Linguistic Regionalism in India Author(s): Marshall Windmiller Reviewed work(s): Source: Pacific Affairs, Vol. 27, No. 4 (Dec.

, 1954), pp. 291-318 Published by: Pacific Affairs, University of British Columbia Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2753073 . Accessed: 03/10/2012 11:18
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LinguisticRegionalismin India
Marshall Windmiller
of Southand Southeast Asia todayis nationalunity, and in many of themone of thegreatimpediments theachievement thatunity to of is language.Throughout area thedemandforlinguistic this autonomy has challengedthe authority centralgovernments threatened of and theirstability. has been encountered the Government Burma It by of whichhas been forcedto concedea separate Karen state, and by the Pakistanis whose Bengali-speaking population April i954 electeda in provincial ministry spokeopenly secession that of untilthecentral government suppressed it. It would not be accurate describe to thisphenomenon linguistic as for do nationalism rarely theselinguistic groupsdemanda completely status. is term.It is not a independent Linguistic regionalism a better nor new phenomenon is it peculiarto thispartof Asia. Belgiumand to have bothhad to conSwitzerland, citethebestWestern examples, worldpowerto facethisproblemwithinits tendwith it. The largest borders been the SovietUnion,and the integration the various has of and linguistic nationalgroupswithinthe USSR is an accomplishment aboutwhichSoviet neverceasesto boast.The Soviets propaganda claim to have foundthe solution linguistic to in of regionalism thedialectics and on Marxism-Leninism, Stalin's and writings nationalities linguistics are supposedto containthe key to thisproblem wherever is found. it It is thiskeywhichthe ChineseCommunists claim to have used with "brilliantsuccess"in dealing with the sixtynationalminorities in for of China,1and which was responsible the formation the so-called areasof SouthChina,Burmaand Thai People'sRepublicin theborder also Indochina. OtherAsian Communist it to parties offer as theanswer in linguistic regionalism Asia. In India todaytheproblem reachedan acutestage,and all the has of are resources her parliamentary system beingtaxedto cope withit. Althoughthe agitationin India has shown no evidenceof political in separatism has the Bengaliagitation East Pakistan),it is safeto (as
Enjoy RegionalAutonomy," People's China. No. 'See Liu Chun, "National Minorities i, (January I954), pp. 9-I4.
i,

THE

MAJOR problem confronting newly the independent countries

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Pacific Affairs saythat magnitude complexity for and India's linguistic problem the is greatest theworld, onlybecause India'ssize and population in not of and the greatnumber languages dialects of and spoken within her borders, alsobecause haschosen solve problem but she to the within the frameworkparliamentary of democracy. India has eleven majorlanguages, withspeakers each numbering in the millions.2 addition In there forty-seven languages, are other dialects tribal and tongues, eachof whichis spoken overioo,ooo by persons. i95i census lists languages dialects The also 720 and spoken by as lessthanioo,ooo. situation notquiteso chaotic these The is figures are would indicate, manyof the languages for and dialects closely related their and speakers be mutually can understood. Thereis,morein a over, substantial amount bilingualism, of particularlyareas where and like language groups overlap in thebigcities Madras Bombay. and Butthediversity enormous. isstill The mainlanguage in cleavage Indiais between North the the and South. Mostof thelanguages North of Indiaconstitute so-called the Indo-Aryan group. Theselanguages either have evolved ofSanskrit out orbeen andtheir influencedit, by vocabularies Sanskrit share derivatives. The South Indian languages, so-called the Dravidian group, havegreat but for of similarities, (except a scattering Sanskrit words)are comto pletely foreign thelanguages theNorth. Dravidian of The languages than but areno more of mutually intelligible those theNorth, a longdomination produced curious of fear has a sense standing ofnorthern the ThisDravidian Dravidian solidarity among southern people. groupto is of identification political significance in relation theNorth; only rivalries theDravidians itis offset linguistic themgenerally by among ofa for includThe selves. movement theestablishment "Dravidistan," it ing all of SouthIndia,is of no great import though occasionally because itsidentification theanti-Brahmin of with notice attracts public movement. in relation thedisto state The present boundaries Indiahavelittle The of tribution language groups. Telugu-speaking forexample, area, and the extends into overlaps Hyderabad Andhra, Kannadaregion and and Madras, Hyderabad, Bombay, Mysore Coorg, Marathi speakers and Pradesh. fact The in that arefound Bombay, Hyderabad Madhya cut can to boundaries across state linguistic regions be traced these2

Census India1951, PaperNo. of

i,

Languages.

