect of a magnet on the domains.

Magnetism agitated to the point that the magnetic domains lose the organization and the magnetic properties they cause cease. When the material is cooled, this domain alignment structure spontaneously returns, in a manner roughly analogous to how a liquid can freeze into a crystalline solid.

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Antiferromagnetism
In an antiferromagnet, unlike a ferromagnet, there is a tendency for the intrinsic magnetic moments of neighboring valence electrons to point in opposite directions. When all atoms are arranged in a substance so that each neighbor is 'anti-aligned', the substance is antiferromagnetic. Antiferromagnets have a zero net magnetic moment, meaning no field is produced by them. Antiferromagnets are less common compared to the other types of behaviors, and are mostly observed at low temperatures. In varying temperatures, antiferromagnets can be seen to exhibit diamagnetic and ferrimagnetic properties.

Antiferromagnetic ordering

In some materials, neighboring electrons want to point in opposite directions, but there is no geometrical arrangement in which each pair of neighbors is anti-aligned. This is called a spin glass, and is an example of geometrical frustration.

Ferrimagnetism
Like ferromagnetism, ferrimagnets retain their magnetization in the absence of a field. However, like antiferromagnets, neighboring pairs of electron spins like to point in opposite directions. These two properties are not contradictory, because in the optimal geometrical arrangement, there is more magnetic moment from the sublattice of electrons that point in one direction, than from the sublattice that points in the opposite direction.

Ferrimagnetic ordering

Most ferrites are ferrimagnetic. The first discovered magnetic substance, magnetite, is a ferrite and was originally believed to be a ferromagnet; Louis Nel disproved this, however, after discovering ferrimagnetism.

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Superparamagnetism
When a ferromagnet or ferrimagnet is sufficiently small, it acts like a single magnetic spin that is subject to Brownian motion. Its response to a magnetic field is qualitatively similar to the response of a paramagnet, but much larger.

Electromagnet
An electromagnet is a type of magnet whose magnetism is produced by the flow of electric current. The magnetic field disappears when the current ceases.

Other types of magnetism

Molecular magnet Metamagnetism Molecule-based magnet Spin glass

Magnetism, electricity, and special relativity

As a consequence of Einstein's theory of special relativity, electricity and magnetism are fundamentally interlinked. Both magnetism lacking electricity, and electricity without magnetism, are inconsistent with special relativity, due to such effects as length contraction, time dilation, and the fact that the magnetic force is velocity-dependent. However, when both electricity and magnetism are taken into account, the resulting theory (electromagnetism) is fully consistent with special relativity.[6][9] In particular, a phenomenon that appears purely electric to one observer may be purely magnetic to another, or more generally the relative contributions of electricity and magnetism are dependent on the frame of reference. Thus, special relativity "mixes" electricity and magnetism into a single, inseparable phenomenon called electromagnetism, analogous to how relativity "mixes" space and time into spacetime.
Electromagnets attracts paper clips when current is applied creating a magnetic field. The electromagnet loses them when current and magnetic field are removed.

Magnetic fields in a material

In a vacuum,

where 0 is the vacuum permeability. In a material,

The quantity 0M is called magnetic polarization. If the field H is small, the response of the magnetization M in a diamagnet or paramagnet is approximately linear:

the constant of proportionality being called the magnetic susceptibility. If so,

In a hard magnet such as a ferromagnet, M is not proportional to the field and is generally nonzero even when H is zero (see Remanence).

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Force due to magnetic field - The magnetic force

The phenomenon of magnetism is "mediated" by the magnetic field. An electric current or magnetic dipole creates a magnetic field, and that field, in turn, imparts magnetic forces on other particles that are in the fields. Maxwell's equations, which simplify to the Biot-Savart law in the case of steady currents, describe the origin and behavior of the fields that govern these forces. Therefore magnetism is seen whenever electrically charged particles are in motion---for example, from movement of electrons in an electric current, or in certain cases from the orbital motion of electrons around an atom's nucleus. They also arise from "intrinsic" magnetic dipoles arising from quantum-mechanical spin.

Magnetic lines of force of a bar magnet shown by iron filings on paper

The same situations that create magnetic fields charge moving in a current or in an atom, and intrinsic magnetic dipoles are also the situations in which a magnetic field has an effect, creating a force. Following is the formula for moving charge; for the forces on an intrinsic dipole, see magnetic dipole. When a charged particle moves through a magnetic field B, it feels a Lorentz force F given by the cross product:[10]

where is the electric charge of the particle, and v is the velocity vector of the particle Because this is a cross product, the force is perpendicular to both the motion of the particle and the magnetic field. It follows that the magnetic force does no work on the particle; it may change the direction of the particle's movement, but it cannot cause it to speed up or slow down. The magnitude of the force is

where

is the angle between v and B.

One tool for determining the direction of the velocity vector of a moving charge, the magnetic field, and the force exerted is labeling the index finger "V", the middle finger "B", and the thumb "F" with your right hand. When making a gun-like configuration, with the middle finger crossing under the index finger, the fingers represent the velocity vector, magnetic field vector, and force vector, respectively. See also right hand rule.

Magnetic dipoles
A very common source of magnetic field shown in nature is a dipole, with a "South pole" and a "North pole", terms dating back to the use of magnets as compasses, interacting with the Earth's magnetic field to indicate North and South on the globe. Since opposite ends of magnets are attracted, the north pole of a magnet is attracted to the south pole of another magnet. The Earth's North Magnetic Pole (currently in the Arctic Ocean, north of Canada) is physically a south pole, as it attracts the north pole of a compass. A magnetic field contains energy, and physical systems move toward configurations with lower energy. When diamagnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, a magnetic dipole tends to align itself in opposed polarity to that field, thereby lowering the net field strength. When ferromagnetic material is placed within a magnetic field, the magnetic dipoles align to the applied field, thus expanding the domain walls of the magnetic domains.

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Magnetic monopoles
Since a bar magnet gets its ferromagnetism from electrons distributed evenly throughout the bar, when a bar magnet is cut in half, each of the resulting pieces is a smaller bar magnet. Even though a magnet is said to have a north pole and a south pole, these two poles cannot be separated from each other. A monopole if such a thing exists would be a new and fundamentally different kind of magnetic object. It would act as an isolated north pole, not attached to a south pole, or vice versa. Monopoles would carry "magnetic charge" analogous to electric charge. Despite systematic searches since 1931, as of 2010, they have never been observed, and could very well not exist.[11] Nevertheless, some theoretical physics models predict the existence of these magnetic monopoles. Paul Dirac observed in 1931 that, because electricity and magnetism show a certain symmetry, just as quantum theory predicts that individual positive or negative electric charges can be observed without the opposing charge, isolated South or North magnetic poles should be observable. Using quantum theory Dirac showed that if magnetic monopoles exist, then one could explain the quantization of electric charge---that is, why the observed elementary particles carry charges that are multiples of the charge of the electron. Certain grand unified theories predict the existence of monopoles which, unlike elementary particles, are solitons (localized energy packets). The initial results of using these models to estimate the number of monopoles created in the big bang contradicted cosmological observations the monopoles would have been so plentiful and massive that they would have long since halted the expansion of the universe. However, the idea of inflation (for which this problem served as a partial motivation) was successful in solving this problem, creating models in which monopoles existed but were rare enough to be consistent with current observations.[12]

Quantum-mechanical origin of magnetism

In principle all kinds of magnetism originate (similar to Superconductivity) from specific quantum-mechanical phenomena (e.g. Mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics, in particular the chapters on spin and on the Pauli principle). A successful model was developed already in 1927, by Walter Heitler and Fritz London, who derived quantum-mechanically, how hydrogen molecules are formed from hydrogen atoms, i.e. from the atomic hydrogen orbitals and centered at the nuclei A and B, see below. That this leads to magnetism, is not at all obvious, but will be explained in the following. According the Heitler-London theory, so-called two-body molecular orbital is: -orbitals are formed, namely the resulting

Here the last product means that a first electron, r1, is in an atomic hydrogen-orbital centered at the second nucleus, whereas the second electron runs around the first nucleus. This "exchange" phenomenon is an expression for the quantum-mechanical property that particles with identical properties cannot be distinguished. It is specific not only for the formation of chemical bonds, but as we will see, also for magnetism, i.e. in this connection the term exchange interaction arises, a term which is essential for the origin of magnetism, and which is stronger, roughly by factors 100 and even by 1000, than the energies arising from the electrodynamic dipole-dipole interaction. As for the spin function , which is responsible for the magnetism, we have the already mentioned Pauli's

principle, namely that a symmetric orbital (i.e. with the + sign as above) must be multiplied with an antisymmetric spin function (i.e. with a - sign), and vice versa. Thus: , I.e., not only and must be substituted by and , respectively (the first entity means "spin up", the second one "spin down"), but also the sign + by the sign, and finally ri by the discrete values si (=); thereby we have and . The "singlet state", i.e. the - sign, means: the

Magnetism spins are antiparallel, i.e. for the solid we have antiferromagnetism, and for two-atomic molecules one has diamagnetism. The tendency to form a (homoeopolar) chemical bond (this means: the formation of a symmetric molecular orbital, i.e. with the + sign) results through the Pauli principle automatically in an antisymmetric spin state (i.e. with the - sign). In contrast, the Coulomb repulsion of the electrons, i.e. the tendency that they try to avoid each other by this repulsion, would lead to an antisymmetric orbital function (i.e. with the - sign) of these two particles, and complementary to a symmetric spin function (i.e. with the + sign, one of the so-called "triplet functions"). Thus, now the spins would be parallel (ferromagnetism in a solid, paramagnetism in two-atomic gases). The last-mentioned tendency dominates in the metals iron, cobalt and nickel, and in some rare earths, which are ferromagnetic. Most of the other metals, where the first-mentioned tendency dominates, are nonmagnetic (e.g. sodium, aluminium, and magnesium) or antiferromagnetic (e.g. manganese). Diatomic gases are also almost exclusively diamagnetic, and not paramagnetic. However, the oxygen molecule, because of the involvement of -orbitals, is an exception important for the life-sciences. The Heitler-London considerations can be generalized to the Heisenberg model of magnetism (Heisenberg 1928). The explanation of the phenomena is thus essentially based on all subtleties of quantum mechanics, whereas the electrodynamics covers mainly the phenomenology.

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Units of electromagnetism
SI units related to magnetism
SI electromagnetism units Symbol [13] Name of Quantity Electric current Electric charge Potential difference; Electromotive force Derived Units ampere (SI base unit) coulomb volt Conversion of International to SI base units

Electric resistance; Impedance; Reactance ohm Resistivity Electric power Capacitance Electric field strength Electric displacement field Permittivity Electric susceptibility Conductance; Admittance; Susceptance Conductivity ohm metre watt farad volt per metre Coulomb per square metre farad per metre Dimensionless siemens siemens per metre

Magnetic flux density, Magnetic induction tesla Magnetic flux Magnetic field strength Inductance Permeability Magnetic susceptibility weber ampere per metre henry henry per metre Dimensionless

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Other units
gauss The gauss is the centimeter-gram-second (CGS) unit of magnetic field (denoted B). oersted The oersted is the CGS unit of magnetizing field (denoted H). maxwell The maxwell is the CGS unit for magnetic flux. gamma is a unit of magnetic flux density that was commonly used before the tesla came into use (1.0 gamma = 1.0 nanotesla) 0 common symbol for the permeability of free space (4107 newton/(ampere-turn)2).

Living things
Some organisms can detect magnetic fields, a phenomenon known as magnetoception. Magnetobiology studies magnetic fields as a medical treatment; fields naturally produced by an organism are known as biomagnetism.

References
[1] Fowler, Michael (1997). "Historical Beginnings of Theories of Electricity and Magnetism" (http:/ / galileoandeinstein. physics. virginia. edu/ more_stuff/ E& M_Hist. html). . Retrieved 2008-04-02. [2] Vowles, Hugh P. (1932). "Early Evolution of Power Engineering". Isis (University of Chicago Press) 17 (2): 412420 [41920]. doi:10.1086/346662. [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] Li Shu-hua, Origine de la Boussole 11. Aimant et Boussole, Isis, Vol. 45, No. 2. (Jul., 1954), p.175 Li Shu-hua, Origine de la Boussole 11. Aimant et Boussole, Isis, Vol. 45, No. 2. (Jul., 1954), p.176 Schmidl, Petra G. (19961997). "Two Early Arabic Sources On The Magnetic Compass". Journal of Arabic and Islamic Studies 1: 81132. A. Einstein: "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies" (http:/ / www. fourmilab. ch/ etexts/ einstein/ specrel/ www/ ), June 30, 1905. HP Meyers (1997). Introductory solid state physics (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=Uc1pCo5TrYUC& pg=PA322) (2 ed.). CRC Press. p.362; Figure 11.1. ISBN0-7484-0660-3. . [8] Catherine Westbrook, Carolyn Kaut, Carolyn Kaut-Roth (1998). MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) in practice (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=Qq1SHDtS2G8C& pg=PA217) (2 ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. p.217. ISBN0-632-04205-2. . [9] Griffiths 1998, chapter 12 [10] Jackson, John David (1999). Classical electrodynamics (3rd ed.). New York, [NY.]: Wiley. ISBN0-471-30932-X [11] Milton mentions some inconclusive events (p.60) and still concludes that "no evidence at all of magnetic monopoles has survived" (p.3). Milton, Kimball A. (June 2006). "Theoretical and experimental status of magnetic monopoles". Reports on Progress in Physics 69 (6): 16371711. arXiv:hep-ex/0602040. Bibcode2006RPPh...69.1637M. doi:10.1088/0034-4885/69/6/R02.. [12] Guth, Alan (1997). The Inflationary Universe: The Quest for a New Theory of Cosmic Origins. Perseus. ISBN0-201-32840-2. OCLC38941224.. [13] International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (1993). Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry, 2nd edition, Oxford: Blackwell Science. ISBN 0-632-03583-8. pp.1415. Electronic version. (http:/ / old. iupac. org/ publications/ books/ gbook/ green_book_2ed. pdf)

Further reading
Furlani, Edward P. (2001). Permanent Magnet and Electromechanical Devices: Materials, Analysis and Applications. Academic Press. ISBN0-12-269951-3. OCLC162129430. Griffiths, David J. (1998). Introduction to Electrodynamics (3rd ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN0-13-805326-X. OCLC40251748. Kronmller, Helmut. (2007). Handbook of Magnetism and Advanced Magnetic Materials, 5 Volume Set. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN978-0-470-02217-7. OCLC124165851. Tipler, Paul (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Electricity, Magnetism, Light, and Elementary Modern Physics (5th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN0-7167-0810-8. OCLC51095685. David K. Cheng (1992). Field and Wave Electromagnetics. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc.. ISBN0-201-12819-5.

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External links
Magnetism (http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p003k9dd) on In Our Time at the BBC. ( listen now (http:// www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/console/p003k9dd/In_Our_Time_Magnetism)) The Exploratorium Science Snacks Snacks about Magnetism (http://www.exploratorium.edu/snacks/ iconmagnetism.html) Electromagnetism (http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/0sn/ch11/ch11.html) - a chapter from an online textbook Video: The physicist Richard Feynman answers the question, Why do bar magnets attract or repel each other? (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wMFPe-DwULM) On the Magnet, 1600 (http://www.antiquebooks.net/readpage.html#gilbert) First scientific book on magnetism by the father of electrical engineering. Full English text, full text search.

Metamagnetism
Metamagnetism is a blanket term used loosely in physics to describe a sudden (often, dramatic) increase in the magnetization of a material with a small change in an externally applied magnetic field. The metamagnetic behavior may have quite different physical causes for different types of metamagnets. Some examples of physical mechanisms leading to metamagnetic behavior are: 1. Itinerant Metamagnetism - Exchange splitting of the Fermi surface in a paramagnetic system of itinerant electrons causes an energetically favorable transition to bulk magnetization near the transition to a ferromagnet or other magnetically ordered state.[1][2] 2. Antiferromagnetic Transition - Field-induced spin flips in antiferromagnets cascade at a critical energy determined by the applied magnetic field.[3] Depending on the material and experimental conditions, metamagnetism may be associated with a first-order phase transition, a continuous phase transition at a critical point (classical or quantum), or crossovers beyond a critical point that do not involve a phase transition at all. These wildly different physical explanations sometimes lead to confusion as to what the term "metamagnetic" is referring in specific cases.

References
[1] EP. Wohlfarth and P. Rhodes. "Collective Electron Metamagnetism" Philos Mag 7, 1817 (1962). [2] R. Z. Levitin and A. S. Markosyan. "Itinerant Metamagnetism" Usp. Fiz. Nauk 155, 623-657 (1988) [3] E. Stryjewski and N. Giordano. "Metamagnetism" Advances in Physics 26, 487-650 (1977).

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Micromagnetics
Micromagnetics deals with the interactions between magnetic moments on sub-micrometre length scales. These are governed by several competing energy terms. Dipolar energy is the energy which causes magnets to align north to south pole. Exchange energy will attempt to make the magnetic moments in the immediately surrounding space lie parallel to one another (if the material is ferromagnetic) or antiparallel to one another (if antiferromagnetic). Anisotropy energy is low when the magnetic moments are aligned along a particular crystal direction. Zeeman energy is at its lowest when magnetic moments lie parallel to an external magnetic field. Since the most efficient magnetic alignment (also known as a configuration) is the one in which the energy is lowest, the sum of these four energy terms will attempt to become as small as possible at the expense of the others, yielding complex physical interactions. The competition of these interactions under different conditions is responsible for the overall behavior of a magnetic system.

History
Micromagnetics as a field (i.e. that which deals specifically with the behaviour of (ferro)magnetic materials at sub-micrometer length scales) was introduced in 1963 when William Fuller Brown, Jr. published a paper on antiparallel domain wall structures. Until comparatively recently computation micromagnetics has been prohibitively expensive in terms of computational power, but smaller problems are now solveable on a modern desktop PC.

Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert equation
Generally, a form[1]of the Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert equation:

is used to solve time-dependent micromagnetic problems, where is the effective magnetic field, gyromagnetic ratio. Furthermore,

is the magnetic moment per unit volume, is the electron

is the Gilbert phenomenological damping parameter and is the magnitude of the magnetization vector

Equation (1) can be shown to be equivalent to the more complicated form

Originally, in 1935, Landau and Lifshitz used this expression without the denominator from Gilbert's modification in 1955.

, which arose

Landau-Lifshitz equation
If in (1) we put the Gilbert damping parameter equation (LLE) , then we get the famous, damping-free, Landau-Lifshitz

The effective field

An essential merit of the micromagnetic theory concerns the answer on the question, how the effective field depends on the relevant interactions, namely, (i), on the exchange interaction; (ii), on the so-called anisotropy interaction; (iii), on the magnetic dipole-dipole interaction; and, (iv), on the external field (the so-called "Zeeman

Micromagnetics field"). The answer is somewhat involved: let the energies corresponding to (i) and (ii) be given by

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and

Here we use the decomposition vector

of the magnetization vector into its magnitude MS and the direction

while A is the so-called exchange constant. V is the magnetic volume.

Then we have: [2][3][4] Here the third term on the r.h.s. is the internal field produced at the position by the dipole-dipole interaction, whereas the fourth term is the external field, also called "Zeeman field". Usually the first and the third term play the dominating role, usually a competing one, in this complicated sum. In particular: due to the third term the effective field is a nonlocal function of the magnetization, i.e. although the Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert equation looks relatively harmless, one is actually dealing with a complicated nonlinear set of integro-differential equations.