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in Regionalism India Linguistic conquestsin India. The Britishannexed territory quence of British and thus created such withoutregard to language considerations of unitsas the Presidency Madras whichinunwieldyadministrative over and sprawled cludedTamils,Telugus,Kannadas and Malayalees, MadrasPresidency independence an area of 142,000 squaremiles.After and composition unwieldy becameMadras Stateand its multi-lingual was detached size remained fixeduntilI953 when theTelugu portion to in created response linguistic to new toform Andhra, first state be the that Indians charge,not withoutsome justification, it was agitation. boundaries provincial theprinciple "divideand rule"thatdetermined of demarcations provincial Raj. At anyrate,the British underthe British thanto to seemto have been muchmoresuitable India'scolonialstatus democracy. thefunctioning parliamentary of counThe process government sucha largeand multi-lingual of in and it was of as India demandedthedevelopment a linguafranca, try own tonguein prefershouldchoosetheir onlynaturalthattheBritish became the vehicleof ence to a native language. English therefore The in and administration the mediumof instruction the universities. Indian eliteand a of resultwas the development an English-speaking civil servants.English, moreover, large corps of English-speaking bridgedthe gap betweenNorth and South and becamethe medium to whichwas ultimately expeltheBritish. movement of thenationalist the although Governthis No Indianlanguagehas attained universality, wherever Hindi eventually to ment is now committed substituting Englishis usedat present. in for Like so manypoliticalmovements India, the agitation linhad its originin Bengal. Priorto i905 the British guisticstateshad groupedBengal with Bihar,Orissa and Chota Nagpur intoone provarea was adthatthistremendous ince,but it soon became apparent In cumbersome. i905 Lord Curzon, then Governor ministratively the General,partitioned area, the easternportionbeing joined with withBiharand ChotaNagpur.Adminportion Assamand thewestern but for the from British pointofview,was made easier a time, istration, whichultimately vitiated any the actionset in motionpoliticalforces administrative improvements. of of The partition Bengalwas a blow to theinfluence theBengaliwas Hindus.This largeand vigorous community dividedinto speaking in each of whichconstituted a minority thenew provonly two parts,
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PacificA/lairs CounThus in thetwo Legislative ince to whichit had been assigned. believed to cils theBengalisdid nothavetherepresentation whichthey of of by theywereentitled virtue thesize,wealthand importance their was made worseby the factthatin East The situation community. by Bengalthe BengaliHindus wereoutnumbered theMuslimpopulathat Bengali politicsshould take an tion,and it was thus inevitable turn. anti-Muslim for agitation The Bengaliswere not long in launchinga vigorous and violence, including tookall forms, Bengal.This agitation reuniting On to wereforced make concessions. August25, the ultimately British of of i9ii, the Government India, overthe signature Lord Hardinge, of General,sent a dispatchto the Secretary Statefor then Governor reunite Government that India in Londonrecommending His Majesty's it Bengal and separate fromAssam,Orissaand Chota of the province the thatsimultaneously capitalof India be Nagpur. It was suggested seat fromCalcuttato Delhi, thehistoric of Hindu and Mogul removed Whitehallagreed to the proposaland the decisionwas anempires. of Durbarin Delhi in December thatyear. nouncedat GeorgeV's great unificafor The successof the Bengalisin theiragitation linguistic groupsin India. If thishad notbeen linguistic tionwas notedby other in implicit Lord it themselves, was certainly made clear by the events said in part: which dispatch, Hardinge's on basedmainly of to "The opposition thepartition Bengalwas at first much has of but grounds, . . . thegrievance theBengali become sentimental of Everyone to instead diminish. and real more andtangible, is likely increase must of country wishto for desire thepeaceandprosperitythis any with true to if of find somemanner appeasement,it is in anywaypossible do so... part has "No doubtsentiment playeda considerable in the opposition to wish underrate this, and by offered theBengalis, in saying we byno means to even whichshouldbe attached sentiment if it be exagtheimportance
gerated."3

was whenpublished interpreted that It is notsurprising thisdispatch based of the groupsas indicating efficacy agitation by otherlinguistic of of theGovernment India to it.To and on sentiment theamenability could be a useful thatlinguistic agitation someit also becameapparent ruler. toolwithwhichtoharasstheforeign
of of 3 Dispatchof the Government India to the Secretary StateforIndia, August 25, i9,i I, pp. 224-226. I9I5. Office, Stationery StatePapersi9ii. London:His Majesty's and British Foreign 294

in Regionalism India Linguistic the to movement developafter Bengal linguistic important The first area of agitationappeared in South India in the Telugu-speaking Inspiredby as Madras known historically Andhra or Andhradesha. in Bengal,Andhraintellectuals May I9I3 from and local writers orators known as the organization fromwhich an conveneda conference of Andhra Mahasabha emerged.Althoughthe advancement Telugu became aim,theAndhraMahasabhaultimately was itsprimary culture Teluguof to dedicated theformation a separate organization a political state. speaking aims thattheAndhrapeopleshouldseektohavetheir It was natural endorsedby the major Indian politicalparty,the Indian National to calledupontheCongress recogin Consequently i9i5 they Congress. in status the adminis, it by nize Andhra'sambitions granting separate BothGandhiand AnnieBesantopposedthe affairs. of tration Congress in by accepted the Congress I9I7, and but proposal, it was finally Provinces." "Congress Andhraand Sind becameseparate of In i9i8 the Secretary StateforIndia, Edwin Montagu,wentto of of India to examinethe workings the Government India and to of commitment British changesin line withthe proposeconstitutional in government India. The responsible the previousyear to establish changes suggestedto linguistic constitutional prospectof extensive timeto proposethe redrawing advocatesthat thiswas an opportune on i9i8 a resolution redisThus in February boundaries. of provincial Council by Rao in was introduced the ImperialLegislative tribution from BahadurB.N. Sarma,a representative Andhra.Only one speaker to in whilearrayed opposition it weresuchgreat the supported motion, of Indianstatesmen theperiodas Dr. Tej BahadurSapruand Surendra was India's reform Nath Banerjee.They argued that constitutional Ali who was ultimately Mohammed Jinnah, mainneed at themoment. of grounds, for to becomeresponsible the partition India on religious Resolution." The reso"a mostmischievous referred theproposalas to lution notpass.4 did with the Governor Later in the year Montagu,in collaboration on the rendered report whichthe famous General,Lord Chelmsford, document reforms were based. This important Montagu-Chelmsford It reorganization. reads: a passageon provincial contains significant
4 Proceedings of

the ImperialLegislativeCouncil.Vol. LVI, (April 1917 to March i9i8),

PP. 483-508.

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PacificAffairs into new the as while discard impracticable ideaofcalling existence we we scheme, areimpressed states partof our own constructive as provincial administrative of character existing the and inconvenient with artificial, often them about. cannot We reasons brought We units. haveseenhowhistorical wouldbe simplifiedadministrative if the of doubt that business government wereboth we and and homogeneous; when bearin mind units smaller more in of of burden government India beingtranstheprospect theimmense acquire to hands,such considerations inexperienced ferred comparatively or in of argument favour linguistic racial weight. is alsoa strong It additional of the to it that, of units government bymaking possible conduct business of to they in legislation thevernacular, wouldcontributedrawintothearena withEnglish.We believe men who werenot acquainted publicaffairs upon be areas ofprovincial cannot imposed that emphatically redistribution in ought anycaseto action;and thatsucha process thepeopleby official reform. we But constitutional nor follow neither precede accompany and to such that wherever redistribuare boundto indicate ownclearopinion our to the of by and tions necessary can be effected process consent attempt are be that we do so should made;and therefore desire it should recognized be provincial upon all the reformed duties incumbent as one of theearliest end."5 to directed this uponschemes provincial opinion to Governmentstest but It was not in the legislatures in the CongressPartythat the acceptance. first of redistribution metwithwholesale principle linguistic Andhraand As has been mentioned, Congress 19I7 constituted in the of At Provinces. the 1920 annualsession the Congress Sind as separate on in Congress Nagpur it was decidedto applythisprinciple an alladoptedat Nagpur India basis. Thus the new Congressconstitution Coninto twenty-one purposes dividedIndia forpartyadministrative for Committees thecities Provincial including separate gressProvinces of Delhi and Bombayand forBurmawhichat thattimewas stillpart of todaybutthenumber provinces still of India. The principle operates has increased twenty-six. to further to attempts Followingthis action by the CongressParty, were made in the centraland state secureprovincial reorganization and reThey were opposedby the government generally legislatures. Councilof However,in 1927 theLegislative support. ceivedverylittle to whichcalled by Madraspasseda resolution a voteofforty thirty-two Governor Generalto constitute separate a AndhraProvince.6 upon the
[i9i8],
1927),

5 Edwin Montagu and Chelmsford, Rejorms. n.d., n.p., Report on Indian Constitutional pp. ii8-ti9.

6Proceedings the Third Madras LegislativeCouncil,First Session. Vol. XXV, (March of pp. 62-87.

296

in Regionalism India Linguistic the announced appointGovernment When,latein 1927, theBritish of underthe chairmanship Sir JohnSimon to mentof a commission Reforms,public review the progressof the Montagu-Chelmsford had to in opinion India was angered notethatthecommission no Indian the to boycott commission, decided unanimously All member. parties with of in in and whenit arrived Bombay February I928 itwas greeted blackflags demonstrations. and of Despite the hostility the Indian public the Simon Commission report. publisheda voluminous gatheredits evidenceand ultimately the Simon Commissionwas not Like Montagu and Chelmsford, Its redistribution. reportstated: to unfavorable the idea of linguistic callsforsome in body "Thereis a considerable of opinion Indiawhich share and ofareas, we entirely and of readjustmentboundaries redistribution is not arrangement altogether that whothink thepresent theviews those of in boundaries more than one case provincial The satisfactory. existing separate and affinity, sometimes of areasand peoples no national embrace There united. naturally be scheme more a those whomight under different and in the difficulties wayofredistribution, thehisvery are,however, great needed of as of of tory thepartition Bengalstands a warning thecaution to to so before any undertaking operation likely runcounter old associations 7 suspicion resentment." and ortoinflame amonglinguisAt thetimeof Simon'svisittheopinionwas current withhim theywould be granted tic advocates thatif theycooperated their This opinionis widelyheld in India now. But in I928, provinces. wereparamount. movement as in i9i8, the demandsof thenationalist deWhereasin i9i8 Sapru and Banerjeehad opposed the linguistic fromconstitutional mand in ordernot to divertMontagu'sattention was reorganization submerged in reform, I928 the issue of provincial that in the unitedprotest againstSimon.It is significant in bothcases over provincialsentiment. the demands of nationalismtriumphed of actingon the recommendations the Parliament, When the British of passed the Government India Act of I935, it Simon Commission, of createdthe new provinces Sind and Orissa,but the areas in which demandwas strongest wereignored. thelinguistic weresetup which,in I938, Underthe Act of I935 new legislatures agitation.In March, Konda linguistic became the scene of further Pantuluintroduced resolution theMadrasLegisinto a Venkatappayya
7Report of the Indian Statutory Commission. Vol. II. London: HMSO, I930.
p. 24.

297

PacificA/lairs lative Assemblycalling for the creationof separateTamil, Telugu, by Supported C. Rajagopalachari, Kannada and Malayalamprovinces. carried.8 Bombaythenextmonth In the the ChiefMinister, resolution callingforthe Assembly was proposedin the Legislative a resolution The Bombay It creationof a Karnatakprovince. was also adopted.9 resolution. Councilpasseda similar Legislative lapsedintoa stateof movement provinces thisthe linguistic After was while the nation'sattention focusedon the suspendedanimation DuringWorld War II popularmovements for struggle independence. was out approach and by weresuppressed theBritish anyconstitutional ofthequestion. met Assembly forthefirst In Decemberi946, whentheConstituent for the India's constitution, movement time to draftan independent werecalled,meetto sprang lifeagain.Conventions provinces linguistic passeda resoingswereheld all overIndia and theMadraslegislature to Assembly regardthe principle lutioncallingupon the Constituent of in requisite theframing a conas of linguistic provinces "a necessary in relations Hindu-Muslim the for India." Reflecting bitter stitution amongMuslim centered to NorthIndia, the opposition thisresolution Assembly, to who objectedto the reference the Constituent members did of thelegality whichthey notconcede."0 whichthe Constituent problems Not the least among the weighty of languageand had Assembly to solvewerethequestions thenational Pakistan of the organization states.India was not yet independent, states and had not come intoexistence, the fateof the manyprincely the met all through hectic been decided.The Assembly had not yet in and concludedits deliberations and integration days of partition states apit November1949.11To deal withthe questionof linguistic under the pointedin JuneI948 a LinguisticProvincesCommission its tendered fifty-six-page S. K. Dar. The Commission of chairmanship on io, report December i948.12 thattheidea of linguisacknowledged While the Dar Commission of made "a strongappeal to the imagination many of our tic states
Bulletin.No. 7, (November-DecemCongress in 11See summary speechby Dr. Ambedkar,
9 Bombay Legislative Assembly Debates. Vol. 3, (April 2-May 7, 1938), pp. i686-I770. Debates.Vol. 5, (Marchto April,1947), pp. 64Iff. Assembly 10 MadrasLegislative

Debates.Vol. 6, (March 14-30, I938), pp. ii86-1209. Assembly 8Madras Legislative

ber, 1949), pp. 6f.