Applications
Apart from "conventional" magnetic domains and domain-walls, the theory also treats the statics and dynamics of topological "line" and "point" configurations, e.g. magnetic vortex and antivortex states[5] or even 3d-"Bloch points"[6][7], where, for example, the magnetization leads radially into all directions from the origin, or into topologically equivalent configurations. Thus in space, and also in time, nano- (and even pico-)scales are used. The corresponding topological quantum numbers[7] are thought to be used as information carriers, to apply the most recent, and already studied, propositions in information technology.

Footnotes and References

[1] There are different (equivalent) forms of the Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert equation. [2] Here the minus sign at the second place on the r.h.s. is obvious: the magnetization chooses that direction which is lowest in energy. . [3] We use the cgs system of units. In the SI system, in the third term on the r.h.s. an additional factor [4] Note that certain transformations of appears. since this does

are always allowed, e.g. one can add any modification parallel to

not change [5] S. Komineas, N. Papanicolaou: Dynamics of vortex-antivortex pairs in ferromagnets, in: arXiv:0712.3684v1, (2007) [6] A. Thiaville et al., Micromagnetic study of Bloch-point-mediated vortex core reversal, in: Phys. Rev. B, vol. 67 (9), 094410 (2003), doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.67.094410 [7] W. Dring, Point singularities in micromagnetism, J. Appl. Phys. 39, 1006 (1968), (http:/ / scitation. aip. org/ getabs/ servlet/ GetabsServlet?prog=normal& id=JAPIAU000039000002001006000001& idtype=cvips& gifs=yes)

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Literature
Brown, William Fuller, Jr. (1963). Micromagnetics. New York: Wiley. ISBN0-88275-665-6. Gilbert, Thomas L. (2004). "A Phenomenological Theory of Damping in Ferromagnetic Materials". IEEE Transactions on Magnetics 40 (6): 34433449. Bibcode2004ITM....40.3443G. doi:10.1109/TMAG.2004.836740. ISSN0018-9464.

External links
MAG -- Micromagnetic Modeling Activity Group (http://www.ctcms.nist.gov/mumag/mumag.org.html). Magnetization dynamics applet (http://www.bama.ua.edu/~tmewes/Java/dynamics/MagnetizationDynamics. shtml). OOMMF - The Object-Oriented Micromagnetic Framework (http://math.nist.gov/oommf/) - a popular free micromagnetic simulation tool using finite difference lattice discretisations of space and FFT. MuMax a GPU-based, open-source micromagnetic simulation code. (http://arxiv.org/pdf/1102.3069) Magpar (http://www.cwscholz.net/Main/MagparProject) - a parallelizable, finite element based, free micromagnetic simulation package. Nmag (http://nmag.soton.ac.uk/) - a parallelizable, finite element based, free micromagnetic simulator that is scriptable in Python. FEMME -- [[Finite element (http://www.suessco.com/simulations)] based micromagnetic package, commercial]. LLGMicromagnetics -- [[Finite difference (http://llgmicro.home.mindspring.com/)] based micromagnetic package, commercial]. Magsimus Deluxe -- [[Finite difference (http://www.magoasis.com/)], Multiphysics based micromagnetic package, commercial].

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Molecule-based magnets
Molecule-based magnets are a class of materials capable of displaying ferromagnetism. This class expands the materials properties typically associated with magnets to include low density, transparency, electrical insulation, and low-temperature fabrication, as well as combine magnetic ordering with other properties such as photoresponsiveness. Essentially all of the common magnetic phenomena associated with conventional transition-metal and rare-earth-based magnets can be found in molecule-based magnets.[1]

Background
Molecule-based magnets comprise a class of materials which differ from conventional magnets in one of several ways. Most traditional magnetic materials are comprised purely of metals (Fe, Co, Ni) or metal oxides (CrO2) in which the unpaired electrons spins that contribute to the net magnetic moment reside only on metal atoms in d- or f-type orbitals. In molecule-based magnets, the structural building blocks are molecular in nature. These building blocks are either purely organic molecules, coordination compounds or a combination of both. In this case, the unpaired electrons may reside in d or f orbitals on isolated metal atoms, but may also reside in highly localized s and p orbitals as well on the purely organic species. Like conventional magnets, they may be classified as hard or soft, depending on the magnitude of the coercive field. Another distinguishing feature is that molecule-based magnets are prepared via low-temperature solution-based techniques, versus high-temperature metallurgical processing or electroplating (in the case of magnetic thin films). This enables a chemical tailoring of the molecular building blocks to tune the magnetic properties. Specific materials include purely organic magnets made of organic radicals for example p-nitrophenyl nitronyl nitroxides [2], decamethylferrocenium tetracyanoethenide[3], mixed coordination compounds with bridging organic radicals [4], Prussian blue related compounds [5], and charge transfer complexes [6]. Molecule-based magnets derive their net moment from the cooperative effect of the spin-bearing molecular entities, and can display bulk ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic behavior with a true critical temperature. In this regard, they are contrasted with single-molecule magnets, which are essentially superparamagnets (displaying a blocking temperature versus a true critical temperature). This critical temperature represents the point at which the materials switches from a simple paramagnet to a bulk magnet, and can be detected by ac susceptibility and specific heat measurements.

History
The first synthesis and characterization of molecule-based magnets was accomplished by Wickman and co-workers. This was a diethyldithiocarbamate-Fe(III) chloride compound.[7][8]

Theory
The mechanism by which molecule-based magnets stabilize and display a net magnetic moment is quite different than that present in traditional metal- and ceramic-based magnets. For metallic magnets, the unpaired electrons align through quantum mechanical effects (termed exchange) by virtue of the way in which the electrons fill the orbitals of the conductive band. For most oxide-based ceramic magnets, the unpaired electrons on the metal centers align via the intervening diamagnetic bridging oxide (termed superexchange). The magnetic moment in molecule-based magnets is typically stabilized by one or more of three main mechanisms: Through space or dipolar coupling Exchange between orthogonal (non-overlapping) orbitals in the same spatial region

Molecule-based magnets Net moment via antiferromagnetic coupling of non-equal spin centers (ferrimagnetism) In general, molecule-based magnets tend to be of low dimensionality. Classic magnetic alloys based on iron and other ferromangetic materials feature metallic bonding, with all atoms essentially bonded to all nearest neighbors in the crystal lattice. Thus, critical temperatures at which point these classical magnets cross over to the ordered magnetic state tend to be high, since interactions between spin centers is strong. Molecule-based magnets, however, have spin bearing units on molecular entities, often with highly directional bonding. In some cases, chemical bonding is restricted to one dimension (chains). Thus, interactions between spin centers are also limited to one-dimension, and ordering temperatures are much lower than metal/alloy-type magnets. Also, large parts of the magnetic material are essentially diamagnetic, and contribute nothing to the net magnetic moment. These aspects of molecule-based magnets present significant challenges toward reaching the ultimate goal of "room temperature" molecule-based magnets. Low-dimensional materials, however, can provide valuable experimental data for validating physics models of magnetism (which are often of low dimension, to simplify calculations).

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Applications
Molecule-based magnets currently remain laboratory curiosities with no real world applications. As indicated, this is largely due to the very low critical temperature at which these materials become magnetic. This is related to the magnitude of the magnetic coupling, which is very weak in these materials. In this regard, they are similar to superconductors, which require cooling for use.

References
[1] Molecule-Based Magnets Materials Research Society (http:/ / www. mrs. org/ s_mrs/ doc. asp?CID=9554& DID=200481) Retrieved on 20 December 2007 [2] Bulk ferromagnetism in the -phase crystal of the p-nitrophenyl nitronyl nitroxide radical Chemical Physics Letters, Volume 186, Issues 4-5, 15 November 1991, Pages 401-404 Masafumi Tamura, Yasuhiro Nakazawa, Daisuke Shiomi, Kiyokazu Nozawa, Yuko Hosokoshi, Masayasu Ishikawa, Minuro Takahashi, Minoru Kinoshita doi:10.1016/0009-2614(91)90198-I [3] Sailesh Chittipeddi K. R. Cromack Joel S. Miller A. J. Epstein Phys. Rev. Lett. 58, 26952698 (1987) Ferromagnetism in molecular decamethylferrocenium tetracyanoethenide (DMeFc TCNE) [4] Caneschi A., et al. Acc. Chem. Res. 22, 392 (1989) [5] S. Ferlay, et al. Nature 378, 701 (1995) [6] Miller J.S., et al. Chem. Rev. 88, 201 (1988) [7] Wickman, H.H., et al. Phys. Rev. 155, 563 (1967). [8] Wickman, H.H., et al. Phys. Rev. 163, 526 (1967).

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Neodymium magnet
A neodymium magnet (also known as NdFeB, NIB, or Neo magnet), the most widely-used type of rare-earth magnet, is a permanent magnet made from an alloy of neodymium, iron, and boron to form the Nd2Fe14B tetragonal crystalline structure. Developed in 1982 by General Motors and Sumitomo Special Metals, neodymium magnets are the strongest type of permanent magnet made. They have replaced other types of magnet in the many applications in modern products that require strong permanent magnets, such as motors in cordless tools, hard disk drives, and magnetic fasteners.

Nickel plated neodymium magnet on a bracket from a hard drive.

Description
The tetragonal Nd2Fe14B crystal structure has exceptionally high uniaxial magnetocrystalline anisotropy (HA~7 teslas). This gives the compound the potential to have high coercivity (i.e., resistance to being demagnetized). The compound also has a high saturation magnetization (Js ~1.6 T or 16kG) and typically 1.3 tesla. Therefore, as the maximum energy density is proportional to Js2, this magnetic phase has the potential for storing large amounts of magnetic energy (BHmax~ 512kJ/m3 or 64MGOe), considerably more than samarium cobalt (SmCo) magnets, which were the first type of rare earth magnet to be commercialized. In practice, the magnetic properties of neodymium magnets depend on the alloy composition, microstructure, and manufacturing technique employed.

Nickel-plated neodymium magnet cubes

History and manufacturing techniques

In 1982, General Motors and Sumitomo Special Metals discovered the Nd2Fe14B compound. The effort was principally driven by the high Left: High-resolution transmission electron material cost of the SmCo permanent magnets, which had been microscopy image of Nd2Fe14B; right: chemical developed earlier. General Motors focused on the development of schema melt-spun nanocrystalline Nd2Fe14B magnets, while Sumitomo developed full density sintered Nd2Fe14B magnets. General Motors Corporation commercialized its inventions of isotropic Neo powder, bonded Neo magnets and the related production processes by founding Magnequench in 1986. Magnequench is now part of the Neo Materials Technology Inc. and supplies melt spun Nd2Fe14B powder to bonded magnet manufacturers. The Sumitomo facility has become part of the Hitachi corporation and currently manufactures and licenses other companies to produce sintered Nd2Fe14B magnets. Hitachi holds more than 600 patents covering Neodymium magnets.[1] Sintered Nd2Fe14B tends to be vulnerable to corrosion. In particular, corrosion along grain boundaries may cause deterioration of a sintered magnet. This problem is addressed in many commercial products by providing a protective coating. Nickel plating or two layered copper nickel plating is used as a standard method, although plating with other metals or polymer and lacquer protective coatings are also in use.[2]

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Production
There are two principal neodymium magnet manufacturing routes: The classical powder metallurgy or sintered magnet process The rapid solidification or bonded magnet process Sintered Nd-magnets are prepared by the raw materials being melted in a furnace, cast into a mold and cooled to form ingots. The ingots are pulverized and milled to tiny particles. This undergoes a process of liquid-phase sintering whereby the powder is magnetically aligned into dense blocks which are then heat-treated, cut to shape, surface treated and magnetized. Currently, between 45,000 and 50,000 tons of sintered neodymium magnets are produced each year, mainly in China and Japan. As of 2011, China produces more than 95% of rare earth elements, and produces 76% of the world's total rare earth magnets.[1] Bonded Nd-magnets are prepared by melt spinning a thin ribbon of the Nd-Fe-B alloy. The ribbon contains randomly oriented Nd2Fe14B nano-scale grains. This ribbon is then pulverized into particles, mixed with a polymer and either compression or injection molded into bonded magnets. Bonded magnets offer less flux than sintered magnets but can be net-shape formed into intricately shaped parts and do not suffer significant eddy current losses. There are approximately 5,500 tons of Neo bonded magnets produced each year. In addition, it is possible to hot-press the melt spun nanocrystalline particles into fully dense isotropic magnets, and then upset-forge/back-extrude these into high-energy anisotropic magnets.

Properties
Magnetic properties
Some important properties used to compare permanent magnets are: remanence (Mr), which measures the strength of the magnetic field; coercivity (Hci), the material's resistance to becoming demagnetized; energy product (BHmax), the density of magnetic energy; and Curie temperature (TC), the temperature at which the material loses its magnetism. Neodymium magnets have higher remanence, much higher coercivity and energy product, but often lower Curie temperature than other types. Neodymium is alloyed with terbium and dysprosium in order to preserve its magnetic properties at high temperatures.[3] The table below compares the magnetic performance of neodymium magnets with other types of permanent magnets.
Magnet Nd2Fe14B (sintered) Nd2Fe14B (bonded) SmCo5 (sintered) Mr (T) 1.01.4 0.60.7 0.81.1 Hci (kA/m) BH (kJ/m3) TC (C) max 7502000 6001200 6002000 200440 60100 120200 150240 1088 1040 310400 310400 720 800 700860 450

Sm(Co, Fe, Cu, Zr)7 (sintered) 0.91.15 4501300 Alnico (sintered) Sr-ferrite (sintered) 0.61.4 0.20.4 275 100300

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Physical and mechanical properties Comparison of physical properties of sintered neodymium and Sm-Co magnets[4]
Property Remanence (T) Coercivity (MA/m) Relative permeability Neodymium 11.3 0.8751.99 1.05 Sm-Co 0.821.16 0.4931.59 1.05 0.03 0.15..0.30 800 8.28.4 5.2106 11106 150 800 35 500550

Temperature coefficient of remanence (%/K) 0.12 Temperature coefficient of coercivity (%/K) Curie temperature (C) Density (g/cm3) CTE, magnetizing direction (1/K) CTE, normal to magnetizing direction (1/K) Flexural strength (N/mm2) Compressive strength (N/mm2) Tensile strength (N/mm2) Vickers hardness (HV) Electrical resistivity (cm) 0.55..0.65 320 7.37.5 5.2106 0.8106 250 1100 75 550650

(110170)106 86106

Hazards
The greater force exerted by rare earth magnets creates hazards that are not seen with other types of magnet. Neodymium magnets larger than a few cubic centimeters are strong enough to cause injuries to body parts pinched between two magnets, or a magnet and a metal surface, even causing broken bones.[5] Magnets allowed to get too near each other can strike each other with enough force to chip and shatter the brittle material, and the flying chips can cause injuries. There have even been cases where young children who have swallowed several magnets have had a fold of the digestive tract pinched between the magnets, causing injury or death.[6] The stronger magnetic fields can be hazardous to mechanical and electronic devices, as they can erase magnetic media such as floppy disks and credit cards, and magnetize watches and other clockwork mechanisms and the shadow masks of CRT type monitors at a significant distance.

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Applications
In technology
Neodymium magnets have replaced alnico and ferrite magnets in many of the myriad applications in modern technology where strong permanent magnets are required, because their greater strength allows the use of smaller, lighter magnets for a given application. Some examples are: Head actuators for computer hard disks Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) Magnetic guitar pickups Loudspeakers and headphones Magnetic bearings and couplings Electric motors: cordless tools Servo motors Lifting and compressor motors Synchronous motors Spindle and stepper motors Electrical power steering Drive motors for hybrid and electric vehicles. The electric motors of each Toyota Prius require 1 kilogram (2.2 pounds) of neodymium.[3]
Hard disk drive Ring magnets

Actuators Electric generators for wind turbines; up to 600 kg of PM material per megawatt (Neodymium content is estimated to be 31% of magnet weight).[1] Demand for neodymium in electric vehicles is estimated to be 5 times larger than that in wind turbines.[1]

Other applications
In addition, the greater strength of neodymium magnets has inspired new applications in areas where magnets were not used before, such as magnetic jewelry clasps, children's magnetic building sets (and other neodymium magnet toys) and as part of the closing mechanism of modern sport parachute equipment.[7] The strength and magnetic field homogeneity on neodymium magnets has also opened new applications in the medical field with the introduction of open magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanners used to image the body in radiology departments as an alternative to superconducting magnets that use a coil of superconducting wire to produce the magnetic field. As with most solid-based magnets, the magnetic field gradient of neodymium magnets decreases towards the centers of their surfaces, thus there is a force that attracts metallic objects to the edges.

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References
[1] Chu, Steven. Critical Materials Strategy (http:/ / energy. gov/ sites/ prod/ files/ DOE_CMS_2011. pdf) United States Department of Energy, December 2011. Accessed: 23 December 2011. [2] Drak, M.; Dobrzanski, L.A. (2007). "Corrosion of Nd-Fe-B permanent magnets" (http:/ / www. journalamme. org/ papers_vol20/ 1369S. pdf). Journal of Achievements in Materials and Manufacturing Engineering 20 (12). . [3] As hybrid cars gobble rare metals, shortage looms (http:/ / www. reuters. com/ article/ newsOne/ idUSTRE57U02B20090831), Reuters, August 31, 2009. [4] Juha Pyrhnen, Tapani Jokinen, Valria Hrabovcov (2009). Design of Rotating Electrical Machines (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=_y3LSh1XTJYC& pg=PT232). John Wiley and Sons. p.232. ISBN0-470-69516-1. . [5] Swain, Frank (March 6, 2009). "How to remove a finger with two super magnets" (http:/ / scienceblogs. com/ sciencepunk/ 2009/ 03/ how_to_remove_a_finger_with_tw. php). The Sciencepunk Blog. Seed Media Group LLC. . Retrieved 2009-06-28. [6] "Magnet Safety Alert" (http:/ / www. cpsc. gov/ CPSCPUB/ PUBS/ magnet. pdf). U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission. . Retrieved 7 August 2009. [7] United Parachute Technologies Options Guide: http:/ / www. unitedparachutetechnologies. com/ index. php?option=com_content& task=view& id=22

Further reading
MMPA 0100-00, Standard Specifications for Permanent Magnet Materials (http://www.intl-magnetics.org/ pdfs/0100-00.pdf) K.H.J. Buschow (1998) Permanent-Magnet Materials and their Applications, Trans Tech Publications Ltd., Switzerland, ISBN 0-87849-796-X Campbell, Peter (1994). Permanent Magnet Materials and their Application. New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN0-521-24996-1. Furlani, Edward P. (2001). Permanent Magnet and Electromechanical Devices: Materials, Analysis and Applications. London: Academic Press. ISBN0-12-269951-3. Brown, D (2002). "Developments in the processing and properties of NdFeB-type permanent magnets". Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials 248 (3): 432440. Bibcode2002JMMM..248..432B. doi:10.1016/S0304-8853(02)00334-7. The Dependence of Magnetic Properties and Hot Workability of Rare Earth-Iron-Boride Magnets Upon Composition (http://www.magnequench.com/assets/content/magnequench/mag_ref/mag_pps/pps_040701/ IEEE2004_vMAG40.pdf/).