New 12 Constituent Assemblyof India, Report of the LinguisticProvincesCommission. Delhi: Government Press,I948. 56 pp.

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Linguistic Regionalism India in countrymen" thatthereexisted largevolumeof publicsupport and "a in their favour", concluded it thata state national of emergency existed in India whichgave a higher "The first priority other to problems. and last need of India at the present shouldbe made a is moment thatit nation," said the Commission. "Everything whichhelpsthegrowth of nationalism, to go forward, everything has and whichthrows obstacles in itsway has to be rejected. . . We have appliedthistestto linguistic . provinces also,and judgedbythistest, ouropinion, in fail they and cannotbe supported."'3 The Dar Commission concerned itself onlywiththefourproposed statesof South India: Andhra,Karnataka,Kerala and Maharashtra. In each of thesecasesit presented detailedfinancial arguments against their creation. thespecific Of recommendations theCommission, of the mostsignificant werethoseregarding cities Bombay of and Madras. the Both of thesecitieshave large multilingual and are hotly populations contested the predominant by groups.(In i95i Bombayhad an estiEach groupclaimsthecity itsstate. for The Dar Commission supported neither. Said thereport:

mated i,236,900 speakers Marathi and523,I00 speakers Gujerati.)14 of of

"We areoftheopinion bilingual multilingual should disor be that areas posedofhaving regard their economic administrative to own or interests.... they should be broken and alloted various not up to linguistic groups toa or single linguistic group.... "The best fortune we canseefor city Bombay that should that the of is it continue it is today, meeting-placeall communities, source as the of their of and affection a convenient pride and center their for jointlabour enterand prise. willbe incongruous makethis It to multilingual, cosmopolitan the city capital a unilingual of province."'5 For Madras the Commission's recommendations less definite. were Althoughit concededa stronger claim on thepartof theTamil community virtueof numerical by superiority and aroundthe city,it in suggested thatsomesortof independent status might also be desirable. The widespreadopposition which greetedthe publication the of Dar Commission's Report prompted Congress the Party, meeting its in
14 Censusof India 1951. Paper No. I, Languages.Section9, p. I. These figures, course, of were not available to the Dar Commission 1948. Earlier figuresshowed less difference in between number Marathi the of and Gujerati speakers. 15 Report theLinguistic of Provinces Commission. 13. p.

'5lbid., P. 36.

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PacificAffairs in in annualsession Jaipur DecemberI948, to appointitsown Linguisconsistedof Jawarharlal tic ProvincesCommittee.The committee and and PattabhiSitaramayya, its report, Nehru, VallabhbhaiPatel was of the after initials itsauthors, submitted knownas theJVPReport to less was onlyslightly unfavorable the on April I, I949. This report It idea linguistic thantheDar Report. stated: is the that present notan view and "Takinga broad practical . .. we feel It of time opportune fortheformation newProvinces. wouldunmistakably our dislocate administrative, of of the retard process consolidation ourgains, in whilewe arestill a formative let structure, loose, and economic financial with interfere the and and of forces disruption disintegration, seriously state, difficulties.... and of solution oureconomic political progressive we, and is sentimentinsistent overwhelming, as demoif "However, public to in limitations regard the to to haveto submit it,butsubject certain crats, goodofIndiaas a whole...."16 Regardingthe fatesof the citiesof Bombayand Madras the JVP fromthe Dar Report."Bombay substantially Reportdid not differ "Madras politicalunit,"it stated. into shouldbe constituted a separate life Cityis smallerand is closelylinkedwithprovincial and activities. is that therefore, if an AndhraProvince to be We are of the opinion, will its formed, protagonists have to abandontheirclaim to the City was of Madras."" The obviousimplication thatit shouldgo to Tamilby was laterinterpreted Pathowever, wording, nad. This ambiguous advocateof himselfan Andhra and a long-time tabhi Sitaramayya, AndhraState,as not givingMadras Cityto Tamilnad,but as leaving did It theissueundecided. can be seenthattheJVPReport no moreto statesthan the Dar Reportwhich of the satisfy proponents linguistic and the it. preceded Indeedit appearsonlyto haveincreased confusion added fuelto thecontroversy. Neitherthe JVP nor the Dar Reportwas popularin Andhra,for general their to bothaskedtheAndhras giveup MadrasCity.Moreover, in Andhrabeganto simmer. Emotions tonewas one of postponement. was It was not long beforeIndia's unique politicalweapon,the fast, AndhraState. for into brought thefight a separate Gandhian) and On August i6, i95i, Swami Sitaram(a respected of a undertook "fastto death"forthecreation severalof his followers
16 Reportof the Linguistic New Delhi: AICC, 1949. pp. 9-IO, I5. Provinces Committee. "7Ibid., p. 14.