External links
Magnet Man (http://www.coolmagnetman.com/magindex.htm) Cool experiments with magnets Geeky Rare-Earth Magnets Repel Sharks, Genevieve Rajewski, 05.15.07 , wired.com (http://www.wired.com/ gadgets/miscellaneous/news/2007/05/sharkmagnets) Concern as China clamps down on rare earth exports, Cahal Milmo, 01.02.10, independent.co.uk (http://www. independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/concern-as-china-clamps-down-on-rare-earth-exports-1855387.html)

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Paramagnetism
Paramagnetism is a form of magnetism whereby the paramagnetic material is only attracted when in the presence of an externally applied magnetic field. In contrast with this behavior, diamagnetic materials are repelled by magnetic fields.[1] Paramagnetic materials have a relative magnetic permeability greater or equal to unity (i.e., a positive magnetic susceptibility) and hence are attracted to magnetic fields. The magnetic moment induced by the applied field is linear in the field strength and rather weak. It typically requires a sensitive analytical balance to detect the effect and modern measurements on paramagnetic materials are often conducted with a SQUID magnetometer. Paramagnetic materials have a small, positive susceptibility to magnetic fields. These materials are slightly attracted by a magnetic field and the material does not retain the magnetic properties when the external field is removed. Paramagnetic properties are due to the presence of some unpaired electrons, and from the realignment of the electron paths caused by the external magnetic field. Paramagnetic materials include magnesium, molybdenum, lithium, and tantalum. Unlike ferromagnets, paramagnets do not retain any magnetization in the absence of an externally applied magnetic field, because thermal A trickle of liquid oxygen is deflected by a magnetic field, illustrating its paramagnetic motion randomizes the spin orientations. Some paramagnetic materials property retain spin disorder at absolute zero, meaning they are paramagnetic in the ground state. Thus the total magnetization drops to zero when the applied field is removed. Even in the presence of the field there is only a small induced magnetization because only a small fraction of the spins will be oriented by the field. This fraction is proportional to the field strength and this explains the linear dependency. The attraction experienced by ferromagnetic materials is non-linear and much stronger, so that it is easily observed, for instance, by the attraction between a refrigerator magnet and the iron of the refrigerator itself.

Simple illustration of a paramagnetic probe made up from miniature magnets.

Relation to electron spins

Constituent atoms or molecules of paramagnetic materials have permanent magnetic moments (dipoles), even in the absence of an applied field. The permanent moment generally is due to the spin of unpaired electrons in atomic or molecular electron orbitals (see Magnetic moment). In pure paramagnetism, the dipoles do not interact with one another and are randomly oriented in the absence of an external field due to thermal agitation, resulting in zero net magnetic moment. When a magnetic field is applied, the dipoles will tend to align with the applied field, resulting in a net magnetic moment in the direction of the applied field. In the classical description, this alignment can be understood to occur due to a torque being provided on the magnetic moments by an applied field, which tries to align the dipoles parallel to the applied field. However, the true origins of the alignment can only be understood via the quantum-mechanical properties of spin and angular momentum. If there is sufficient energy exchange between neighbouring dipoles they will interact, and may spontaneously align or anti-align and form magnetic domains, resulting in ferromagnetism (permanent magnets) or antiferromagnetism, respectively. Paramagnetic behavior can also be observed in ferromagnetic materials that are above their Curie temperature, and in antiferromagnets above their Nel temperature. At these temperatures the available thermal energy simply overcomes the interaction energy between the spins.

Paramagnetism In general paramagnetic effects are quite small: the magnetic susceptibility is of the order of 103 to 105 for most paramagnets, but may be as high as 101 for synthetic paramagnets such as ferrofluids.

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Delocalization Selected Pauli-paramagnetic metals[2]

Material Tungsten Cesium Magnetic susceptibility (105) 6.8 5.1

Aluminium 2.2 Lithium 1.4

Magnesium 1.2 Sodium 0.72

In many metallic materials the electrons are itinerant, i.e. they travel through the solid more or less as an electron gas. This behavior results from strong interactions (good orbital overlap in a chemist's vocabulary) between the wave functions of neighboring atoms in the extended lattice structure. The wave functions of the valence electrons thus form a band with equal numbers of spins up and down. When exposed to an external field only those electrons close to the Fermi level will respond and a small surplus of one type of spins will result. This effect is a weak form of paramagnetism known as Pauli-paramagnetism. The effect always competes with a diamagnetic response of opposite sign due to all the core electrons of the atoms. Stronger forms of magnetism usually require localized rather than itinerant electrons. However in some cases a bandstructure can result in which there are two delocalized sub-bands with states of opposite spins that have different energies. If one subband is preferentially filled over the other, one can have itinerant ferromagnetic order. This situation usually only occurs in relatively narrow (d-)bands, which are poorly delocalized. s and p electrons Generally, strong delocalization in a solid due to large overlap with neighboring wave functions tends to lead to pairing of spins (quenching) and thus weak magnetism. This is why s- and p-type metals are typically either Pauli-paramagnetic or as in the case of gold even diamagnetic. In the latter case the diamagnetic contribution from the closed shell inner electrons simply wins from the weak paramagnetic term of the almost free electrons. d and f electrons Stronger magnetic effects are typically only observed when d- or f-electrons are involved. Particularly the latter are usually strongly localized. Moreover the size of the magnetic moment on a lanthanide atom can be quite large as it can carry up to 7 unpaired electrons in the case of gadolinium(III) (hence its use in MRI). This high magnetic moments associated with lanthanides is one reason why superstrong magnets are typically based on elements like neodymium or samarium. Molecular localization Of course the above picture is a generalization as it pertains to materials with an extended lattice rather than a molecular structure. Molecular structure can also lead to localization of electrons. Although there are usually energetic reasons why a molecular structure results such that it does not exhibit partly filled orbitals (i.e. unpaired spins), some non-closed shell moieties do occur in nature. Molecular oxygen is a good example. Even in the frozen solid it contains di-radical molecules resulting in paramagnetic behavior. The unpaired spins reside in orbitals

Paramagnetism derived from oxygen p wave functions, but the overlap is limited to the one neighbor in the O2 molecules. The distances to other oxygen atoms in the lattice remain too large to lead to delocalization and the magnetic moments remain unpaired.

184

Curie's law
For low levels of magnetization, the magnetization of paramagnets follows what is known as Curie's law, at least approximately. This law indicates that the susceptibility of paramagnetic materials is inversely proportional to their temperature, i.e. that materials become more magnetic at lower temperatures. The mathematical expression is:

where: is the resulting magnetization is the magnetic susceptibility is the auxiliary magnetic field, measured in amperes/meter is absolute temperature, measured in kelvins is a material-specific Curie constant Curie's law is valid under the commonly encountered conditions of low magnetization (BH kBT), but does not apply in the high-field/low-temperature regime where saturation of magnetization occurs (BH kBT) and magnetic dipoles are all aligned with the applied field. When the dipoles are aligned, increasing the external field will not increase the total magnetization since there can be no further alignment. For a paramagnetic ion with noninteracting magnetic moments with angular momentum J, the Curie constant is related the individual ions' magnetic moments, . The parameter eff is interpreted as the effective magnetic moment per paramagnetic ion. If one uses a classical treatment with molecular magnetic moments represented as discrete magnetic dipoles, , a Curie Law expression of the same form will emerge with appearing in place of eff. Click "show" to see a derivation of this law: Curie's Law can be derived by considering a substance with noninteracting magnetic moments with angular momentum J. If orbital contributions to the magnetic moment are negligible (a common case), then in what follows J = S. If we apply a magnetic field along what we choose to call the z-axis, the energy levels of each paramagnetic center will experience Zeeman splitting of its energy levels, each with a z-component labeled by MJ (or just MS for the spin-only magnetic case). Applying semiclassical Boltzmann statistics, the molar magnetization of such a substance is

Where

is the z-component of the magnetic moment for each Zeeman level, so

B is

called the Bohr Magneton and gJ is the Land g-factor, which reduces to the free-electron g-factor, gS when J = S. (in this treatment, we assume that the x- and y-components of the magnetization, averaged over all molecules, cancel out because the field applied along the z-axis leave them randomly oriented.) The energy of each Zeeman level is . For temperatures over a few K, , and we can apply the approximation :

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which yields: . The molar , and the molar susceptibility is given by . When orbital angular momentum contributions to the magnetic moment are small, as occurs for most organic radicals or for octahedral transition metal complexes with d3 or high-spin d5 configurations, the effective magnetic moment takes the form (ge = 2.0023... 2), , where n is the number of unpaired electrons. In other transition metal complexes this yields a useful, if somewhat cruder, estimate. bulk magnetization is then

Examples of paramagnets
Materials that are called 'paramagnets' are most often those that exhibit, at least over an appreciable temperature range, magnetic susceptibilities that adhere to the Curie or CurieWeiss laws. In principle any system that contains atoms, ions, or molecules with unpaired spins can be called a paramagnet, but the interactions between them need to be carefully considered.

Systems with minimal interactions

The narrowest definition would be: a system with unpaired spins that do not interact with each other. In this narrowest sense, the only pure paramagnet is a dilute gas of monatomic hydrogen atoms. Each atom has one non-interacting unpaired electron. Of course, the latter could be said about a gas of lithium atoms but these already possess two paired core electrons that produce a diamagnetic response of opposite sign. Strictly speaking Li is a mixed system therefore, although admittedly the diamagnetic component is weak and often neglected. In the case of heavier elements the diamagnetic contribution becomes more important and in the case of metallic gold it dominates the properties. Of course, the element hydrogen is virtually never called 'paramagnetic' because the monatomic gas is stable only at extremely high temperature; H atoms combine to form molecular H2 and in so doing, the magnetic moments are lost (quenched), because the spins pair. Hydrogen is therefore diamagnetic and the same holds true for most elements. Although the electronic configuration of the individual atoms (and ions) of most elements contain unpaired spins, it is not correct to call these elements 'paramagnets' because at ambient temperature quenching is very much the rule rather than the exception. However, the quenching tendency is weakest for f-electrons because f (especially 4f) orbitals are radially contracted and they overlap only weakly with orbitals on adjacent atoms. Consequently, the lanthanide elements with incompletely filled 4f-orbitals are paramagnetic or magnetically ordered.[3]

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eff values for typical d3 and d5 transition metal complexes.[4]

Material [Cr(NH3)6]Br3 K3[Cr(CN)6] K3[MoCl6] K4[V(CN)6] [Mn(NH3)6]Cl2 eff/B 3.77 3.87 3.79 3.78 5.92

(NH4)2[Mn(SO4)2]6H2O 5.92 NH4[Fe(SO4)2]12H2O 5.89

Thus, condensed phase paramagnets are only possible if the interactions of the spins that lead either to quenching or to ordering are kept at bay by structural isolation of the magnetic centers. There are two classes of materials for which this holds: Molecular materials with a (isolated) paramagnetic center. Good examples are coordination complexes of d- or f-metals or proteins with such centers, e.g. myoglobin. In such materials the organic part of the molecule acts as an envelope shielding the spins from their neighbors. Small molecules can be stable in radical form, oxygen O2 is a good example. Such systems are quite rare because they tend to be rather reactive. Dilute systems. Dissolving a paramagnetic species in a diamagnetic lattice at small concentrations, e.g. Nd3+ in CaCl2 will separate the neodymium ions at large enough distances that they do not interact. Such systems are of prime importance for what can be considered the most sensitive method to study paramagnetic systems: EPR.

Systems with interactions

As stated above many materials that contain d- or f-elements do retain unquenched spins. Salts of such elements often show paramagnetic behavior but at low enough temperatures the magnetic moments may order. It is not uncommon to call such materials 'paramagnets', when referring to their paramagnetic behavior above their Curie or Nel-points, particularly if such temperatures are very low or have never been properly measured. Even for iron it is not uncommon to say that iron becomes a paramagnet above its relatively high Curie-point. In that case the Curie-point is Idealized CurieWeiss behavior; N.B. TC=, but TN is not . Paramagnetic seen as a phase transition between a regimes are denoted by solid lines. Close to TN or TC the behavior usually deviates ferromagnet and a 'paramagnet'. The word from ideal. paramagnet now merely refers to the linear response of the system to an applied field, the temperature dependence of which requires an amended version of Curie's law, known as the CurieWeiss law:

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This amended law includes a term that describes the exchange interaction that is present albeit overcome by thermal motion. The sign of depends on whether ferro- or antiferromagnetic interactions dominate and it is seldom exactly zero, except in the dilute, isolated cases mentioned above. Obviously, the paramagnetic CurieWeiss description above TN or TC is a rather different interpretation of the word 'paramagnet' as it does not imply the absence of interactions, but rather that the magnetic structure is random in the absence of an external field at these sufficiently high temperatures. Even if is close to zero this does not mean that there are no interactions, just that the aligning ferro- and the anti-aligning antiferromagnetic ones cancel. An additional complication is that the interactions are often different in different directions of the crystalline lattice (anisotropy), leading to complicated magnetic structures once ordered. Randomness of the structure also applies to the many metals that show a net paramagnetic response over a broad temperature range. They do not follow a Curie type law as function of temperature however, often they are more or less temperature independent. This type of behavior is of an itinerant nature and better called Pauli-paramagnetism, but it is not unusual to see e.g. the metal aluminium called a 'paramagnet', even though interactions are strong enough to give this element very good electrical conductivity.

Superparamagnets
Some materials show induced magnetic behavior that follows a Curie type law but with exceptionally large values for the Curie constants. These materials are known as superparamagnets. They are characterized by a strong ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic type of coupling into domains of a limited size that behave independently from one another. The bulk properties of such a system resembles that of a paramagnet, but on a microscopic level they are ordered. The materials do show an ordering temperature above which the behavior reverts to ordinary paramagnetism (with interaction). Ferrofluids are a good example, but the phenomenon can also occur inside solids, e.g., when dilute paramagnetic centers are introduced in a strong itinerant medium of ferromagnetic coupling such as when Fe is substituted in TlCu2Se2 or the alloy AuFe. Such systems contain ferromagnetically coupled clusters that freeze out at lower temperatures. They are also called mictomagnets.

References
[1] G. L. Miessler and D. A. Tarr Inorganic Chemistry 3rd Ed, Pearson/Prentice Hall publisher, ISBN 0-13-035471-6. [2] Nave, Carl L. "Magnetic Properties of Solids" (http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ Hbase/ tables/ magprop. html). HyperPhysics. . Retrieved 2008-11-09. [3] J. Jensen and A. R. MacKintosh, "Rare Earth Magnetism" (http:/ / www2. nbi. ku. dk/ page40667. htm). . Retrieved 2009-07-12., (Clarendon Press, Oxford: 1991). [4] A. F. Orchard, Magnetochemistry, (Oxford University Press: 2003).

General reference texts

Charles Kittel, Introduction to Solid State Physics (Wiley: New York, 1996). Neil W. Ashcroft and N. David Mermin, Solid State Physics (Harcourt: Orlando, 1976). John David Jackson, Classical Electrodynamics (Wiley: New York, 1999).

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External links
http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/MagParticle/Physics/MagneticMatls.htm

Plastic magnet
A plastic magnet is a non-metallic magnet made from an organic polymer. One example is PANiCNQ, which is a combination of emeraldine-based polyaniline (PANi) and tetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQ). When it was created by researchers Dr. Naveed Zaidi, at the University of Durham in 2004 it was the first magnetic polymer to function at room temperature.[1] PANi is a conductive polymer that is stable in air. When combined with the free radical-forming TCNQ as an acceptor molecule, it can mimic the mechanism of metallic magnets. The magnetic properties arise from the fully pi-conjugated nitrogen-containing backbone combined with molecular charge transfer side groups. These properties cause the molecule to have a high density of localized spins that can give rise to coupling of their magnetic fields. When this polymer magnet is synthesized, the polymer chains need 3 months to line up before displaying any notable magnetism. Plastic magnets could have uses in computer hardware, for example as disc drives and in medical devices such as pacemakers and cochlear implants where the organic material is more likely to be biocompatible than its metallic counterpart. In February 2002, researchers from Ohio State University & University of Utah developed the world's first light-tunable plastic magnet.[2] The plastic material became 1.5 times more magnetic when blue light shines on it. Green laser light reversed the effect somewhat, by decreasing the material's magnetism to 60 percent of its normal level. The plastic magnet was made from a polymer made of tetracyanoethylene (TCNE) combined with manganese (Mn) ions -- atoms of the metal manganese with electrons removed. The magnet functioned up to a temperature of 75 K (about -200C, or -325F).

Notes
[1] Naveed A. Zaidi; S.R. Giblin; I. Terry; A.P. Monkman (2004). "Room temperature magnetic order in an organic magnet derived from polyaniline" (https:/ / www. dur. ac. uk/ ian. terry/ teaching/ Level4Projects/ Polymer_45_5683. pdf). Polymer 45 (16): 5683-5689. . Retrieved 2012-04-02. [2] Pam Frost Gorder (Feb 1, 2002). "Researchers Develop World's First Light-tunable 'Plastic' Magnet" (http:/ / researchnews. osu. edu/ archive/ magnetun. htm). Ohio State University. . Retrieved 2012-04-02.

External links
Matthew Killeya (30 August 2004). "First practical plastic magnets created" (http://www.newscientist.com/ article.ns?id=dn6326). New Scientist. Retrieved 2012-04-02. Duan A. Pejakovi; Chitoshi Kitamura; Joel S. Miller; Arthur J. Epstein (2002). "Photoinduced Magnetization in the Organic-Based Magnet Mn(TCNE)xy(CH2Cl2)". Physical Review Letters 88 (5): 057202. Bibcode2002PhRvL..88e7202P. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.88.057202.

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Rare-earth magnet
Rare-earth magnets are strong permanent magnets made from alloys of rare earth elements. Developed in the 1970s and 80s, rare-earth magnets are the strongest type of permanent magnets made, producing significantly stronger magnetic fields than other types such as ferrite or alnico magnets. The magnetic field typically produced by rare-earth magnets can be in excess of 1.4 teslas, whereas ferrite or ceramic magnets typically exhibit fields of 0.5 to 1 tesla. There are two types: neodymium magnets and samarium-cobalt magnets. Rare earth magnets are extremely brittle and also vulnerable to corrosion, so they are usually plated or coated to protect them from breaking and chipping.

Ferrofluid on glass, with a rare-earth magnet underneath.

The term "rare earth" can be misleading as these metals are not particularly rare or precious;[1][2] they are about as abundant as tin or lead.[3] The development of rare earth magnets began around 1966, when K. J. Strnat and G. Hoffer of the US Air Force Materials Laboratory discovered that an alloy of yttrium and cobalt, YCo5, had by far the largest magnetic anisotropy constant of any material then known.[4][5]

Explanation of strength
The rare earth (lanthanide) elements are metals that are ferromagnetic, meaning that like iron they can be magnetized, but their Curie temperatures are below room temperature, so in pure form their magnetism only appears at low temperatures. However, they form compounds with the transition metals such as iron, nickel, and cobalt, and some of these have Curie temperatures well above room temperature. Rare earth magnets are made from these compounds. The advantage of the rare earth compounds over other magnets is that their crystalline structures have very high magnetic anisotropy. This means that a crystal of the material is easy to magnetize in one particular direction, but resists being magnetized in any other direction. Atoms of rare earth elements can retain high magnetic moments in the solid state. This is a consequence of incomplete filling of the f-shell, which can contain up to 7 unpaired electrons with aligned spins. Electrons in such orbitals are strongly localized and therefore easily retain their magnetic moments and function as paramagnetic centers. Magnetic moments in other orbitals are often lost due to strong overlap with the neighbors; for example, electrons participating in covalent bonds form pairs with zero net spin. High magnetic moments at the atomic level in combination with a stable alignment (high anisotropy) results in high strength.

Magnetic properties
Some important properties used to compare permanent magnets are: remanence (Br), which measures the strength of the magnetic field; coercivity (Hci), the material's resistance to becoming demagnetized; energy product (BHmax), the density of magnetic energy; and Curie temperature (Tc), the temperature at which the material loses its magnetism. Rare earth magnets have higher remanence, much higher coercivity and energy product, but (for neodymium) lower Curie temperature than other types. The table below compares the magnetic performance of the two types of rare earth magnet, neodymium (Nd2Fe14B) and samarium-cobalt (SmCo5), with other types of permanent magnets.

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Magnet Nd2Fe14B (sintered) Nd2Fe14B (bonded) SmCo5 (sintered)

Br (T) 1.01.4 0.60.7 0.81.1

Hci (kA/m) (BH) (kJ/m3) max 7502000 6001200 6002000 200440 60100 120200 150240 1088 1040

Tc (C) 310400 310400 720 800 700860 450

Sm(Co,Fe,Cu,Zr)7 (sintered) 0.91.15 4501300 Alnico (sintered) Sr-ferrite (sintered) 0.61.4 0.20.4 275 100300

Types
Samarium-cobalt
Samarium-cobalt magnets (chemical formula: SmCo5), the first family of rare earth magnets invented, are less used than neodymium magnets because of their higher cost and weaker magnetic field strength. However, samarium-cobalt has a higher Curie temperature, creating a niche for these magnets in applications where high field strength is needed at high operating temperatures. They are highly resistant to oxidation, but sintered samarium-cobalt magnets are brittle and prone to chipping and cracking and may fracture when subjected to thermal shock.

Neodymium
Neodymium magnets, invented in the 1980s, are the strongest and most affordable type of rare-earth magnet. They are made of an alloy of neodymium, iron and boron: (Nd2Fe14B) Neodymium magnets are used in numerous applications requiring strong, compact permanent magnets, such as electric motors for cordless tools, hard drives, and magnetic holddowns and jewelry clasps. They have the highest magnetic field strength and have a higher coercivity (which makes them magnetically stable), but have lower Curie temperature and are more vulnerable to oxidation than samarium-cobalt magnets. Use of protective surface treatments such as gold, nickel, zinc and tin plating and epoxy resin coating can provide corrosion protection where required.

Neodymium magnet with nickel plate mostly removed

Originally, the high cost of these magnets limited their use to applications requiring compactness together with high field strength. Both raw materials and patent licenses were expensive. Beginning in the 1990s, NIB magnets have become steadily less expensive, and the low cost has inspired new uses such as magnetic building toys.

Hazards
The greater force exerted by rare earth magnets creates hazards that are not seen with other types of magnet. Magnets larger than a few centimeters are strong enough to cause injuries to body parts pinched between two magnets, or a magnet and a metal surface, even causing broken bones.[6] Magnets allowed to get too near each other can strike each other with enough force to chip and shatter the brittle material, and the flying chips can cause injuries. There have even been cases where young children who have swallowed several magnets have had a fold of the digestive tract pinched between the magnets, causing injury and in one case intestines perforations, sepsis and death.[7]

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Applications
Since their prices became competitive in the 1990s, neodymium magnets have been replacing Alnico and ferrite magnets in the many applications in modern technology requiring powerful magnets. Their greater strength allows smaller and lighter magnets to be used for a given application.

Common applications
Common applications of rare-earth magnets include: computer hard drives wind turbine generators audio speakers / headphones bicycle dynamos fishing reel brakes permanent magnet motors in cordless tools self-powered flashlights, employing rare earth magnets for generating electricity in a shaking motion

Other applications
Other applications of rare-earth magnets include: Linear motors (used in Mag-lev trains, etc.) Stop motion animation as tie-downs when the use of traditional screw and nut tie-downs is impractical Diamagnetic levitation experimentation, the study of magnetic field dynamics and superconductor levitation Electrodynamic bearings Launched roller coaster technology found on roller coaster and other thrill rides LED throwies, small LEDs attached to a coin battery and a rare earth magnet Electric guitar pickups Miniature figures, in particular Warhammer 40,000 and Warhammer Fantasy Battle, for which rare-earth magnets have gained popularity in the miniatures gaming community for their small size and relative strength assisting in swapping weapons between models Windbelts for electricity generation through electromagnetic induction and aeroelastic flutter principles

References
[1] McCaig, Malcolm (1977). Permanent Magnets in Theory and Practice. USA: Wiley. pp.123. ISBN0-7273-1604-4. [2] Sigel, Astrid; Helmut Sigel (2003). The lanthanides and their interrelations with biosystems. USA: CRC Press. pp.v. ISBN0-8247-4245-1. [3] Bobber, Robert J. (1981). "New types of transducers". Underwater acoustics and signal processing: proceedings of the NATO Advanced Study Institute held at Kollekolle, Copenhagen, Denmark, August 1829, 1980. USA: Springer. pp.251252. [4] Cullity, B. D.; C. D. Graham (2008). Introduction to Magnetic Materials (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=ixAe4qIGEmwC& pg=PA489). Wiley-IEEE. pp.489. ISBN0-471-47741-9. . [5] Lovelace, Alan M. (March-April 1971). "More Mileage Than Programmed From Military R&D" (http:/ / www. airpower. au. af. mil/ airchronicles/ aureview/ 1971/ mar-apr/ Lovelace. html). Air University Review (US Air Force) 22 (3): 14-23. . Retrieved July 4, 2012. [6] Swain, Frank (March 6, 2009). "How to remove a finger with two super magnets" (http:/ / scienceblogs. com/ sciencepunk/ 2009/ 03/ how_to_remove_a_finger_with_tw. php). The Sciencepunk Blog. Seed Media Group LLC. . Retrieved 2009-06-28. [7] "Magnet Safety Alert" (http:/ / www. cpsc. gov/ CPSCPUB/ PUBS/ magnet. pdf). U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission. . Retrieved 7 August 2009.

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Further reading
Edward P. Furlani, "Permanent Magnet and Electromechanical Devices: Materials, Analysis and Applications", Academic Press Series in Electromagnetism (2001). ISBN 0-12-269951-3. Peter Campbell, "Permanent Magnet Materials and their Application" (Cambridge Studies in Magnetism)(1996). ISBN 978-0-521-56688-9. Brown, D.N.; B. Smith, B.M. Ma, P. Campbell (2004). "The Dependence of Magnetic Properties and Hot Workability of Rare Earth-Iron-Boride Magnets Upon Composition" (http://www.magnequench.com/assets/ content/magnequench/mag_ref/mag_pps/pps_040701/IEEE2004_vMAG40.pdf). IEEE Transactions on Magnetics 40 (4): 28952897. Bibcode2004ITM....40.2895B. doi:10.1109/TMAG.2004.832240. ISSN0018-9464.

External links
MMPA 0100-00, Standard Specifications for Permanent Magnet Materials (http://www.intl-magnetics.org/ pdfs/0100-00.pdf) Edwards, Lin (22 March 2010). "Iron-nitrogen compound forms strongest magnet known" (http://www.physorg. com/news188458077.html). PhysOrg.

Single-molecule magnet
Single-molecule magnets or SMMs are a class of metalorganic compounds, that show superparamagnetic behavior below a certain blocking temperature at the molecular scale. In this temperature range, SMMs exhibit magnetic hysteresis of purely molecular origin.[1] Contrary to conventional bulk magnets and molecule-based magnets, collective long-range magnetic ordering of magnetic moments is not necessary.[1]

Intramolecular coupling
The magnetic coupling between the spins of the metal ions is mediated via superexchange interactions and can be described by the following isotropic Heisenberg Hamiltonian:

where

is the coupling constant between spin i (operator

) and spin j (operator

). For positive J the

coupling is called ferromagnetic (parallel alignment of spins) and for negative J the coupling is called antiferromagnetic (antiparallel alignment of spins). a high spin ground state, a high zero-field-splitting (due to high magnetic anisotropy), and negligible magnetic interaction between molecules. The combination of these properties can lead to an energy barrier so that, at low temperatures, the system can be trapped in one of the high-spin energy wells.[1] "These molecules contain a finite number of interacting spin centers (e.g. paramagnetic ions) and thus provide ideal opportunities to study basic concepts of magnetism. Some of them possess magnetic ground states and give rise to hysteresis effects and metastable magnetic phases. They may show quantum tunneling of the magnetization which raises the question of coherent dynamics in such systems. Other types of molecules exhibit pronounced frustration effects[2], whereas so-called spin crossover substances can switch their magnetic ground state and related properties such as color under irradiation of laser light, pressure or heat. Scientists from various fields chemistry, physics; theory and experiment have joined the research on molecular magnetism in order to explore the unprecedented

Single-molecule magnet properties of these new compounds."[3] "Single-molecule magnets (SMMs) have many important advantages over conventional nanoscale magnetic particles composed of metals, metal alloys or metal oxides. These advantages include uniform size, solubility in organic solvents, and readily alterable peripheral ligands, among others."[4] "A single molecule magnet is an example of a macroscopic quantum system. [...] If we could detect spin flips in a single atom or molecule, we could use the spin to store information. This would enable us to increase the storage capacity of computer hard disks. [...] A good starting point for trying to detect spin flips is to find a molecule with a spin of several Bohr magnetons. [An electron has an intrinsic magnetic dipole moment of approximately one Bohr magneton.] There is a very well studied molecular magnet, Mn12-acetate, which has a spin S = 10 (Figure 3). This molecule is a disc-shaped organic molecule in which twelve Mn ions are embedded. Eight of these form a ring, each having a charge of +3 and a spin S = 2. The other four form a tetrahedron, each having a charge of +4 and a spin S = 3/2. The exchange interactions within the molecule are such that the spins of the ring align themselves in opposition to the spins of the tetrahedron, giving the molecule a total net spin S = 10."[5]

193

Blocking temperature
Measurements take place at very low temperatures. The so-called blocking temperature is defined as the temperature below which the relaxation of the magnetisation becomes slow compared to the time scale of a particular investigation technique.[6] A molecule magnetised at 2 K will keep 40% of its magnetisation after 2 months and by lowering the temperature to 1.5 K this will take 40 years.[6]

Future applications
As of 2008 there are many discovered types and potential uses. "Single molecule magnets (SMM) are a class of molecules exhibiting magnetic properties similar to those observed in conventional bulk magnets, but of molecular origin. SMMs have been proposed as potential candidates for several technological applications that require highly controlled thin films and patterns."[7] "The ability of a single molecule to behave like a tiny magnet (single molecular magnets, SMMs) has seen a rapid growth in research over the last few years. SMMs represent the smallest possible magnetic devices and are a controllable, bottom-up approach to nanoscale magnetism. Potential applications of SMMs include quantum computing, high-density information storage and magnetic refrigeration."[8] "A single molecule magnet is an example of a macroscopic quantum system. [...] If we could detect spin flips in a single atom or molecule, we could use the spin to store information. This would enable us to increase the storage capacity of computer hard disks. [...] A good starting point for trying to detect spin flips is to find a molecule with a spin of several Bohr magnetons. [An electron has an intrinsic magnetic dipole moment of approximately one Bohr magneton.] There is a very well studied molecular magnet, Mn12-acetate, which has a spin S = 10 (Figure 3). This molecule is a disc-shaped organic molecule in which One possible use of SMMs is superior magnetic twelve Mn ions are embedded. Eight of these form a ring, each having thin films to coat hard disks. a charge of +3 and a spin S = 2. The other four form a tetrahedron, each having a charge of +4 and a spin S = 3/2. The exchange interactions within the molecule are such that the spins of the ring align themselves in opposition to the spins of the tetrahedron, giving the molecule a total net spin S = 10."[9]

Single-molecule magnet

194

Types
The archetype of single-molecule magnets is called "Mn12". It is a polymetallic manganese (Mn) complex having the formula [Mn12O12(OAc)16(H2O)4], where OAc stands for acetate. It has the remarkable property of showing an extremely slow relaxation of their magnetization below a blocking temperature.[10] [Mn12O12(OAc)16(H2O)4]4H2O2AcOH which is called "Mn12-acetate" is a common form of this used in research. "Mn4" is another researched type single-molecule magnet. Three of these are:[11] [Mn4(hmp)6(NO3)2(MeCN)2](ClO4)22MeCN [Mn4(hmp)6(NO3)4](MeCN) [Mn4(hmp)4(acac)2(MeO)2](ClO4)22MeOH
Ferritin

In each of these Mn4 complexes "there is a planar diamond core of MnIII2MnII2 ions. An analysis of the variable-temperature and variable-field magnetization data indicate that all three molecules have intramolecular ferromagnetic coupling and a S = 9 ground state. The presence of a frequency-dependent alternating current susceptibility signal indicates a significant energy barrier between the spin-up and spin-down states for each of these three MnIII2MnII2 complexes."[11] Single-molecule magnets are also based on iron clusters[6] because they potentially have large spin states. In addition the biomolecule ferritin is also considered a nanomagnet. In the cluster Fe8Br the cation Fe8 stands for [Fe8O2(OH)12(tacn)6]8+ with tacn representing 1,4,7-triazacyclononane.

History
Although the term "single-molecule magnet" was first employed by David Hendrickson, a chemist at the University of California, San Diego and George Christou (Indiana University) in 1996,[12] the first single-molecule magnet reported dates back to 1991.[13] The European researchers discovered that a Mn12O12(MeCO2)16(H2O)4 complex (Mn12Ac16) first synthesized in 1980[14] exhibits slow relaxation of the magnetization at low temperatures. This manganese oxide compound is composed of a central Mn(IV)4O4 cube surrounded by a ring of 8 Mn(III) units connected through bridging oxo ligands. In addition, it has 16 acetate and 4 water ligands.[15] It was known in 2006 that the "deliberate structural distortion of a Mn6 compound via the use of a bulky salicylaldoxime derivative switches the intra-triangular magnetic exchange from antiferromagnetic to ferromagnetic resulting in an S = 12 ground state.[16] A record magnetization was reported in 2007 for a compound related to MnAc12 ([Mn(III) O (sao)6(O2CPh)2(EtOH)4]) with S = 12, D = -0.43cm1 and hence U = 62cm1 or 86 K[17] at a blocking 6 2 temperature of 4.3 K. This was accomplished by replacing acetate ligands by the bulkier salicylaldoxime thus distorting the manganese ligand sphere. It is prepared by mixing the perchlorate of manganese, the sodium salt of benzoic acid, a salicylaldoxime derivate and tetramethylammonium hydroxide in water and collecting the filtrate.

Single-molecule magnet

195

Detailed behavior
Molecular magnets exhibit an increasing product (magnetic susceptibility times temperature) with decreasing temperature, and can be characterized by a shift both in position and intensity of the a.c. magnetic susceptibility. Single-molecule magnets represent a molecular approach to nanomagnets (nanoscale magnetic particles). In addition, single-molecule magnets have provided physicists with useful test-beds for the study of quantum mechanics. Macroscopic quantum tunneling of the magnetization was first observed in Mn12O12, characterized by evenly-spaced steps in the hysteresis curve. The periodic quenching of this tunneling rate in the compound Fe8 has been observed and explained with geometric phases. Due to the typically large, bi-stable spin anisotropy, single-molecule magnets promise the realization of perhaps the smallest practical unit for magnetic memory, and thus are possible building blocks for a quantum computer. Consequently, many groups have devoted great efforts into synthesis of additional single molecule magnets; however, the Mn12O12 complex and analogous complexes remain the canonical single molecule magnet with a 50cm1 spin anisotropy. The spin anisotropy manifests itself as an energy barrier that spins must overcome when they switch from parallel alignment to antiparallel alignment. This barrier (U) is defined as: where S is the dimensionless total spin state and D the zero-field splitting parameter (in cm1); D can be negative but only its absolute value is considered in the equation. The barrier U is generally reported in cm1 units or in units of Kelvin (see: electronvolt). The higher the barrier the longer a material remains magnetized and a high barrier is obtained when the molecule contains many unpaired electrons and when its zero field splitting value is large. For example, the MnAc12 cluster the spin state is 10 (involving 20 unpaired electrons) and D = -0.5cm1 resulting in a barrier of 50cm1 (equivalent to 60 K).[18] The effect is also observed by hysteresis experienced when magnetization is measured in a magnetic field sweep: on lowering the magnetic field again after reaching the maximum magnetization the magnetization remains at high levels and it requires a reversed field to bring magnetization back to zero. Recently, it has been reported that the energy barrier, U, is slightly dependent on Mn12 crystal size/morphology, as well as the magnetization relaxation times, which varies as function of particle size and size distributions .[19]

References
[1] Introduction to Molecular Magnetism by Dr. Joris van Slageren (http:/ / obelix. physik. uni-bielefeld. de/ ~schnack/ molmag/ material/ 123. pdf) [2] Frustrated Magnets (http:/ / www. ifw-dresden. de/ institutes/ iff/ research/ TMO/ frustrated-magnets), Leibniz Institute for Solid State and Materials Research, Dresden, Germany [3] Molecular Magnetism Web (http:/ / obelix. physik. uni-bielefeld. de/ ~schnack/ molmag/ introduction. html) Introduction page [4] ScienceDaily (Mar. 27, 2000) (http:/ / www. sciencedaily. com/ releases/ 2000/ 03/ 000327084104. htm) article Several New Single-Molecule Magnets Discovered [5] National Physical Laboratory (UK) (http:/ / www. npl. co. uk/ server. php?show=ConWebDoc. 1175) Home > Science + Technology > Quantum Phenomena > Nanophysics > Research article Molecular Magnets [6] Single-molecule magnets based on iron(III) oxo clusters Dante Gatteschi, Roberta Sessoli and Andrea Cornia Chem. Commun., 2000, 725 732, doi:10.1039/a908254i [7] Cavallini, Massimiliano; Facchini, Massimo; Albonetti, Cristiano; Biscarini, Fabio (2008). "Single molecule magnets: from thin films to nano-patterns". Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics 10 (6): 784. Bibcode2008PCCP...10..784C. doi:10.1039/b711677b. PMID18231680. [8] Beautiful new single molecule magnets (http:/ / www. rsc. org/ Publishing/ Journals/ dt/ News/ b716355jpersp. asp), 26 March 2008 summary of the article Milios, Constantinos J.; Piligkos, Stergios; Brechin, Euan K. (2008). "Ground state spin-switching via targeted structural distortion: twisted single-molecule magnets from derivatised salicylaldoximes". Dalton Transactions (14): 1809. doi:10.1039/b716355j. [9] National Physical Laboratory (UK) (http:/ / www. npl. co. uk/ server. php?show=ConWebDoc. 1175) Home > Science + Technology > Quantum Phenomena > Nanophysics > Research article Molecular Magnets

Single-molecule magnet
[10] IPCMS Liquid-crystalline Single Molecule Magnets (http:/ / www-ipcms. u-strasbg. fr/ spip. php?article1341) summary of the article Terazzi, Emmanuel; Bourgogne, Cyril; Welter, Richard; Gallani, Jean-Louis; Guillon, Daniel; Rogez, Guillaume; Donnio, Bertrand (2008). "Single-Molecule Magnets with Mesomorphic Lamellar Ordering". Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 47 (3): 490495. doi:10.1002/anie.200704460. [11] Yang, E (2003). "Mn4 single-molecule magnets with a planar diamond core and S=9". Polyhedron 22 (1417): 1857. doi:10.1016/S0277-5387(03)00173-6. [12] Aubin, Sheila M. J.; Wemple, Michael W.; Adams, David M.; Tsai, Hui-Lien; Christou, George; Hendrickson, David N. (1996). "Distorted MnIVMnIII3Cubane Complexes as Single-Molecule Magnets". Journal of the American Chemical Society 118 (33): 7746. doi:10.1021/ja960970f. [13] Caneschi, Andrea; Gatteschi, Dante; Sessoli, Roberta; Barra, Anne Laure; Brunel, Louis Claude; Guillot, Maurice (1991). "Alternating current susceptibility, high field magnetization, and millimeter band EPR evidence for a ground S = 10 state in [Mn12O12(Ch3COO)16(H2O)4].2CH3COOH.4H2O". Journal of the American Chemical Society 113 (15): 5873. doi:10.1021/ja00015a057. [14] Lis, T. (1980). "Preparation, structure, and magnetic properties of a dodecanuclear mixed-valence manganese carboxylate". Acta Crystallographica Section B Structural Crystallography and Crystal Chemistry 36 (9): 2042. doi:10.1107/S0567740880007893. [15] Chemistry of Nanostructured Materials; Yang, P., Ed.; World Scientific Publishing: Hong Kong, 2003. [16] Milios, Constantinos J.; Vinslava, Alina; Wood, Peter A.; Parsons, Simon; Wernsdorfer, Wolfgang; Christou, George; Perlepes, Spyros P.; Brechin, Euan K. (2007). "A Single-Molecule Magnet with a Twist". Journal of the American Chemical Society 129 (1): 8. doi:10.1021/ja0666755. PMID17199262. [17] Milios, Constantinos J.; Vinslava, Alina; Wernsdorfer, Wolfgang; Moggach, Stephen; Parsons, Simon; Perlepes, Spyros P.; Christou, George; Brechin, Euan K. (2007). "A Record Anisotropy Barrier for a Single-Molecule Magnet". Journal of the American Chemical Society 129 (10): 2754. doi:10.1021/ja068961m. PMID17309264. [18] del Barco, E.; Kent, A. D.; Hill, S.; North, J. M.; Dalal, N. S.; Rumberger, E. M.; Hendrickson, D. N.; Chakov, N. et al. (2005). "Magnetic Quantum Tunneling in the Single-Molecule Magnet Mn12-Acetate". Journal of Low Temperature Physics 140 (1/2): 119. Bibcode2005JLTP..140..119B. doi:10.1007/s10909-005-6016-3. [19] Munt, Mara; Gmez-Segura, Jordi; Campo, Javier; Nakano, Motohiro; Ventosa, Nora; Ruiz-Molina, Daniel; Veciana, Jaume (2006). "Controlled crystallization of Mn12 single-molecule magnets by compressed CO2 and its influence on the magnetization relaxation". Journal of Materials Chemistry 16 (26): 2612. doi:10.1039/b603497g.