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in Linguistic Regionalism India leadand national mounted AndhraState.As thefastworeon,tension several his followers of Although uneasiness. increasing ersmanifested his continued untilSeptember Swami Sitaram earlier, broketheirfasts days, thirty-five he brokeit at the requestof Vinoba 20thwhen,after that the Bhave.In takingfood the Swami deniedhimself martyrdom Gandhian." was to comea yearlaterto another Telugu-speaking day On Decemberi5, i952, a fifty-six fastclaimedthe lifeof Potti an equally passionateAndhra patriot.The reactionin Sriramulu, Violencebrokeout in severalplaces.The police Andhrawas electric. on fired a mob at Nellore,killingthreeand woundingseveralothers. but seatsin protest, resigned their Andhralegislators In Madrasseveral parliato theattempt Andhramembers raisetheissuein thecentral by However,on Decemberi9 theGovernment mentwas without success. of ofIndia announced thatitwouldgo ahead withthecreation thenew to it to official protestations thecontrary, is difficult escape Despite state. of the thatit was neither merits theissuenorthesuffertheconclusion the to but thatmovedthe government action, rather ing of Sriramulu The dangerremainsthatthe violencethe latterinspired. widespread a techniqueby which the Andhrassecuredtheirstatemay constitute advocates. for linguistic precedent other The AndhraStateBill was debatedin theHouse of thePeopleduri was inaugurated. I953, and on October thehew state ing thesummer To reasons. begin case for Andhramakesan interesting study several agitation, to stateto be setup in response linguistic with,it is the first Second,in an agitation thathad been goingon longerthananyother. the homogeneity, stateis cursedwith casteand spiteof its linguistic has Third, tensions whichitsnew status tendedto exacerbate. regional to the Government India intends view Andhraas an indexto the of of redistribution. linguistic advisability further Thereweresome33 million peoplein India in i95i who considered Most of themare locatedin theeleven tongue.'9 Telegu theirmother State of of districts AndhraStateand in theeastern portion Hyderabad knownas Telengana.It is customary think AndhraStateas divided to of into two parts,the fivecoastaldistricts the northbeing knownas in
18 The fastis not alwaysa perfect political technique the Swami discovered the spring as in of 1954 when,duringhis fastfor the retention prohibition Andhra,the publicand press of in and appearedquite willing to let him starveto death. He consequently paid littleattention called it off. 19 Censusof India i95i. LanguagePaper,p. 6.

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Affairs Pacific
The coastal as districts Rayalaseema. the Circarsand the fivesouthern of sharesmanycharacteristics of district Nellore,whichlies between, deltasof the The Circarsregionincludesthe richrice-growing both. of the Krishnaand Godavaririvers, portand shipyards Vizagapatam, and and Rajamundry, the Guntur townsof Vijayawada, theimportant on Rayalaseema the otherhand is arid, bulk of Andhra'spopulation. by populatedand is visited famineon the averageof one less densely of is Rayalaseema thehomeland theKapu castegroup, yearoutoffive.20 knownas the "Reddys"becauseof thetitletheyuse whenwritbetter singlecaste the ing theirnames.2'They are probably mostnumerous caste group is the in South India. In the Circarsthe predominant to Kamma whichtends lookdownupontheReddys. economy, partin Andhra's playa dominant Cash cropsand minerals in exports, overseas abroad.Andhra's are and greatquantities exported ten Rs. fact,amountto an estimated 400 millionper year, per centof port on This places a high premium convenient the nationaltotal.22 the years portofMadrashas handledthebulkof and in recent facilities, Madrashas been of By exports. virtue itsproximity, Andhra'soverseas outletforthe goods of Rayalaseema the naturaland mosteconomical Under of extent thanforthe products the Circars. to a much greater ties commercial betherewere bound to be strong the circumstances of community and tweenthe people of RayAlaseema the commercial Madras. in life and of The growth Telugu culture intellectual has centered the and of centers Guntur aroundthegreat population particularly Circars, Vijayawada. It was mainlyfromthis area thatthe Telugu-speaking came.Thus it service and to aspirants thelegal profession government first was in the Circarsthatdiscontent developedoverthe dominance It in in of the Tamil community theseprofessions Madras Province. thatmuch of the to lawyers was also a sourceof irritation the Circars legal businessof Rayalaseemawas in the hands of Tamils. lucrative of a Until I926 Andhrawas without university itsown.The various of (under for collegesof Andhrawereaffiliated purposes examination When Andhra University the Indian system)to Madras University.
20 George Silver and V. L. S. PrakasaRao, "The AndhraState:Its RegionalSetting," Kuriyan n.d. [Is53]. pp. 53-59. of Madras: AndhraChamber Commerce, jubilee Souvenir. 21 See J.H. Hutton, Press,I95I P. II. University Castein India. Bombay:Oxford 22 P. Suryanarayana, of "Trade and Commerce Andhra,"SilverJubileeSouvenir.loc. cit. p. 288.

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Linguistic Regionalism India in was eventually up in Waltair(Circars),thecollegesofRayalaseema set declinedto changetheir affiliations continued remainassociated and to withMadras.This peculiarsituation than continues today, and rather affiliate theircollegeswith Andhra University people of Rayalathe seema have demandedand receivedauthorization a university of for theirown. Since Andhra finances precarious, is reasonableto are it arguethatthe statecannotafford two universities. Such an argument, does not impress however, the people of Rayalaseemawhose fearof Circars domination notwithout is foundation. Thus it can be seen thatthe two areas of Andhrahave greateconomic, geographical cultural and differences whichhavehad important consequences Andhrapolitics. theabove-mentioned in All factors militated against unityamong the Telugu-speaking people of the old MadrasProvince, thesuspicion and between people of and distrust the theCircars and thepeopleof Rayalaseema a precluded unified demand for the creation Andhra State.Nevertheless, of therewas among all Andhrasthefeeling thattheir area was suffering discrimination the at handsof theTamils who dominated Madrasprovincial There politics. is littledoubt that the Tamil areas receivedmore governmental assistance than did the Andhraareas.In fact,the Madras Government reported to "On the whole,the inofficially the Simon Commission: of terests theTamiliansin theprovince havein factbeenbetter attended to than those of the Telugus. One reasonwhich perhapshelped in the starting Andhramovement thefactthatthe Goverment was servicesin theTelugu districts werelargely mannedbyTamilians."2' Morethat"theincomefrom land revenue over,theReportadmitted derived from Telugu districts nearly the is halfof thetotalforthePresidency". Under such circumstances Andhradiscontent was inevitable. The reasonsforthe neglectof the Andhraareas are complexand difficult assess.The Andhras tend to ascribethis neglectto the to of machinations the Tamils and the "divide and rule" policyof the British. Althoughevidenceis availableto support thesecharges, is it to difficult balance it with such factors the backwardness the as of emotional and Telugu-speaking people,their volatility thegeographical in conditions Andhrawhicheat up developmental withexpenditures
23 Memoranda of the Madras Government the Working the Reformed on of Government, to Submitted the Indian Statutory Commission. Madras: Superintendent the Government of Press,1930. p. 580.

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Pacific Aflairs
out commensurate visibleresults. the British If neglected Andhras the or allowed theTamils unfair advantages, was probably it becausethey foundthelatter easierto do business withand inhabiting areawhich an gave a better return investments. is truethatDistrict on It Officers and administrative appointees the Andhra area were,more oftenthan in not,non-Andhras, thiswas frequently to thelack of qualified but due Andhrapersonnel. The Andhraexplanation thattheir inability proto duce qualified applicants government was theresult theinfor jobs of adequateeducational facilities availableto themis partially valid.However, they nottaketo Western did education aspireto governmental nor service withthesame enthusiasm theTamils,and as a consequence as theircommunity in occupieda less important position India's Englishspeaking elite. The greatbane of the Andhracommunity been and is its dishas on wereable to insist agreement between Circars unity. ITe British the and Rayalaseemabeforea separateAndhra Provincecould be conafterindependence, new Government India sidered.Similarly, the of consensus demandedthesameimpossible before would agreeto form it wereparticularly vulnerable suchdelayto AndhraState.The Andhras werewillingto acceptan When thepeople of the Circars ing tactics. AndhraProvince the basisof theJVP recommendations withon (i.e. leaders to refused agree.Thus when outMadrasCity),theRayalaseema knownas the"Lion ofAndhra"forhis long-time in i950 T. Prakasam, wrotea minuteof dissent a partition to of leadership Andhrapolitics, whichhad excludedMadrasCityfrom concommittee report Andhra, and the troversy raged again betweenthe Circarsand Rayalaseema, of creation AndhraStatewas oncemorepostponed. of was The location thecapitaland theHigh Courtofthenew state whichwas boundto magnify irritations the between a question existing thatthey Rayalaseemaand the Circars.If one adoptedthe principle bulkofthepopulation, to thentheGunturshouldbe locatedclosest the Vijayawadaarea would be thenaturalchoice.But sucha choiceis not of possiblein the politicalclimateof Andhra.The leadership Rayalathe to stateunless seemawas unwilling support demandfora separate the it was given a guarantee regarding capital and the High Court. knownas theShriBagh Pact was negotian Consequently, agreement ated in 1937 betweenthe CongressPartyleadersof the Circarsand that"the High Courtand theMetropolis It be Rayalaseema. provided 304

in Linguistic Regionalism India locatedin suitable places in the coastaldistricts the Rayalaseema, and the choicebeing givento the Rayalaseema".24 a result thisPact, As of the capitalof Andhrawas locatedtemporarily Kurnool when the at statewas createdin OctoberI953. The new statewas barelya month old when a disputedevelopedovermovingthecapitalto Vijayawada, almostresulting thedownfall theministry. in of Kurnoolis eminently as and it has a great unsuitable a capital.Its climateis abominable, of for and shortage public buildingsand accommodations legislators government personnel. When the Kurnool weatherbecame unbearable in I954 the legislature No movedto Waltairforitsdeliberations. decision a permanent on capitalhas yetbeentaken. Aside fromthe Rayalaseema-Circars disputethe Andhrasare reluctant another for reasonto decideon a permanent capital. They hope forthe eventual establishment Vishalandhra of whichin effect means the annexation the Telugu-speaking of areas of HyderabadState.In suchan eventuality HyderabadCitywithitsmorecomfortable climate and its manypublicbuildings would becomethe statecapital.Vishalandhrais not a new demand,but it was nevertakenseriously the in days beforeindependence because of the treaty commitments the of Britishwith the Nizam to preserve Hyderabadintact.It became a the genuinepossibility onlyafter Indian "policeaction"whichin I948 brought Hyderabad intotheIndianUnion. Hyderabad in factthekeystone theentire is to linguistic states moveof ment in South India, for the formation United Maharashtra and UnitedKarnatakaas well as Vishalandhra depends upon itsdisintegration.This would involvea basic changein theGovernment India's of of a policytowardtheinstitution theRajpramukh, sort governorship of Indian princely whichwas bestowed in upon the former states return fortheir accession theIndianUnion. to Anotherfactorcomplicates the formation Vishalandhra-the of apparently growingsentiment among the people of Telengana (the of districts Hyderabad) against union with nine Telugu-speaking Andhra. This questioncame to a head in the Praja SocialistParty (PSP) earlyin I954 and was resolvedin favorof Vishalandhra in the March.Subsequently, however, Party's Hyderabad leadership came The problem also arisen has out in favorof a separate Telenganastate. and in JuneI954 a resolution passedby a was in the Congress Party,
24