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External links
European Institute of Molecular Magnetism EIMM (http://www.eimm.eu/) MAGMANet (Molecular Approach to Nanomagnets and Multifunctional Materials) (http://www.unizar.es/ magmanet/magmanet-eu/), a Network of centres of Excellence, coordinated by the INSTM Consorzio Interuniversitario Nazionale per la Scienza e la Tecnologia dei Materiali Molecular Magnetism Web (http://www.molmag.de/), Jrgen Schnack

Spin glass

197

Spin glass

Schematic representation of the random spin structure of a spin glass (top) and the ordered one of a ferromagnet (bottom)

Glass (amorphous SiO2)

Quartz (crystalline SiO2)

A spin glass is a disordered magnet with frustrated interactions, augmented by stochastic positions of the spins, where conflicting interactions, namely both ferromagnetic and also antiferromagnetic bonds, are randomly distributed with comparable frequency. The term "glass" in the bold-printed title name refers to the fact that its magnetic disorder brings to mind the positional disorder of a conventional, chemical glass, e.g., a window glass. Whereas, however, these are typically nonmagnetic, here the "glass property" refers essentially to the magnetic properties only, i.e. to the spin structure only. Spin glasses display many metastable structures leading to a plenitude of time scales which are difficult to explore experimentally or in simulations.

Spin glass

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Magnetic behavior
It is the time dependence which distinguishes spin glasses from other magnetic systems. Above the spin glass transition temperature, Tc,[1] the spin glass exhibits typical magnetic behaviour (such as paramagnetism). If a magnetic field is applied as the sample is cooled to the transition temperature, magnetization of the sample increases as described by the Curie law. Upon reaching Tc, the sample becomes a spin glass and further cooling results in little change in magnetization. This is referred to as the field-cooled magnetization. When the external magnetic field is removed, the magnetization of the spin glass falls rapidly to a lower value known as the remanent magnetization. Magnetization then decays slowly as it approaches zero (or some small fraction of the original valuethis remains unknown). This decay is non-exponential and no simple function can fit the curve of magnetization versus time adequately. This slow decay is particular to spin glasses. Experimental measurements on the order of days have shown continual changes above the noise level of instrumentation. Spin glasses differ from ferromagnetic materials by the fact that after the external magnetic field is removed from a ferromagnetic substance, the magnetization remains indefinitely at the remanent value. Paramagnetic materials differ from spin glasses by the fact that, after the external magnetic field is removed, the magnetization rapidly falls to zero, with no remanent magnetization. In each case the decay is rapid and exponential. If the sample is cooled below Tc in the absence of an external magnetic field and a magnetic field is applied after the transition to the spin glass phase, there is a rapid initial increase to a value called the zero-field-cooled magnetization. A slow upward drift then occurs toward the field-cooled magnetization. Surprisingly, the sum of the two complex functions of time (the zero-field-cooled and remanent magnetizations) is a constant, namely the field-cooled value, and thus both share identical functional forms with time (Nordblad et al.), at least in the limit of very small external fields.

EdwardsAnderson model
In this model, we have spins arranged on a -dimensional lattice with only nearest neighbor interactions similar to the Ising model. This model can be solved exactly for the critical temperatures and a glassy phase is observed to exist at low temperatures.[2] The Hamiltonian for this spin system is given by:

where

refers to the Pauli spin matrix for the spin-half particle at lattice point and

. A negative value of

denotes

an antiferromagnetic type interaction between spins at points positions on a lattice, of any dimension. The variables

. The sum runs over all nearest neighbor

magnetic nature of the spin-spin interactions are called

bond or link variables. In order to determine the partition function for this system, one needs to average the free energy distribution of values of where is taken to be a gaussian with a mean , over all possible values of and a variance : . The

Solving for the free energy using the replica method, below a certain temperature, a new magnetic phase called the spin glass phase (or glassy phase) of the system is found to exist which is characterized by a vanishing magnetization along with a non-vanishing value of the two point correlation function between spins at the same lattice point but at two different replicas: , where are replica incides. The order parameter for

Spin glass the ferromagnetic to spin glass phase transition is therefore , and that for paramagnetic to spin glass is again and

199 . Hence

the new set of order parameters describing the three magnetic phases constitutes of both

. Free energy of this

system can be found, both under assumptions of replica symmetry as well as considering replica symmetry breaking. Under the assumption of replica symmetry, the free energy is given by the expression:

The model of Sherrington and Kirkpatrick

In addition to unusual experimental properties, spin glasses are the subject of extensive theoretical and computational investigations. A substantial part of early theoretical work on spin glasses dealt with a form of mean field theory based on a set of replicas of the partition function of the system. An important, exactly solvable model of a spin glass was introduced by D. Sherrington and S. Kirkpatrick in 1975. It is an Ising model with long range frustrated ferro- as well as antiferromagnetic couplings. It corresponds to a mean field approximation of spin glasses describing the slow dynamics of the magnetization and the complex non-ergodic equilibrium state. Unlike the EdwardsAnderson (EA) model, in the system though only two spins interactions are considered, the range of each interaction can be potentially infinite (of the order of the size of the lattice). Therefore we see that any two spins can be lined with a ferromagnetic or an antiferromagnetic bond and the distribution of these is given exactly as in the case of EdwardsAnderson model. The Hamiltonian for SK model is very similar to the EA model:

where

have same meanings as in the EA model. The equilibrium solution of the model, after some

initial attempts by Sherrington, Kirkpatrick and others, was found by Giorgio Parisi in 1979 within the replica method. The subsequent work of interpretation of the Parisi solutionby M. Mezard, G. Parisi, M.A. Virasoro and many othersrevealed the complex nature of a glassy low temperature phase characterized by ergodicity breaking, ultrametricity and non-selfaverageness. Further developments led to the creation of the cavity method, which allowed study of the low temperature phase without replicas. A rigorous proof of the Parisi solution has been provided in the work of Francesco Guerra and Michel Talagrand. The formalism of replica mean field theory has also been applied in the study of neural networks, where it has enabled calculations of properties such as the storage capacity of simple neural network architectures without requiring a training algorithm (such as backpropagation) to be designed or implemented. More realistic spin glass models with short range frustrated interactions and disorder, like the Gaussian model where the couplings between neighboring spins follow a Gaussian distribution, have been studied extensively as well, especially using Monte Carlo simulations. These models display spin glass phases bordered by sharp phase transitions. Besides its relevance in condensed matter physics, spin glass theory has acquired a strongly interdisciplinary character, with applications to neural network theory, computer science, theoretical biology, econophysics etc.

Spin glass

200

Infinite-range model
The infinite-range model is a generalization of the SherringtonKirkpatrik model where we not only consider two spin interactions but -spin interactions, where and is the total number of spins. Unlike the EdwardsAnderson model, similar to the SK model, the interaction range is still infinite. The Hamiltonian for this model is described by:

where

have similar meanings as in the EA model. The

limit of this model is known

as the Random energy model. In this limit, it can be seen that the probability of the spin glass existing in a particular state, depends only on the energy of that state and not on the individual spin configurations in it. A gaussian distribution of magnetic bonds across the lattice is assumed usually to solve this model. Any other distribution is expected to give the same result, as a consequence of the central limit theorem. The gaussian distribution function, with mean and variance , is given as:

The order parameters for this system are given by the magnetization and the two point spin correlation between spins at the same site , in two different replicas, which are the same as for the SK model. This infinite range model can be solved explicitly for the free energy[2] in terms of symmetry as well as 1-Replica Symmetry Breaking.
[2]

and

, under the assumption of replica

Non-ergodic behavior and applications

A so-called non-ergodic behavior happens in spin glasses below the freezing temperature , since below that temperature the system cannot escape from the ultradeep minima of the hierarchically-disordered energy landscape.[3] Although the freezing temperature is typically as low as 30 kelvin (240 degrees Celsius), so that the spin glass magnetism appears to be practically without applications in daily life, there are applications in different contexts, e.g. in the already mentioned theory of neural networks, i.e. in theoretical brain research, and in the mathematical-economical theory of optimization.

Notes
[1] is identical with the so-called "freezing temperature" [2] Nishimori, Hidetoshi (2001). Statistical Physics of Spin Glasses and Information Processing: An Introduction (http:/ / preterhuman. net/ texts/ science_and_technology/ physics/ Statistical_physics/ Statistical physics of spin glasses and information processing an introduction Nishimori H. . pdf). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp.243. ISBN0-19-850940-5, 9780198509400. . [3] The hierarchical disorder of the energy landscape may be verbally characterized by a single sentence: in this landscape there are "(random) valleys within still deeper (random) valleys within still deeper (random) valleys, ..., etc,"

Spin glass

201

References Literature
Sherrington, David; Kirkpatrick, Scott (1975), "Solvable model of a spin-glass", Physics Review Letters 35 (26): 17921796, Bibcode1975PhRvL..35.1792S, doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.35.1792. Papercore Summary http:// papercore.org/Sherrington1975 (http://papercore.org/Sherrington1975) Nordblad, P.; Lundgren, L.; Sandlund, L. (1986), "A link between the relaxation of the zero field cooled and the thermoremanent magnetizations in spin glasses", Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials 54: 185186, Bibcode1986JMMM...54..185N, doi:10.1016/0304-8853(86)90543-3. Binder, K.; Young, A. P. (1986), "Spin glasses: Experimental facts, theoretical concepts, and open questions", Reviews of Modern Physics 58: 801976, Bibcode1986RvMP...58..801B, doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.58.801. Bryngelson, Joseph D.; Wolynes, Peter G. (1987), "Spin glasses and the statistical mechanics of protein folding", Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 84: 75247528, Bibcode1987PNAS...84.7524B, doi:10.1073/pnas.84.21.7524. Fischer, K. H.; Hertz, J. A. (1991), Spin Glasses, Cambridge University Press. Mezard, Marc; Parisi, Giorgio; Virasoro, Miguel Angel (1987), Spin glass theory and beyond, Singapore: World Scientific, ISBN9971-5-0115-5. Mydosh, J. A. (1995), Spin Glasses, Taylor & Francis. Parisi, G. (1980), "The order parameter for spin glasses: a function on the interval 0-1", J. Phys. A: Math. Gen. 13: 1101-1112, Bibcode1980JPhA...13.1101P, doi:10.1088/0305-4470/13/3/042 Papercore Summary http:// papercore.org/Parisi1980 (http://papercore.org/Parisi1980). Talagrand, Michel (2000), "Replica symmetry breaking and exponential inequalities for the SherringtonKirkpatrick model", Annals of Probability 28 (3): 10181062, JSTOR2652978. Guerra, F.; Toninelli, F. L. (2002), "The thermodynamic limit in mean field spin glass models", Communications in Mathematical Physics 230 (1): 7179, arXiv:cond-mat/0204280, Bibcode2002CMaPh.230...71G, doi:10.1007/s00220-002-0699-y.

External links
Papercore summary of seminal Sherrington/Kirkpatrick paper (http://papercore.org/summaries/ solvable-model-of-a-spin-glass) Statistics of frequency of the term "Spin glass" in arxiv.org (http://xstructure.inr.ac.ru/x-bin/theme3. py?level=2&index1=125728)

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Spin wave
Spin waves are propagating disturbances in the ordering of magnetic materials. These low-lying collective excitations occur in magnetic lattices with continuous symmetry. From the equivalent quasiparticle point of view, spin waves are known as magnons, which are boson modes of the spin lattice that correspond roughly to the phonon excitations of the nuclear lattice. As temperature is increased, the thermal excitation of spin waves reduces a ferromagnet's spontaneous magnetization. The energies of spin waves are typically only eV in keeping with typical Curie points at room temperature and below. The discussion of spin waves in antiferromagnets is presently beyond the scope of this article.

Theory
The simplest way of understanding spin waves is to consider the Hamiltonian for the Heisenberg ferromagnet:

where operators

is the exchange energy, the represent the spins at Bravais is the Land g-factor, is the internal
An illustration of the precession of a spin wave about an applied magnetic field with a wavevector that is eleven times the lattice constant.

lattice points,

is the Bohr magneton and

field which includes the external field plus any "molecular" field. Note that in the classical continuum case and in 1+1 dimensions Heisenberg ferromagnet equation has the form

In 1+1, 2+1 and 3+1 dimensions this equation admits several integrable and non-integrable extensions like the Landau-Lifshitz equation, the Ishimori equation and so on. For a ferromagnet > 0 and the ground state of the Hamiltonian is that in which all spins are aligned parallel with the field . That is an eigenstate of spin-raising and -lowering operators given by: resulting in

The projection of the magnetization of the same spin wave along the chain direction as a function of distance along the spin chain.

can be verified by rewriting it in terms of the

where

has been taken as the direction of the magnetic field. The spin-lowering operator -axis. Since

annihilates the state

with minimum projection of spin along the z-axis, while the spin-raising operator with maximum spin projection along the

annihilates the ground state

for the maximally aligned state, we find

Spin wave where N is the total number of Bravais lattice sites. The proposition that the ground state is an eigenstate of the Hamiltonian is confirmed. One might guess that the first excited state of the Hamiltonian has one randomly selected spin at position so that state is transformed by the spin raising and lowering operators. The operator spin at position position back to its low-energy orientation, but the operator rotated , but in fact this arrangement of spins is not an eigenstate. The reason is that such a will increase the z-projection of the

203

will lower the z-projection of the spin at

. The combined effect of the two operators is therefore to propagate the rotated spin to a new position,

which is a hint that the correct eigenstate is a spin wave, namely a superposition of states with one reduced spin. The exchange energy penalty associated with changing the orientation of one spin is reduced by spreading the disturbance over a long wavelength. The degree of misorientation of any two near-neighbor spins is thereby minimized. From this explanation one can see why the Ising model magnet with discrete symmetry has no spin waves: the notion of spreading a disturbance in the spin lattice over a long wavelength makes no sense when spins have only two possible orientations. The existence of low-energy excitations is related to the fact that in the absence of an external field, the spin system has an infinite number of degenerate ground states with infinitesimally different spin orientations. That these ground states exist can be seen from the fact that the state rotational symmetry of the Hamiltonian In this model the magnetization does not have the full , a phenomenon which is called spontaneous symmetry breaking. where is the volume. The propagation of spin waves is

described by the Landau-Lifzhitz equation of motion:

where

is the gyromagnetic ratio and

is the damping constant. The cross-products in this forbidding-looking

equation show that the propagation of spin waves is governed by the torques generated by internal and external fields. (An equivalent form is the Landau-Lifshitz-Gilbert equation, which replaces the final term by a more "simply looking" equivalent one.) The first term on the r.h.s. describes the precession of the magnetization under the influence of the applied field, while the above-mentioned final term describes how the magnetization vector "spirals in" towards the field direction as time progresses. In metals the damping forces described by the constant are in many cases dominated by the eddy currents. One important difference between phonons and magnons lies in their dispersion relations. The dispersion relation for phonons is to first order linear in wavevector : , where is frequency, and is the velocity of sound. Magnons have a parabolic dispersion relation: where the parameter represents a "spin stiffness." The form is the third term of a Taylor expansion of a cosine term in the energy expression originating from the dot-product.The underlying reason for the difference in dispersion relation is that ferromagnets violate time-reversal symmetry. Two adjacent spins in a solid with lattice constant wavevector have an angle between them equal to . that participate in a mode with

Experimental observation
Spin waves are observed through four experimental methods: inelastic neutron scattering, inelastic light scattering (Brillouin scattering, Raman scattering and inelastic X-ray scattering), inelastic electron scattering (spin-resolved electron energy loss spectroscopy), and spin-wave resonance (ferromagnetic resonance). In the first method the energy loss of a beam of neutrons that excite a magnon is measured, typically as a function of scattering vector (or equivalently momentum transfer), temperature and external magnetic field. Inelastic neutron scattering measurements can determine the dispersion curve for magnons just as they can for phonons. Important inelastic neutron scattering facilities are present at the ISIS neutron source in Oxfordshire, UK, the Institut Laue-Langevin in Grenoble, France, the High Flux Isotope Reactor at Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee, USA, and at the

Spin wave National Institute of Standards and Technology in Maryland, USA. Brillouin scattering similarly measures the energy loss of photons (usually at a convenient visible wavelength) reflected from or transmitted through a magnetic material. Brillouin spectroscopy is similar to the more widely known Raman scattering but probes a lower energy and has a higher energy resolution in order to be able to detect the meV energy of magnons. Ferromagnetic (or antiferromagnetic) resonance instead measures the absorption of microwaves, incident on a magnetic material, by spin waves, typically as a function of angle, temperature and applied field. Ferromagnetic resonance is a convenient laboratory method for determining the effect of magnetocrystalline anisotropy on the dispersion of spin waves. Very recently, one group in Max Planck Institute for Microstructure Physics in Halle Germany proved that by using spin polarized electron energy loss spectroscopy (SPEELS), very high energy surface magnons can be exited. This technique allows people first time to probe the magnons and its dispersion in the ultrathin magnetical system. The first experiment was successful done in 5 ML Fe film by SPEELS, the signature of magnons were revealed. Later, with momentum resolution, magnon dispersion and full peak was explored in 8 ML fcc Co film on Cu(001) and 8 ML hcp Co on W(110), respectively. Those magnons are obtained up to the SBZ at the energy range about few hundreds meV.

204

Practical significance
When magnetoelectronic devices are operated at high frequencies, the generation of spin waves can be an important energy loss mechanism. Spin wave generation limits the linewidths and therefore the quality factors Q of ferrite components used in microwave devices. The reciprocal of the lowest frequency of the characteristic spin waves of a magnetic material gives a time scale for the switching of a device based on that material.

References
List of labs (http://www.icmm.csic.es/brillouin/BrillouinEN.htm) performing Brillouin scattering measurements. P.W. Anderson, Concepts in Solids, ISBN 981-02-3231-4; Basic Notions of *Condensed Matter Physics, ISBN 0-201-32830-5 N.W. Ashcroft and N.D. Mermin, Solid-State Physics, ISBN 0-03-083993-9. S. Chikazumi and S.H. Charap, Physics of Magnetism, ASIN B0007DODNA (out of print). M.Plihal, D.L.Mills, and J.Kirschner, " Spin wave signature in the spin polarized electron energy loss spectrum in ultrathin Fe film: theory and experiment" Phys. Rev. Lett., 82, 2579,(1999) Phys. Rev. Lett., 91, 147201,(2003) R.Vollmer, M.Etzkorn, P.S.Anil Kumar, H.lbach, and J.Kirschner, "Spin polarized electron energy loss spectroscopy of high energy, large wave vector spin waves in fcc Co films on Cu(001)" A.T.Costa, R. B. Muniz and D. L. Mills, "Theory of spin waves in ultrathin ferromagnetic films: the case of Co on Cu(100)", Phys. Rev. B 69, 064413 (2004) A.T.Costa, R. B. Muniz and D. L. Mills, "Theory of large wave-vector spin waves in ferromagnetic films: sensitivity to electronic structure", Phys. Rev. B 70, 54406 (2004)

Spontaneous magnetization

205

Spontaneous magnetization
Spontaneous magnetization is the appearance of an ordered spin state (magnetization) at zero applied magnetic field in a ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic material below a critical point called the Curie temperature or TC.

Overview
Heated to temperatures above TC, ferromagnetic materials become paramagnetic and their magnetic behavior is dominated by spin waves or magnons, which are boson collective excitations with energies in the meV range. The magnetization that occurs below TC is a famous example of the "spontaneous" breaking of a global symmetry, a phenomenon that is described by Goldstone's theorem. The term "symmetry breaking" refers to the choice of a magnetization direction by the spins, which have spherical symmetry above TC, but a preferred axis (the magnetization direction) below TC.

Temperature dependence
To first order, the temperature dependence of spontaneous magnetization at low temperatures is given by Bloch's Law: [1]

where M(0) is the spontaneous magnetization at absolute zero. The decrease in spontaneous magnetization at higher temperatures is caused by the increasing excitation of spin waves. In a particle description, the spin waves correspond to magnons, which are the massless Goldstone bosons corresponding to the broken symmetry. This is exactly true for an isotropic magnet. Magnetic anisotropy, that is the existence of a easy direction along which the moments align spontaneously in the crystal, corresponds however to "massive" magnons. This is a way of saying that they cost a minimum amount of energy to excite, hence they are very unlikely to be excited as . Hence the magnetization of an anisotropic magnet is harder to destroy at low temperature and the temperature dependence of the magnetization deviates accordingly from the Bloch's law. All real magnets are anisotropic to some extent. Near the Curie temperature, where is a critical exponent that depends on composition. The exponent is 0.34 for Fe and 0.51 for Ni.[2] An empirical interpolation of the two regimes is given by

it is easy to check two limits of this interpolation that follow laws similar to the Bloch law, for critical behavior, for , respectively.

, and the

Spontaneous magnetization

206

Notes and references

[1] Ashcroft & Mermin 1976, p.708 [2] Chikazumi 1997, pp.128129

Further reading
Ashcroft, Neil W.; Mermin, N. David (1976). Solid State Physics. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. ISBN0-03-083993-9. Chikazumi, Sshin (1997). Physics of Ferromagnetism. Clarendon Press. ISBN0-19-851776-9.

Superparamagnetism
Superparamagnetism is a form of magnetism, which appears in small ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic nanoparticles. In sufficiently small nanoparticles, magnetization can randomly flip direction under the influence of temperature. The typical time between two flips is called the Nel relaxation time. In the absence of external magnetic field, when the time used to measure the magnetization of the nanoparticles is much longer than the Nel relaxation time, their magnetization appears to be in average zero: they are said to be in the superparamagnetic state. In this state, an external magnetic field is able to magnetize the nanoparticles, similarly to a paramagnet. However, their magnetic susceptibility is much larger than the one of paramagnets.

The Nel relaxation in the absence of magnetic field

Normally, any ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic material undergoes a transition to a paramagnetic state above its Curie temperature. Superparamagnetism is different from this standard transition since it occurs below the Curie temperature of the material. Superparamagnetism occurs in nanoparticles which are single-domain, i.e. composed of a single magnetic domain. This is possible when their diameter is below 350nm, depending on the materials. In this condition, it is considered that the magnetization of the nanoparticles is a single giant magnetic moment, sum of all the individual magnetic moments carried by the atoms of the nanoparticle. Those in the field of superparamagnetism call this macro-spin approximation. Because of the nanoparticles magnetic anisotropy, the magnetic moment has usually only two stable orientations antiparallel to each other, separated by an energy barrier. The stable orientations define the nanoparticles so called easy axis. At finite temperature, there is a finite probability for the magnetization to flip and reverse its direction. The mean time between two flips is called the Nel relaxation time and is given by the following Nel-Arrhenius equation:[1] , where: is thus the average length of time that it takes for the nanoparticles magnetization to randomly flip as a result of thermal fluctuations. is a length of time, characteristic of the material, called the attempt time or attempt period (its reciprocal is called the attempt frequency); its typical value is 1091010 second. K is the nanoparticles magnetic anisotropy energy density and V its volume. KV is therefore the energy barrier associated with the magnetization moving from its initial easy axis direction, through a hard plane, to the other easy axis direction. kB is the Boltzmann constant.

Superparamagnetism T is the temperature. This length of time can be anywhere from a few nanoseconds to years or much longer. In particular, it can be seen that the Nel relaxation time is an exponential function of the grain volume, which explains why the flipping probability becomes rapidly negligible for bulk materials or large nanoparticles.

207

Blocking temperature
Let us imagine that the magnetization of a single superparamagnetic nanoparticle is measured and let us define as the measurement time. If , the nanoparticle magnetization will flip several times during the measurement, then the measured magnetization will average to zero. If , the magnetization will not flip during the measurement, so the measured magnetization will be what the instantaneous magnetization was at the beginning of the measurement. In the former case, the nanoparticle will appear to be in the superparamagnetic state whereas in the latter case it will appear to be blocked in its initial state. The state of the nanoparticle (superparamagnetic or blocked) depends on the measurement time. A transition between superparamagnetism and blocked state occurs when . In several experiments, the measurement time is kept constant but the temperature is varied, so the transition between superparamagnetism and blocked state is seen as a function of the temperature. The temperature for which is called the blocking temperature:

For typical laboratory measurements, the value of the logarithm in the previous equation is in the order of 2025.

Effect of a magnetic field

When an external magnetic field is applied to an assembly of superparamagnetic nanoparticles, their magnetic moments tend to align along the applied field, leading to a net magnetization. The magnetization curve of the assembly, i.e. the magnetization as a function of the applied field, is a reversible S-shaped increasing function. This function is quite complicated but for some simple cases: 1. If all the particles are identical (same energy barrier and same magnetic moment), their easy axes are all oriented parallel to the applied field and the temperature is low enough (TB<TKV/(10kB)), then the magnetization of the assembly is . 2. If all the particles are identical and the temperature is high enough (TKV/kB), then, irrespective of the orientations of the easy axes:

Langevin function (red line), compared with

(blue line).

In the above equations:

Superparamagnetism n in the density of nanoparticles in the sample is the magnetic permeability of vacuum is the magnetic moment of a nanoparticle The initial slope of the is the Langevin function function is the magnetic susceptibility of the sample :

208

in the first case in the second case. The later susceptibility is also valid for all temperatures oriented. It can be seen from these equations that large nanoparticles have a larger and so a larger susceptibility. This explains why superparamagnetic nanoparticles have a much larger susceptibility than standard paramagnets: they behave exactly as a paramagnet with a huge magnetic moment. if the easy axes of the nanoparticles are randomly

Time dependence of the magnetization

There is no time-dependence of the magnetization when the nanoparticles are either completely blocked ( ) or completely superparamagnetic ( ). There is, however, a narrow window around where the measurement time and the relaxation time have comparable magnitude. In this case, a frequency-dependence of the susceptibility can be observed. For a randomly-oriented sample, the complex susceptibility[2] is:

where is the frequency of the applied field is the susceptibility in the superparamagnetic state is the susceptibility in the blocked state is the relaxation time of the assembly

From this frequency-dependent susceptibility, the time-dependence of the magnetization for low-fields can be derived:

Measurements
A superparamagnetic system can be measured with AC susceptibility measurements, where an applied magnetic field varies in time, and the magnetic response of the system is measured. A superparamagnetic system will show a characteristic frequency dependence: When the frequency is much higher than 1/N, there will be a different magnetic response than when the frequency is much lower than 1/N, since in the latter case, but not the former, the ferromagnetic clusters will have time to respond to the field by flipping their magnetization.[3] The precise dependence can be calculated from the Nel-Arrhenius equation, assuming that the neighboring clusters behave independently of one another (if clusters interact, their behavior becomes more complicated).

Superparamagnetism

209

Effect on hard drives

Superparamagnetism sets a limit on the storage density of hard disk drives due to the minimum size of particles that can be used. This limit is known as the superparamagnetic limit. Older hard disk technology uses longitudinal recording. It has an estimated limit of 100 to 200 Gbit/in[4] Current hard disk technology uses perpendicular recording. As of August 2010 drives with densities of 667Gb/in2 are available commercially. Perpendicular recording is predicted to allow information densities of up to around 1 Tbit/in (1024 Gbit/in).[5] Future hard disk technologies currently in development include: heat-assisted magnetic recording (HAMR), which use materials that are stable at much smaller sizes. They require heating before the magnetic orientation of a bit can be changed; and bit-patterned recording (BPR).[6]

Applications of superparamagnetism
General Applications
Ferrofluid: tunable viscosity Data analysis: superparamagnetic clustering [7] (SPC) and its extension global SPC [8] (gSPC)

Biomedical applications
Imaging: Contrast agents in Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Magnetic separation: cell-, DNA-, protein- separation, RNA fishing Treatments: targeted drug delivery, magnetic hyperthermia, magnetofection

References
[1] Nel, L. (1949). "Thorie du tranage magntique des ferromagntiques en grains fins avec applications aux terres cuites". Ann. Gophys 5: pp.99136. (in French; an English translation is available in "Selected Works of Louis Nel". Gordon and Breach. 1988. pp.407427. ISBN2-88124-300-2.). [2] Gittleman, J. I.; Abeles, B.; Bozowski, S. (1974). "Superparamagnetism and relaxation effects in granular Ni-SiO2 and Ni-Al2O3 films" (http:/ / link. aps. org/ doi/ 10. 1103/ PhysRevB. 9. 3891). Physical Review B 9: 38913897. Bibcode1974PhRvB...9.3891G. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.9.3891. . [3] Martien, Dinesh. "Introduction to: AC susceptibility" (http:/ / www. qdusa. com/ resources/ pdf/ 1078-201. pdf) (pdf). Quantum Design. . Retrieved September 2011. [4] Kryder, M. H.. "Magnetic recording beyond the superparamagnetic limit". pp.575. doi:10.1109/INTMAG.2000.872350. [5] "Hitachi achieves nanotechnology milestone for quadrupling terabyte hard drive" (http:/ / www. hitachi. com/ New/ cnews/ 071015a. html) (Press release). Hitachi. October 15, 2007. . Retrieved September 2011. [6] Murray, Matthew (2010-08-19). "Will Toshiba's Bit-Patterned Drives Change the HDD Landscape?" (http:/ / www. pcmag. com/ article2/ 0,2817,2368023,00. asp). PC Magazine. . Retrieved 2010-08-21. [7] http:/ / ctwc. weizmann. ac. il/ spc. html [8] http:/ / vcclab. org/ lab/ spc

Nel, L. (1949). "Thorie du tranage magntique des ferromagntiques en grains fins avec applications aux terres cuites" (in French). Ann. Gophys. 5: 99136. An English translation is available in Kurti, N., ed. (1988). Selected Works of Louis Nel. New York: Gordon and Breach. pp.407427. ISBN2-88124-300-2. Weller, D.; Moser, A. (1999). "Thermal Effect Limits in Ultrahigh Density Magnetic Recording" (http://dx.doi. org/10.1109/20.809134). IEEE Transactions on Magnetics 35: 44234439. Bibcode1999ITM....35.4423W. doi:10.1109/20.809134.

Superparamagnetism

210

External links
Superparamagnetism of Co-Ferrite Nanoparticles (http://www.mff.cuni.cz/veda/konference/wds/contents/ pdf05/WDS05_090_f3_Vejpravova.pdf) Powerpoint presentation on Superparamagnetism in pdf (http://lmis1.epfl.ch/webdav/site/lmis1/shared/Files/ Lectures/Nanotechnology for engineers/Archives/2004_05/Superparamagnetism.pdf)

Vibrating sample magnetometer

A vibrating sample magnetometer or VSM is a scientific instrument that measures magnetic properties, invented in 1955 by Simon Foner at Lincoln Laboratory MIT. The paper about his work was published shortly afterward in 1959[1] A sample is placed inside a uniform magnetic field to magnetize the sample. The sample is then physically vibrated sinusoidally, typically through the use of a piezoelectric material. Commercial systems use linear actuators of some form, and historically the development of these systems was done using modified audio speakers, though this approach was dropped due to the interference through the in-phase magnetic noise produced, as the magnetic flux through a nearby pickup coil varies sinusoidally. The induced voltage in the pickup coil is proportional to the sample's magnetic moment, but does not depend on the strength of the applied magnetic field. In a typical setup, the induced voltage is measured through the use of a lock-in amplifier using the piezoelectric signal as its reference signal. By measuring in the field of an external electromagnet, it is possible to obtain the hysteresis curve of a material.

Vibrating Sample Magnetometer - sample holder and detection mechanism

References
[1] .Foner, S. "Versatile and Sensitive Vibrating-Sample Magnetometer". Rev. Sci. Instrum 30 (7): 548557.