Provinces Commission. Appendix p. 40. Report theLinguistic of III,

305

PacificAfairs separate fromTelenganafavoring delegates Party of meeting Congress to can agitation be traced theperiodofthe Mostofthisanti-Andhra intotheIndianUnion.During Hyderabad policeactionwhichbrought went acrossthe thoseviolentdays a numberof Hyderabadrefugees withstories and borderintoAndhraterritory, manyof themreturned in Moreover, Telengana at that time the treatment. of inhospitable Government India was obligedto replacethe Nizam's old district of adwith Telugu-speaking revenueand police officers administrators, hastilyfromAndhra.Many of thesewere not recruited ministrators and or by either ability honesty, theyinspired distinguished, especially among the people of Telengana.This discondiscontent considerable populationwhich reamong the student bitter tentwas particularly of sented the recruitment teachersin Andhra who deprivedlocal in whichstarted WarangalCity agitation of graduates jobs. A student to in spread to everydistrict Telengana and ultimately eventually closingof shops) was obHyderabadCitywherea hartal (a protest the dayof thehartal attempts in I952. On thesecond served September Muslimorganization) militant (a and of the Communists ex-Razakars in and policefirings which led on to capitalize thesituation to violence a havenothelpedto create climate fourpeoplewerekilled.Such events of to in Telengana favorable the formation Vishalandhra. of is Politicalstability not one of thenotablecharacteristics thenew is the and at thiswriting government in dangerofbeing AndhraState, in Since the state'sinauguration on defeated the issue of prohibition. in has government remained Congress OctoberI953, a shakyminority The Compower only because of the wide splitsin the opposition. the partyprovidean ever-present who constitute nextlargest munists for the to It threat. is difficult estimate politicalconsequences Andhra in Telenganais represented shouldTelenganabe annexed.At present elevenSocialCongressmen, by the Hyderabadlegislature thirty-eight CastesFederaof three members theScheduled sevenindependents, ists, membersof the People's DemocraticFront,the tion and thirty-six frontorganizationwhich has lately shown Communist-dominated added to the Andhralegisup. signsof cracking With thesemembers Nor does it would be improved. latureit is not likelythat stability enhanced. would be substantially the Communist position appearthat in to reorganization India is notlikely takeplace At anyrate, linguistic
25 25 for status thearea.

TimesofIndia (Delhi), Juneio, I954.

306

in Linguistic Regionalism India much beforethe next generalelections, and at that time the entire political picture will change. Next to Andhra the Maharashtrian movement the largestand is mostimportant. problem thecreation Samyukta The of of Maharashtra (United Maharashtra)can be dividedinto fourparts.The first concerns BombayCity to which reference alreadybeen made. The has second concerns eightMarathispeakingdistricts Madhya Pradesh of and Berarwhich are known collectively Vidarbha.This is a rich as cotton growing areawhichis,nevertheless, in somewhat backward educationand politics. The attitude thepeopleof Vidarbhatowardthe of Marathasof thePoona area is somewhat similar thatof the Reddys to of Rayalaseema towardtheKammas of theCircars. Poona is traditionally the culturalcenterof Maharashtra and the centerof gravity of Maharashtrian politics, thepeopleofVidarbhafearitsdomination. and Thus thereis a movement VidarbhaagainstjoininganyMaharashin trianState, to although on publicopinionin thearea stillseems be fluid thisissue. The third partof the Maharashtrian problem concerns Hyderabad and its disintegration, alreadymentioned, and the fourth deals with the questionof Goa, the Portuguese colonyon India's westcoast.This latter an international is issuewhichmustbe handledfromDelhi. The proposed states Karnatakaand Kerala are slightly comof less plicatedthan Vishalandhra and SamyuktaMaharashtra. The Kerala agitation somewhat is unique in thatit voicesthe demandforthe inclusionof certain Tamil speakingareas without which,it is claimed, the statewould not be economically viable.Leading protagonists a of Kerala Statehave evenstated thatunlesscertain clearly non-Malayalee speakingareas were includedin the new state, theywould prefer the status Kerala demandtends runcounter thegeneral to quo. Thus the to linguistic principle. In NorthIndia the problemof the Punjab attracts mostattenthe tion.A glanceat themap will showtheabsurdgeographical organizationof the states Punjab,PEPSU and HimachalPradesh.Sincethis of area borders Pakistanit is critical India's defense, on in and therefore is administrative stability particularly important. Threemainlanguages are foundin the area: Hindustani, Punjabi and Pahari.The inter-state boundaries not correspond thelanguagegroupsbutare theresult do to of the integration a number feudalprincedoms, of of notably Patiala. claimsforreorganization have recently Many conflicting originated in 307

PacificAfairs thearea,and someofthemaretheresult communal of frictions between theHindusand theSikhs. The otherNorth Indian linguistic problemof consequence the is border dispute between West Bengaland Bihar.In May of I952 a resolution was introduced the West Bengal legislature the Chief in by Minister, C. Roy, which called upon the Government India to B. of increasethe area of Bengal by adding to it certain allegedlyBengali speakingsections Bihar. The resolution, can be imagined,did of as not meetwitha favorable response Bihar,and after in much vitriolic oratory was summarily rejected.The controversy continuedto has develop and will constitute another problemfor the Government of India in theyears come. to The movement the creation linguistic for of states has had a considerableimpact on India's politicalpartiesand in recentyearshas subjectedthem to abnormalstresses and strain.The CongressParty has naturally theheatof controversy keenly. felt most As has been shown,it was the Congress Partywhichgave the linguisticmovement first its important filipby reorganizing party the machinery along linguisticlines in I920. Between I920 and independencein I947 the Congress several timesreiterated advocacy its of the linguistic For example,in Julyof i938 the Working principle. Committee, meetingat Wardha, endorsedthe linguistic resolutions passed in the Madras and Bombaylegislatures adding thesewords: "This Committee desires assure peopleofthearea concerned to the that the solution thisquestion of would be undertaken partof thefuture as schemeof the Government India as soon as the Congress of has the theAll India Congress powerso to do.. . ."" In July i939 Committee resolution its Bombaymeeting. in (AICC) passed an unofficial "The All India CongressCommittee," statedthe resolution, strongly "is of [the] opinionthatimmediate stepsshouldbe takenfortheformation of a separateAndhra province."27 And the CongressPartyelection of thattheCongress manifesto I946 stated
.... hasalsostood for freedom eachgroup territorial within the of and area to its thenation develop ownlifeand culture within larger the framework, andithasstated for purpose territorial orprovinces that this such areas should as far on be constituted, as possible, a linguistic cultural and basis."28
26 27 28