Article Sources and Contributors

211

Article Sources and Contributors

Antiferromagnetism Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=502540012 Contributors: Aka042, Andre Engels, Anterior1, Bjf, Carcharoth, Chaiken, Connormah, Daneshvar, DragonflySixtyseven, Emperorbma, Felix0411, Floorsheim, Freddy78, Guillom, Headbomb, Heron, Icairns, Isheden, Jag123, JaredAllred, Jcwf, Kmarinas86, Kusma, LarRan, Materialscientist, Mboverload, Michael Hardy, Mlpearc, Mnmngb, Niceguyedc, Phys, Pieter Kuiper, Piil, Quibik, Rg998, RockMagnetist, Rod57, Salsb, Savidan, Srnec, Stevvers, Tamtamar, Timo Honkasalo, Timothykinney, Toh, Tone, V8rik, Venny85, Vorpal blade, Wasell, Xram, Zahid Abdassabur, 50 anonymous edits BiotSavart law Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=505992395 Contributors: 124Nick, Andres Agudelo, Antixt, Arc-, AugPi, Bender235, Burn, Caliston, Charles Matthews, Charlym, Choster, Complexica, Craig Pemberton, Crowsnest, DJIndica, Daniel.Cardenas, DavidLevinson, Deb, Decumanus, Deflective, Dicklyon, Dilipmeena22, Dixtosa, Dolphin51, Drrngrvy, Ed Poor, Eliz81, Enormousdude, F=q(E+v^B), Ferengi, FyzixFighter, Gabridelca, Gaius Cornelius, George Smyth XI, Giftlite, Grebaldar, H2g2bob, Headbomb, Icairns, Ioverka, JabberWok, JayEsJay, Jojalozzo, Khashishi, Klunk6, Kwamikagami, Laurascudder, Lejarrag, Linuxlad, MC10, MFNickster, Martynas Patasius, Mboverload, Mebden, Metacomet, Michael Hardy, Mild Bill Hiccup, Mjohnrussell, Mtodorov 69, Muu-karhu, Mythealias, Onco p53, Oobayly, Paolo.dL, Petwil, Pfalstad, Qxz, Revolver, RockMagnetist, Roo72, Rtdrury, Salsb, Sbyrnes321, Sheliak, StradivariusTV, Svick, TStein, The wub, Tim Shuba, Tim Starling, Tobiasgt79, Toby Bartels, Toolnut, User A1, Vinograd19, Weialawaga, Wik, Wolfkeeper, Wrude bouie, Zvn, , , 142 anonymous edits Classical electromagnetism and special relativity Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=510148120 Contributors: Brews ohare, DS1000, DVdm, Dario Gnani, F=q(E+v^B), Headbomb, J04n, JacobTrue, Magioladitis, Sbyrnes321, Stevenj, TStein, Teply, Wavelength, Woohookitty, Ywaz, 16 anonymous edits Coercivity Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=503149937 Contributors: Ahecht, Andrewwall, Bissinger, Brouhaha, Chaiken, Chetvorno, CosineKitty, Dogcow, Electron9, Emes, Eric.weigle, Ferengi, Genghiskhanviet, Genish, Icairns, JEBrown87544, Jag123, Jwagner61, Kingturtle, Kirkmeister, Kjkolb, Kurgus, Magnetix1, Materialscientist, Maximus Rex, Megan Reyes, MichaelBillington, Mnmngb, Omegatron, Paolo.dL, Planetscared, RockMagnetist, Rostislav Lapshin, Rostislav V. Lapshin, Salsb, Venny85, Voodoom, WBardwin, Wegsjac, Wolfkeeper, Zocky, Zureks, , 29 anonymous edits Diamagnetism Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=507480124 Contributors: 213.253.39.xxx, 24.1.200.xxx, AJim, ALACE, Aaagmnr, Acroterion, Adashiel, Arkadipta banerjee, Bakuryuu, Beland, Belg4mit, Bluefalcon07, Bodnotbod, Brews ohare, Bryan Derksen, Busukxuan, Campuzano85, Candleknight, Casey boy, Cesiumfrog, CharlesC, Cheeseifyer, Constructive editor, Conversion script, Cp111, Cquan, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Darekun, DarkHorse, Deepnightblue, Deglr6328, Dfinkel, Dimwitt Flathead, Dirac1933, Don4of4, DragonflySixtyseven, Dwmyers, EbedYahweh, Eigenpirate, Embrittled, Favonian, Foobar, Gaius Cornelius, Gene Nygaard, Georgelazenby, Giftlite, Glacialfox, Graham87, Gudeldar, Guswandhi, Hans Dunkelberg, Headbomb, Hede2000, Henrygb, Heron, Hesperian, Horkana, Icairns, Iliev, Inter rest, Jaapkroe, Jackelfive, Jafet, Jcline1, Jcwf, Jinxed, Jkeohane, Joanjoc, JustAddPeter, K Eliza Coyne, Kaifeng, Karol Langner, KasugaHuang, Katalaveno, Kmarinas86, L'Aquatique, Leobh, Lfh, LogaRhythm, Looxix, Lumrs, Macderv15h, Mbweissman, Mech Aaron, Midgrid, Mike Rosoft, MisterSheik, Mmm, Modify, Moemin05, Netscott, OlEnglish, Oli Filth, Omegatron, Paul venter, Pearle, Peterburton, Petergans, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Phoenix79, Phys, Piil, Planetscared, Poisonmilk, Prikryl, Rage, Rememberway, Rifleman 82, Roadrunner, Robin Whittle, RockMagnetist, Salsb, Sappe, Scott Dial, Serverxeon, Sibian, Sikkema, SilentOpen, Silly rabbit, Slakr, Smalljim, Smokefoot, Snigbrook, Splarka, Stokerm, Suffusion of Yellow, Tarotcards, TedPavlic, Tim Starling, Tmadge, Tomothy, Troyrock, Vanderdecken, Vanished user, Vrenator, Vsmith, WLU, Waleswatcher, Whitepaw, Wolfkeeper, Xanzzibar, Xompanthy, Yakiniku, Zamirm, Zereshk, Zinger0, , , 183 anonymous edits Electromagnet Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=505846963 Contributors: 2help, 5 albert square, 90 Auto, A little insignificant, A.K.Karthikeyan, A3RO, Adambro, Adashiel, Addshore, Adrianwadey, Aitias, Alansohn, Alkoury, Allstarecho, Andeveron, Andonic, Andy Dingley, Animum, Anna Lincoln, Antandrus, Antikon, Anyeverybody, Ashleano, Athenaabc123drm, AtiwH, Atlant, Avenged Eightfold, Avoided, Baa, Babartown, Badgernet, Banaticus, Bart133, Bennybp, Bentogoa, Bert Hickman, Bhadani, BillyWHU, Bobo192, Boris Barowski, Bradcallaghan23, Branchc, Bruno Roso, CJLL Wright, Cadby Waydell Bainbrydge, Caiaffa, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Cardboardbox, Chamal N, Chetvorno, Chrislk02, Christendom, Chua, Clarince63, Closedmouth, Constructive editor, Cool3, Cowardly Lion, Cquan, Cynical, D. 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http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=501980169 Contributors: Angellcruz, Bobo192, Bryan Derksen, ChrisHodgesUK, Cyrius, Dheeraj4ever, Efcmagnew, Eidako, Embrittled, Fosnez, Fribb, Gigabobs, Halpaugh, Hamiltondaniel, Henning Makholm, Hoo man, Hooperbloob, Incompetence, JobanWiki, Jpc4031, Kosiakk, Light current, Mac Davis, MagnInd, MagnetalWiki, Mohammedrasi, Netscott, PMLawrence, Pahazzard, Paul Allaire, Pekaje, Pjbarraud, Planetscared, Ray Van De Walker, Rememberway, Rjwilmsi, Robbins, Sillybilly, Skarkkai, Thejapanesegeek, Veinor, Velvetfog49, WHdeGroot, Wbrameld, WikHead, Wilbern Cobb, Wizard191, Wolfkeeper, Xantolus, Zejrus, 153 anonymous edits Magnetic circuit Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=504270261 Contributors: Angstorm, BenFrantzDale, Brossow, Capricorn42, Ccrrccrr, Chetvorno, CyrilB, Dah31, Dicklyon, Dvorak729, Edward, Elagatis, Gene Nygaard, GibsonDavidBCRA, Glenn, Heron, Hooperbloob, Icairns, J04n, Jag123, James086, Jfraser, John of Reading, Joramar, Jp in England, K Eliza Coyne, Khazar2, Kmarinas86, Kushkul, Leandropls, MFNickster, Mel Etitis, MovGP0, Msiddalingaiah, Myasuda, Nabla, Omegatron, Open2universe, Ospalh, PV=nRT, Paverider, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Rainald62, Rubber hound, SCEhardt, Salsb, Spinningspark, Ssilvers, Syd1435, TStein, The Berzerk Dragon, TheAMmollusc, Ulric1313, Wood Thrush, YUL89YYZ, ZoftWhere, Zundark, 38 anonymous edits Magnetic dipole Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=510618279 Contributors: Bearcat, Brews ohare, Davius, Drphysics, Facegarden, Grandfatherclok, Jojalozzo, Mark91, Maschen, Oliver Jennrich, Redirect fixer, RockMagnetist, Tim Starling, Wickey-nl, 2 anonymous edits Magnetic domain Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=507584892 Contributors: 7daysahead, AVand, Basawala, Bobo192, Bwrs, Caliston, Captin Shmit, Chetvorno, Diagonalfish, Dolphin51, Eio, Elephant in a tornado, GoOhm, Gorchy, Gracefool, Headbomb, JPFen, Julius Sahara, K Eliza Coyne, Kezz88, Kibethblade, Kjkolb, LilHelpa, Llgc, Matesy, Mhesselb, Mygerardromance, NerdyScienceDude, ROSHINIk7, Radagast83, Res2216firestar, RockMagnetist, Roulianne, Sfrabble, SkyWalker, Squiddy, Vsmith, Wikfr, Wikieditoroftoday, Wnzrf, Wwoods, Zhangzhe0101, Zureks, 68 anonymous edits Magnetic field Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=510180286 Contributors: 1994bhaskar, 1howardsr1, 2001:610:1908:1202:649A:1B84:2A86:B0D0, 213.253.39.xxx, 23790AD, 2D, 2over0, 4twenty42o, @pple, Abductive, Af648, Ahoerstemeier, Aitias, Aka042, Alansohn, Alex Klotz, Alfred Centauri, Alphachimp, Ambros-aba, Andy Dingley, Ankid, Anna512, Anterior1, Antixt, Arch dude, Armius, Arthena, Ascidian, Ashill, Aulis Eskola, B21O303V3941W42371, BSTR, Bachrach44, Barneca, Bart133, Bekus, Beland, BenFrantzDale, Bender235, Bishoppowell, Black Shadow, Bobyorox, Bookandcoffee, Brews ohare, BrianWilloughby, Brichcja, Brigman, Bryan Derksen, Buster79, C14, CUSENZA Mario, Calvin 1998, Cantiorix, Capricorn42, Captain Yankee, 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Illini, Sfu, Shawn81, Sheliak, Signalhead, Sintau.tayua, Sir48, SirEditALot, Sjakkalle, Smack, Smark33021, Smile a While, Sneller2, Snigbrook, Sole Soul, Some jerk on the Internet, SomeUsr, Southen, Speedevil, Srleffler, Ssilvers, Stan Sykora, Stannered, Starwed, Starwiz, Steel, Steve Quinn, SteveBaker, Stevenj, Strait, Sublimedragon28, TStein, Tagray, Talon Artaine, Tarquin, TedPavlic, Telanis, Telpardec, Template namespace initialisation script, Tempodivalse, Tgoyen, Thatguyflint, The Earwig, The Thing That Should Not Be, The wub, The-G-Unit-Boss, TheOldJacobite, Thric3, Tide rolls, Tim Shuba, Tim Starling, Time3000, Tkirkman, Tlabshier, Tonyalfrey, Treisijs, Trovatore, Trusilver, Twsx, UnknownForEver, Useight, Utcursch, Vamaviscool123, Van der Hoorn, Van helsing, Vary, Vcelloho, Veinor, Venom4u 31, Verdi1, Versus22, Vlus, Wahying, Wavelength, Wavgfkl, Wayward, Whitepaw, Whydowefallbruce?, WikHead, WikiDao, William Avery, Wizard191, Wogboy52, Wolfkeeper, Woohookitty, Woseph, Xclassmechluv, Ximenes Resende, Xtremepunker, Yevgeny Kats, Yill577, Yoduh2007, Yurei-eggtart, ZodTron, Zoicon5, Zueignung, , , 1088 anonymous edits Magnetic monopole Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=510890046 Contributors: 2bithacker, 2over0, 84user, Aarchiba, Aarghdvaark, Achoo5000, Adarsh116098, Ahoerstemeier, Alansohn, Alex Fix, Andre Engels, Andrija radovic, Antixt, Aoosten, Ap, ArnoldReinhold, BD2412, Bakken, Balashpersia, Barak Sh, Barraki, Beland, BenRG, Bryan Derksen, C.R.Selvakumar, Camembert, Capefeather, CatherS, Catslash, Charles Matthews, CharlesC, Charvest, Chetvorno, Congruence, ConradPino, Courcelles, Crumley, Cutler, Cwedhrin, Cyan, DVdm, David Thorne, Dawright12, Dchoulette, Deanmullen09, Dickontoo, Difty, Disambiguator, Dominus, DonSiano, Dorftrottel, Dougweller, DragonHawk, Drrngrvy, Dugosz, ESkog, EddEdmondson, El C, Elektron, Emerson7, Enochlau, Enyokoyama, Erkcan, Eyu100, F=q(E+v^B), FDominec, FKLS, Falcorian, Floquenbeam, Flying hazard, Fru1tbat, GRB, Gaius Cornelius, Gareth McCaughan, Giftlite, Gillis, Giscard2, Goodbye Galaxy, Gorog, GregorB, Gzuckier, Headbomb, Henke37, Henrygb, Heron, HolIgor, HonoluluMan, Icairns, Igodard, Ixfd64, JA.Davidson, JRYon, JabberWok, JarlaxleArtemis, Jeffq, Jerzy, Jkl, John of Reading, Jonathan Karlsson, JorisvS, Jstrater, Karl Dickman, Karl-H, Kbodouhi, Khukri, KingCarrot, Kjoonlee, Likebox, Linas, Lisatwo, Lixo2, Loadmaster, LonelyBeacon, Loohcsnuf, Looxix, Lumidek, Luna Santin, MFNickster, MarSch, MarcelB612, Maschen, Mathfreak11235, Maury Markowitz, Maxime.Debosschere, Melchoir, Michael C Price, Michael Hardy, Mike Rosoft, Mild Bill Hiccup, Mintleaf, Mkweise, Mohseng, Morphotomy, Moyerjax, Mpatel, MuDavid, Munkel Davidson, N0RND123, Nagualdesign, Nat2, NerdyNSK, Nick Mks, Nlalic, Nova77, Nsande01, Octahedron80, Oldnoah, Particle hep, Patrick, Pauli133, PearlSt82, Peter Ellis, Pharotic, Phys, Piccor, Pit-trout, Pjacobi, Plasticup, PoorLeno, Q0k, QFT, Qaswqaswgd, Quibik, Quondum, R.e.b., Randall Nortman, Rapjo, RaseaC, Rasmus Faber, Razimantv, Relke, Renaissancee, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Roadrunner, Rock4arolla, Ross Fraser, Ruud Koot, SamuelRiv, Sasquatch, Sbyrnes321, Seraphimblade, Skatche, Skeptical scientist, Skiminki, Skippy le Grand Gourou, Skysmith, Spartaz, Splartmaggot, Stephen B Streater, Stevenj, Stevvers, Stigin, StringTheory11, Tabletop, Tardis, Tarotcards, TedPavlic, The Anome, TheAlphaWolf, Thranduil, Thuktun, Tim Starling, Timwi, Trmatthe, Urvabara, V1adis1av, WLU, Waltpohl, Wiki alf, Wikipelli, Wingedsubmariner, Wrotesolid, Wrsh11, Xerxes314, Xihr, YURI-21century, Yevgeny Kats, Zoooooooooaa, , 318 anonymous edits Magnetic refrigeration Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=495824580 Contributors: AdamW, Adwaele, Andonic, AndrooUK, Antilived, Apple2, Benbest, Bender235, Bobblewik, Boing! said Zebedee, Buster2058, CharlesC, Chem-awb, Chevinbrown, ChrisGualtieri, ChrisHodgesUK, CleanCoolingSolutions, DMahalko, Dakott, Dave souza, Droll, Electron9, Gadfium, Gene Nygaard, Gigs, Glenn, Grandonia, Grj23, Heron, Hydrargyrum, Ipigott, Irate, Jaraalbe, Jesuitson, John of Reading, Jw2034, KVDP, Knightofdark, Mechatronik, MightyWarrior, Minesweeper, Mortense, Mtodorov 69, Omegatron, Pbroks13, Petrsuhaj, Poppafuze, Quibik, Razorflame, Rdshull, Re-mark, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Rootbeerinacan, S Levchenkov, SDC, Saimhe, Saq!b, Seb az86556, Shoeofdeath, Shuikouhw, Speedevil, Spiel496, Tamer Abdel Wahab, Tarquin, Tetracube, Tom harrison, Trojancowboy, Typ932, Virtualerian, Vsmith, WISo, Well.caffeinated, XJamRastafire, Xerxesnine, Yellowdesk, Zundark, 89 anonymous edits Magnetic stirrer Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=500844899 Contributors: 224238scott, Adaptron, Biglama, Bryan Derksen, Clearly kefir, Collabi, Danielle dk, Davidswanepoel, Debresser, Dismas, Email4mobile, Ewen, Femto, Gaius Cornelius, Gcm, Groyolo, Ikaproduct, JVinocur, Jorge Stolfi, Kerttie, Kevinb, Kkmurray, Liangren3, Masur, Mav, Megamix, Minored, Of, Puffin, Rifleman 82, Ruhrfisch, Sam Hocevar, Sardanaphalus, Seanghosh, Stefan da, Thargrav, Thumperward, Tim Starling, Tonei, Towerman86, Veinor, Zheisey, 07 ,anonymous edits Magnetic structure Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=457385028 Contributors: EoGuy, GAMerritt, Jcwf, Johntinker, Judge Nutmeg, Kannie, RockMagnetist, 16 anonymous edits Magnetism Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=507774092 Contributors: 16@r, 2over0, 4lex, 5 albert square, A Mom, A8UDI, AL2TB, Abce2, Adawg117, Addshore, Ahoerstemeier, Akendall, Akriasas, Aksi great, Al.locke, Alansohn, Ale jrb, Alex-engraver, Aliwikii, Allstarecho, American Eagle, Amog, Andonic, Andy Dingley, Anonymous Dissident, Antandrus, Apocalypse2009, Bassbonerocks, Bcfootball, Bchaplucian, Beland, Benbest, Bensaccount, Blizzarex, Bob sagget jr., Bobo192, Bongwarrior, Boredzo, Brews ohare, Brianga, Brockert, Bryan Derksen, C d h, CDN99, CYD, Caknuck, CalebNoble, Caltas, Calvin 1998, Can't 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Thomson, Rossf18, Royboycrashfan, Rpb01r, Rrburke, Russell4, Ryalisaivamsi, Ryne1, S colligan, S ortiz, SGMD1, Sadi Carnot, Saideepak.budaraju, Sammyk214, Samsee, Sandstein, Satanael, Sbyrnes321, Schultz.Ryan, Science5, ScienceApologist, Scientizzle, Scott3, Shadowjams, Shotwell, Shrigley, Shuipzv3, Sietse Snel, Silent78, Sinewalker, Sionus, Skew-t, Skizzik, Slazenger, Slgrandson, Slon02, Sluzzelin, Smack, Smilesfozwood, Snowmanradio, Snowolf, Snoyes, Some jerk on the Internet, Someguy1221, Spangineer, Special-T, Spencer, Spinningspark, Splartmaggot, Srikar33, Ssilvers, St. Hubert, Stanlste, Stephenb, SteveBaker, Stevertigo, Stokerm, Stone, Strait, Stuart07, Suffusion of Yellow, Sunray, Syrthiss, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, TStein, Teapeat, Techguru, Techman224, Technobebop, TehBrandon, Template namespace initialisation script, Tempodivalse, Texture, Tgv8925, That Guy, From That Show!, The Rambling Man, The Thing That Should Not Be, The Troll lolololololololol, TheBendster, TheFronze05, TheMolecularMan, Thekillerpenguin, Theresa knott, Thingg, This user has left wikipedia, Thisisborin9, Tiddly Tom, Tide rolls, Tim Shuba, Tim Starling, Tobby72, Tobias Bergemann, Tommy2010, Trojancowboy, Tyler Matthews, Ulric1313, Unyoyega, Usp, Uvainio, VASANTH S.N., Vadim Makarov, Vanilluv30, Vanished user 39948282, Versus22, Viriditas, Vrenator, Vsmith, Vssun, WOSlinker, Warut, Waveguy, Wayne Slam, Wenli, Where, Whereizben, WikHead, Wiki alf, Wikier.ko, William S. Saturn, Willking1979, Wolfkeeper, Woudloper, Wtmitchell, Xenonice, Xxanthippe, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yammer68, Yevgeny Kats, Ykral, Yoduh2007, Yoyo2222, Yuwangswisscom, Z.E.R.O., Zbxgscqf, Zoragotcha, Zundark, Zvika, , 1225 anonymous edits Metamagnetism Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=452952435 Contributors: Arthena, Ashley Pomeroy, DragonflySixtyseven, Jmnbatista, Robb The Physicist, RockMagnetist, TheTito, Tone, Vortmeester, 7 anonymous edits Micromagnetics Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=500030003 Contributors: ACrush, Bobblewik, Giftlite, Ixfd64, Joaosampaio, Johnoti, Magnetix1, Pearle, Rettetast, Rjwilmsi, RockMagnetist, Rpb01r, Sheepe2004, WestwoodMatt, Wnzrf, Zureks, 38 anonymous edits

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Molecule-based magnets Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=491418719 Contributors: Barkeep, Frap, Giraffedata, GoingBatty, Gueneverey, HonorTheKing, JorisvS, Thatjenn, The Thing That Should Not Be, Thomasnet, V8rik, 10 anonymous edits Neodymium magnet Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=510085390 Contributors: 2over0, A Mom, A More Perfect Onion, Abce2, Alansohn, Aldoaldoz, Anarchemitis, Andrewpmk, Andrs D., Anjouan, AnotherWikiGuy, Arcette, AtOMiCNebula, Beetstra, Benbest, Bender235, Bert Hickman, Bloodshedder, Bob.os, Borislav Dopudja, BuickCenturyDriver, Buuneko, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Candleknight, Chaiken, Charlesrkiss, Chaz 11, Cheasy123, Chetvorno, CommonsDelinker, CoolMike, DMacks, Danielphin, Darkthunderz, Darrien, DarwinPeacock, Dave6, Dega180, Deglr6328, Deli nk, DerHexer, Derumi, Di-gata, Discospinster, DivineAlpha, EGoodier, EarthCom1000, Earthlyreason, Emre D., Eteq, Evans1982, Everbeen, Ewlyahoocom, Exeunt, Farkas2029, Femto, FrozenMan, Fungicord, Funnyjunkftw, Gene Nygaard, Geoffrey.landis, Georgy90, Gogo Dodo, Goudron, Granito diaz, GregorB, HappyCamper, Harris7, Hellno2, Heron, I DONT CARE, Icairns, Igoldste, Infynyxx, Jacob C Jordan, JamesBWatson, Jbusenitz, Jcwf, Jivecat, Jmoorhouse, Julesd, Jumping cheese, Jyril, KKPie, Karn, Kay Dekker, Krj373, LFaraone, Laager, Lamro, Lawyer2b, Leuk he, Lmatt, Lmhill, LorenzoB, Luis Dantas, M0M3NTUM, MC10, MPF, Magnequench, Makgraf, Malcolma, Manscher, Marek69, Materialscientist, MathStuf, Maximus Rex, Mayfly may fly, Mazroxz, Mboverload, Mc013579, Mdekok3000, Mebob123, Mikael Hggstrm, Mikiemike, Mmj, MrJones, Nakon, Ncurses, NewEnglandYankee, Ngchen, Nikevich, Nmnogueira, Osmodiar, Ourai, Ozkidzez91, Pakaran, Patentmat, Peter bertok, Philip.marshall, Pimlottc, Pinethicket, Polyparadigm, Pschemp, Quietust, QuiteUnusual, Remember the dot, Rgephart, Rjwilmsi, Ronhjones, Roo72, Russoc4, Rwalker, SCEhardt, Salsb, Schneelocke, SchuminWeb, SciberDoc, Shaddack, Shii, SlipperyHippo, Smely brando, Specter01010, Spike Wilbury, Splarka, Spliffy, Split, Stevey7788, Stone, Suradnik50, TGCP, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Techbert, The Letter J, Thingg, Thorwald, Thumperward, Tim Chambers, Timtrent, Vedantm, Veeeeeeini, Vranak, Walksonwalls, Warut, Whitepaw, WikHead, Winndm31, Wolfkeeper, Xi311, Yoduh2007, Zekozo, sgeir IV., 324 anonymous edits Paramagnetism Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=507370107 Contributors: Aaagmnr, Admiral Norton, Ahoerstemeier, AlexGWU, Anchananatarajan, Andre Engels, Art and Muscle, Bandy, Bduke, Beetstra, Benbest, Berland, Brews ohare, Busukxuan, CRON, Cmcnicoll, Complexica, Conversion script, Cyanoir, DanielRigal, Dcoetzee, DeadEyeArrow, Derschueler, Dina, Eborreson, Electricmic, Electron9, Eric Kvaalen, F-402, Freddy78, Gadolinist, Gamera2, Gene Nygaard, Giftlite, Hammersbach, Heron, HopeChrist, Humanist, Icairns, Inquisitus, IronGargoyle, IvanLanin, Jcwf, Jdedmond, Joanjoc, John, JorisvS, KathrynLybarger, Kbrose, Koweja, Lfh, Light current, Looxix, Ls1955, Luckas Blade, Lugh23, Mac Davis, Markjoseph125, Materialscientist, Mdsam2, Medeis, Mercurywoodrose, Mgiganteus1, Michael Hardy, Murukesh mohanan, Mwhiz, NCurse, Nick Pisarro, Jr., No1lakersfan, Omegatron, Oxymoron83, Pde, Peter.C, Petergans, Phys, Piano non troppo, Piil, Polyamorph, Potatoswatter, Ppxatc, Profero, Quantum7, Quibik, Rakista, Rangergordon, Rebroad, Rifleman 82, Robinsoncrusoe, RockMagnetist, RocketDavid, Salsb, Samaritan13, Sbharris, Schneelocke, Silenced, Silverplasma, SimonArlott, Slakr, Smokefoot, Someones life, Sonicology, Stevenj, Stokerm, Tassedethe, Taw, Thevenin77, Thumperward, Tim Starling, Troyrock, Turbos10, WhiteDragon, Zero sharp, 381 ,anonymous edits Plastic magnet Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=508183577 Contributors: Antonrojo, Bobo192, ChemGardener, Closedmouth, GargoyleMT, Giftlite, Giraffedata, Grendelkhan, Icairns, J04n, Jag123, JeanJPoirier, Kbh3rd, Oxymoron83, Qaz, Rjwilmsi, Robma, Salsb, Tone, Vanischenu, Yakushima, 26 anonymous edits Rare-earth magnet Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=504741289 Contributors: 2over0, Aaagmnr, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, BCube, Backpackadam, Bert Hickman, Brim, Brz7, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Charlieb000, Chetvorno, Chris the speller, ChrisGualtieri, D6, DMacks, Dismas, Dr.Jeschu, Dv82matt, EEPROM Eagle, Embrittled, Enviroboy, Fastplanet, Femto, Fr4an1s, Fubar Obfusco, Gene Nygaard, Granito diaz, Gyre86, HappyCamper, Headbomb, Headybrew, Heirpixel, Ixnayonthetimmay, J.delanoy, JamesBurns, Jbusenitz, Jcbarr, Jcwf, Jezza333, Jimmilu, Julesd, Kittybrewster, Kraftlos, Lee Carre, Materialscientist, Michalis Famelis, Mindmatrix, Mohhingman, Moletrouser, Netscott, Oknazevad, Opelio, Panzer V Panther, Paul August, Paulezra, Poi0987654321, Polyamorph, Polyparadigm, Pro crast in a tor, Redrose64, Rjwilmsi, SCEhardt, Sbharris, Schmloof, Shaddack, Shingra, Shirulashem, Suradnik50, Teapeat, Tetracube, Theottovonbismark, Tide rolls, Tremaster, Trojancowboy, Twang, UAwiki, Virpik, Voltaic, Weareryan, Whytecypress, Wintorez, Wolfkeeper, YUL89YYZ, Yngvarr, Yoduh2007, 138 anonymous edits Single-molecule magnet Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=507378164 Contributors: Awickert, Barras, Bloomy717, Buzz-tardis, Cdion, Christian75, Cimorcus, Daisystanton, Dougszathkey, DragonflySixtyseven, Dreamer08, Embec, Enric Naval, Giraffedata, Gobonobo, Headbomb, Heron, Hollyev, Intgr, Lantonov, MagnInd, Materialscientist, Mereda, Nickptar, Rayc, Rbrausse, Reedijk, RockMagnetist, Takaaki, Thatjenn, Tiglet, Tomgally, V8rik, Venny85, WAS 4.250, 46 anonymous edits Spin glass Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=505112908 Contributors: 4lex, AHM, Afluegel, AmarChandra, Antoni Barau, Aranel, Avicennasis, Baxxterr, BenFrantzDale, Brammers, Caiaffa, Compsim, David Eppstein, Edward, Electricmic, Emperorbma, Eric Shalov, Frank Shearar, Gala.martin, Gene Nygaard, Giftlite, Gingekerr, Headbomb, Hovnatan, Icairns, Javirl, Jcoetzee, Knotwork, Koumz, Lfh, Lgstarn, Linas, Man It's So Loud In Here, Marie Poise, Meier99, Michael Hardy, Mlaffs, Modeha, Niteowlneils, Pamputt, Pasteurizer, PatrickFisher, Pavithransiyer, Philopedia, Phys, Pjvpjv, Qwfp, RSRScrooge, Rjwilmsi, RockMagnetist, Rwp, SPat, Salsb, Shaddack, Sodin, Stillnotelf, Svick, Unara, Venny85, Waltpohl, Zureks, 47 anonymous edits Spin wave Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=494846256 Contributors: Anlace, BullRangifer, Chaiken, Charles Matthews, ChrisGualtieri, Docu, Freddy78, Happy-melon, Headbomb, Jeff G., JorisvS, Lovecz, Lupin, Matthias Buchmeier, Mild Bill Hiccup, Nielswalet, PhiMAP, QuantumSquirrel, Rafaelgr, RockMagnetist, Tabletop, Topbanana, UnHoly, Venny85, Xerxes314, Xxanthippe, 58 anonymous edits Spontaneous magnetization Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=509684734 Contributors: Aeusoes1, Chaiken, CiaPan, Keoki, RDR, RockMagnetist, Venny85, Yevgeny Kats, 2 anonymous edits Superparamagnetism Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=496014290 Contributors: AvicAWB, Cinnamon colbert, Conversion script, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DragonflySixtyseven, EH101, Edgar.bonet, GregorB, Gurch, HighKing, IRbaboon, Icairns, Keoki, LilHelpa, LorenzoB, MartinSpacek, MasterCheese, Nate Silva, Nostraticispeak, Op47, Quibik, Qutezuce, Rifleman 82, Rjwilmsi, RockMagnetist, Roulianne, Salsb, Sbyrnes321, ScienceGuy5555, Stevenj, Stokerm, Tim Starling, Tone, Tothwolf, Unyoyega, WAS 4.250, Wafulz, Wang lvan, 52 anonymous edits Vibrating sample magnetometer Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=472689537 Contributors: Dchristle, La Pianista, MagnInd, Qwyrxian, R0oland, RHaworth, Rcsprinter123, WvEngen, 19 anonymous edits

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Image:Antiferromagnetic ordering.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Antiferromagnetic_ordering.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Michael Schmid File:Loudspeaker.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Loudspeaker.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Bayo, Gmaxwell, Husky, Iamunknown, Mirithing, Myself488, Nethac DIU, Omegatron, Rocket000, The Evil IP address, Wouterhagens, 20 anonymous edits File:Vortex filament (Biot-Savart law illustration).png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Vortex_filament_(Biot-Savart_law_illustration).png License: Public Domain Contributors: myth Image:B-H loop.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:B-H_loop.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Alno, Chaiken, Inductiveload, Loxosceles Laeta, Omegatron, Pieter Kuiper, Sautoir, WikipediaMaster, Zureks, 3 anonymous edits Image:Coercivity.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Coercivity.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:Chaiken Image:Diamagnetic graphite levitation.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Diamagnetic_graphite_levitation.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: en:User:Splarka Image:Superconductor.GIF Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Superconductor.GIF License: Public Domain Contributors: David Meeker wrote FEMM 4.2 Image:Frog diamagnetic levitation.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Frog_diamagnetic_levitation.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Lijnis Nelemans File:Simple electromagnet2.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Simple_electromagnet2.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Simple_electromagnet.gif: Original uploader was Berserkerus at ru.wikipedia derivative work: Chetvorno (talk) Alterations to source image: Rotated CCW 90 and lightened to bring out detail. File:Electromagnetism.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Electromagnetism.svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Stannered File:VFPt Solenoid correct.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:VFPt_Solenoid_correct.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Geek3 Image:Fermilab - 400 MeV Lambertson Magnet.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fermilab_-_400_MeV_Lambertson_Magnet.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Avron, Bomazi, NH2501, Teslaton Image:Laboratory electromagnet.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Laboratory_electromagnet.png License: Public Domain Contributors: John Ambrose Fleming Image:ICP-SFMS Magnet 1.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ICP-SFMS_Magnet_1.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Superchilum Image:Stator eines Universalmotor.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Stator_eines_Universalmotor.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Marrrci Image:DoorBell 001.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:DoorBell_001.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: HNH File:Sturgeon electromagnet.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sturgeon_electromagnet.png License: Public Domain Contributors: William Sturgeon File:Industrial lifting magnet.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Industrial_lifting_magnet.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Cyril Methodius Jansky Image:Electromagnet with gap.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Electromagnet_with_gap.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Chetvorno File:Lifting electromagnet cross section.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lifting_electromagnet_cross_section.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Cyril Methodius Jansky Image:Current_carrying_busbars_at_the_LNCMI.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Current_carrying_busbars_at_the_LNCMI.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Nerd bzh Image:Small small IMG 0836.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Small_small_IMG_0836.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Avron, KasugaHuang, NYCRuss, Pieter Kuiper, Superm401 Image:Ferrimagnetic ordering.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ferrimagnetic_ordering.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Michael Schmid Image:Ferrimagnetism - magnetic moment as a function of temperature.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ferrimagnetism_-_magnetic_moment_as_a_function_of_temperature.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Petteri Aimonen Image:MagnetEZ.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MagnetEZ.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Eurico Zimbres FGEL/UERJ Image:Weiss-Bezirke1.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Weiss-Bezirke1.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Ra'ike (see also: de:Benutzer:Ra'ike) File:Lodestone attracting nails.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lodestone_attracting_nails.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Fred Anzley Annet File:Malapterurus electricus 1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Malapterurus_electricus_1.jpg License: Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:Stan Shebs File:Shen Kua.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Shen_Kua.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Original uploader was Wikimachine at en.wikipedia File:Robert Boyle 0001.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Robert_Boyle_0001.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Johann Kerseboom File:Hauksbee Generator.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hauksbee_Generator.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Aushulz, Enomil, Gerben49, Verica Atrebatum File:Pieter van Musschenbroek.jpeg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pieter_van_Musschenbroek.jpeg License: Public Domain Contributors: User Dr. Manuel on de.wikipedia File:Franklin-Benjamin-LOC.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Franklin-Benjamin-LOC.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Androstachys, Davepape, Editor at Large, Eubulides, Jengod, Jh12, Kilom691, Mschel, Nagy, Nonenmac, Raymond, Shizhao, 3 anonymous edits File:Bcoulomb.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bcoulomb.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Chanchocan, Lmbuga, Mutter Erde, N.borisenkov, Pieter Kuiper, Sertion, WikipediaMaster, 1 anonymous edits File:Volta A.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Volta_A.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Garavaglia, Giovita , 1790 - 1835 File:rsted.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:rsted.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Aastrup, Anne-Sophie Ofrim, JdH, Joonasl, Smeira, Thue, 1 anonymous edits File:Ohm3.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ohm3.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: ABF, Grayshi, Magog the Ogre, Shizhao, Spiderwoman, Texnik, 1 anonymous edits File:Jospeh Henry (1879).jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jospeh_Henry_(1879).jpg License: unknown Contributors: Henry Ulke (1821-1910) File:Faraday-Millikan-Gale-1913.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Faraday-Millikan-Gale-1913.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Probably albumen carte-de-visite by John Watkins File:Lord Kelvin photograph.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lord_Kelvin_photograph.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Fastfission, Kalki, LobStoR, Pieter Kuiper, Quibik File:James Clerk Maxwell.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:James_Clerk_Maxwell.png License: Public Domain Contributors: G. J. Stodart File:N.Tesla.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:N.Tesla.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Blacklake, CLI, Choihei, DIREKTOR, Emerson7, GreenStork, Kilom691, Nikola Smolenski, PRODUCER, Rainman, Veliki Kategorizator, 3 anonymous edits File:Crookes William.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Crookes_William.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Henry Smith Williams File:Oliver Heaviside2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Oliver_Heaviside2.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was SuperGirl at en.wikipedia File:Jj-thomson3.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jj-thomson3.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Bletchley at en.wikipedia File:WorldsFairTeslaPresentation.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:WorldsFairTeslaPresentation.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Reddi at en.wikipedia

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File:Thomas Edison.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Thomas_Edison.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Amano1, Jmabel, John Vandenberg, Makthorpe, Martin H., Shizhao, TheCuriousGnome, Tony Wills, Vizu File:Charlesproteussteinmetz.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Charlesproteussteinmetz.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Orgullomoore, PieterJanR File:Hendrik Antoon Lorentz.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hendrik_Antoon_Lorentz.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: The website of the Royal Library shows a picture from the same photosession that is attributed to Museum Boerhaave. The website of the Museum states "vrij beschikbaar voor publicatie" (freely available for publication). File:JH Poincare.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:JH_Poincare.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Dabomb87, Mdd, File:Einstein patentoffice.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Einstein_patentoffice.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Lucien Chavan UNIQ-ref-2-4f5ac45699a2e89b-QINU (1868 - 1942), a friend of Einstein's when he was living in Berne. File:Dirac_4.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dirac_4.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Nobel Foundation File:Feynman at Los Alamos.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Feynman_at_Los_Alamos.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Feynman_and_Oppenheimer_at_Los_Alamos.jpg: unknown derivative work: Materialscientist (talk) File:Lorentz force.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lorentz_force.svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Jaro.p File:Cyclotron motion.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cyclotron_motion.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike Contributors: Marcin Biaek File:charged-particle-drifts.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Charged-particle-drifts.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Contributors: User:Stannered File:Regla mano derecha Laplace.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Regla_mano_derecha_Laplace.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Jfmelero file:MagnetEZ.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MagnetEZ.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: Eurico Zimbres FGEL/UERJ file:Magnet0873.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Magnet0873.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Newton Henry Black file:Solenoid Rotated.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Solenoid_Rotated.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Nuno Nogueira. Original uploader was Andonee at en.wikipedia file:The Effects of Magnetism.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:The_Effects_of_Magnetism.JPG License: unknown Contributors: Jon Zander (Digon3)" file:VFPt cylindrical magnet thumb.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:VFPt_cylindrical_magnet_thumb.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Geek3 file:Hard disk.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hard_disk.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0 Contributors: Inklein file:Magnetic separator hg.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Magnetic_separator_hg.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Hannes Grobe 19:04, 3 September 2006 (UTC) file:M tic.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:M_tic.jpg License: unknown Contributors: ARTE, Fir0002, INVERTED, Pieter Kuiper, Solbris file:Ceramic magnets.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ceramic_magnets.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Omegatron, Pieter Kuiper File:Magneticbearings.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Magneticbearings.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: NASA File:amb2.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Amb2.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Halpaugh File:Magnetic Mirroring.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Magnetic_Mirroring.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: JobanWiki File:Magnetischer Kreis.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Magnetischer_Kreis.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: MovGP0. 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Aainsqatsi at en.wikipedia File:CuttingABarMagnet.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CuttingABarMagnet.svg License: Creative Commons Zero Contributors: User:Sbyrnes321 Image:Magnetocaloric effect1 04a.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Magnetocaloric_effect1_04a.svg License: unknown Contributors: Mtodorov 69 (original); Pbroks13 Original uploader was Pbroks13 at en.wikipedia Image:MCE.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MCE.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Yurij Mozharivskyj. Original uploader was Grandonia at en.wikipedia

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Image:Magnetic Stirrer.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Magnetic_Stirrer.JPG License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: User:Ruhrfisch Image:Magnetic stirring bars aligned.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Magnetic_stirring_bars_aligned.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Masur Image:Ferromagnetic ordering.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ferromagnetic_ordering.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Michael Schmid Image:Antiferro2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Antiferro2.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike Contributors: NlJcwf File:M Faraday Th Phillips oil 1842.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Thomas Phillips File:Magnetism.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Magnetism.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:John Aplessed File:Ferromagneses penzermek 1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ferromagneses_penzermek_1.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Ztonyi Sndor, (ifj.) Fizped Image:Ferromag Matl Sketch.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ferromag_Matl_Sketch.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Contributors: Original uploader was JA.Davidson at en.wikipedia Image:Ferromag Matl Magnetized.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ferromag_Matl_Magnetized.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Contributors: Original uploader was JA.Davidson at en.wikipedia File:Electromagnet.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Electromagnet.gif License: unknown Contributors: Anynobody File:Neodymag.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Neodymag.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Bloodshedder at en.wikipedia File:Nd-magnet.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nd-magnet.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution Contributors: unknown File:Neodymium Crystal Structure Nd2Fe14B.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Neodymium_Crystal_Structure_Nd2Fe14B.jpg License: Creative Commons Zero Contributors: UAwiki file:2 Ferrite ring_magnets.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2_Ferrite_ring_magnets.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Magnequench file:Hdd od srodka.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hdd_od_srodka.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: EugeneZelenko, Qurren, TOR, Tothwolf, Yann, 3 anonymous edits Image:Paramagnetic probe without magnetic field.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Paramagnetic_probe_without_magnetic_field.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Jens Bning (Jensel) File:Paramagnetism of liquid oxygen.jpeg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Paramagnetism_of_liquid_oxygen.jpeg License: Public Domain Contributors: Pieter Kuiper Image:Para-ferro-anti.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Para-ferro-anti.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: NlJcwf File:Ferrofluid Magnet under glass edit.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ferrofluid_Magnet_under_glass_edit.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Gregory F. Maxwell < gmaxwell@gmail.com> File:Neodymium_magnet_-_19-11-2010.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Neodymium_magnet_-_19-11-2010.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Tremaster at en.wikipedia File:Hard disk.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hard_disk.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0 Contributors: Inklein File:Ferritin.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ferritin.png License: GNU General Public License Contributors: Simonxag, Torsch, Vossman File:Spin glass by Zureks.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Spin_glass_by_Zureks.svg License: Creative Commons Zero Contributors: Zureks Image:SiO2_-_Glas_-_2D.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SiO2_-_Glas_-_2D.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: User:127.0.0.l Image:SiO2_-_Quarz_-_2D.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SiO2_-_Quarz_-_2D.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: 127.0.0.l, Matthias M. Image:Precession2.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Precession2.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Chaiken, Newone, Pieter Kuiper Image:Precessionplot.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Precessionplot.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Chaiken, Pieter Kuiper Image:Langevin function.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Langevin_function.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: Ddcampayo at en.wikipedia Image:VSM_en.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:VSM_en.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: R0oland

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