Congress Bulletin, No. 4, (Augusti6, I938), p. 2-3. Congress Bulletin, 3, (July I939), p. II. No. 9, Congress Bulletin, 2, (January 1946), p. i5-i6. No. 24,

308

Linguistic Regionalism India in A party powergenerally things in sees differently it did while than it was in opposition, on thisissuethe Congress and Party been no has In exception. the tumultuous daysfollowing independence, was not it surprising Nehru and Patel feltthatthelinguistic that issueshouldbe postponedwhile othermore pressingmatters-integration, refugees, economic reconstruction-were taken up first.Thus the Congress began to change its positionand adopt the attitude expressed the by Dar Commission, namely,that "Congressstandsrelievedof all past commitments". Party's The program the i95i elections for stated that althoughthe policyof the Congress had been "clearly and unequivoof still cally in favorof the formation linguistic provinces", the Constandby the conclusion the JVP Reportthatthe time gresswould of was notopportune.29 from The decision allow theAndhras separate to to Madraswas the In their signalforlinguistic groupsall overIndia to increase agitation. a North India, linguistic groupswhich had not previously expressed New withextraordinary for desire separate status beganto agitate vigor. and pressuregroups dedicatedto the linguisticidea organizations all overIndia. sprang up to It becameapparent the Congress Partyas well as to theGovernof in states sentiment favor linguistic mentof India thatthemounting When the annual had to be appeased if orderwas to be preserved. on Congresswas held in Hyderabadin January I953, the resolution the statesconfirmed policyof the Government India in of linguistic AndhraState. to agreeing create the of Not long thereafter Government India announcedthat it to would setup a commission examinethelinguistic states issueon an a solution. all-Indiabasis and recommend suitable The announcement to but was expected diminish agitation, suchhopesweremisplaced. the fromvariousprovinces Withinthe Partyitself Congressmen wenton recordin favorof boundarylines which neighboring Congressmen wereby no meanswillingto accept. Moreover, they joinedand actively ad in set participated thevarious hoc organizations up to promote indiSeveral timesin I953 the Partycenterhad to vidual stateinterests. from suchactivities. to appealto Congressmen desist S. One Congressman, K. Patil,an M. P. fromBombayand Chairman of the BombayProvincial has CongressCommittee, heeded the
29

States. n.d.,n.p. [AICC, I95I], Linguistic VoteCongress;

p. 27. 309

Afairs Pacific
an with Nehru's endorsement, appeal and has organized,ostensibly In knownas the NationalUnityPlatform. Patil'swords organization but nor a groupnor an agitation," is dedicated a it is "neither party, Though a years.30 issue for twenty-five the linguistic to postponing are associated Congressmen, mostly personages, numberof important is with Patil's group,the organization not likelyto exertmuch influof solution theproblem. enceon thefinal in stateCongressorganizations recentyearshave been subThe and of as strain a result friction jealousybetween jectedto considerable In and the leadersof the Partyorganization. ministers the Congress Nehruhas been of intervention PrimeMinister manycasesthepersonal froma serioussplit.The the only thingto save a stateorganization and untilit is solvedit problemis adding to thesestrains, linguistic party. for of source trouble thegoverning will be a continuous for statesissuehas also createdproblems the ComThe linguistic conbecame seriously munistParty of India (CPI). The CPI first when the independence cernedwith thisquestionin the days before Pakistanwas stillin doubt.Taking theircue from issueof a separate at on question,the Communists that Sovietwritings the nationality each of whichthey proposed nations to timedividedIndia intoseveral allegedly and the rightof secession the granting formof autonomy of nationalities theSovietUnion.Thus,instead availableto thevarious "whatwas just" the of endorsing Pakistanidea as such,theyendorsed for self-determinationthe of the namely, right demand, in thePakistan the the the Pathannation, Punjabination, Baluchination, Sindination, to They also gave nation-status the Telugus, Tamils, and so forth. and languagegroupsof SouthIndia. Maharashtrians otherimportant bethe Indian publicopinionfailedto appreciate subtledifference "what was just" in the Pakistan and supporting tween supporting came to ultimately Partyitself Pakistandemand,and the Communist on thePakistanside. slightly realizethatitspolicyhad been weighted at When this line was repudiated the CalcuttaCongressin i948 its was one theorists, thoroughly G. author, M. Adhikari, of thetop Party in influence theParty.3' and sincethattimehas enjoyedlittle criticized to the It was naturalthatafterindependence CPI would attempt in sentiment India, forit was an capitalizeon the growinglinguistic
(Bombay),December 22, See Times of India (Delhi), November I953. FreePressJournal HindustanTimes (Delhi), May 25, I954. Also S. K. Patil,"Have We NationalUnity 26, Times (Delhi), January I954. Yet?" Hindustan 31 See G. M. Adhikari, London: LabourMonthly, and NationalUnity. I943. 32 pp. Pakistan
30 3I,

I953.

3IO

Linguistic Regionalism India in idealissue with which embarrass government. in 1948 the to the Thus Party organ, People's Age,stated:
". . . we support demand linguistic the we for because know provinces that it through thepeople thevarious of their linguistic aretaking units first stepagainst central the bourgeois of leadership itspolicy suppression and of national groups."32

"The Communist Party callsuponall itsmembers immediately take to initiative uniting broadsections thepeopleand builda powerful in the of and irresistible movement round issue. this The Communist Party desires to emphasize thedemand become that can really irresistible iftheorganized only working class, peasants, students other and sections thepeople actively of are rallied themovement theUnited in and Front built is around core."33 this

The importance which Party the attached theissue indicated to was by theCentral Committee resolution January which of 1953 stated:

thorny boundary problems acknowledging need for"necessary by the boundary adjustments" elevenof the proposedstates. in Whereasthe I953 statement tendedto favorthecase fortheinclusion portions of of Biharin WestBengal,thisemphasis missing is from memorandum. the a More significantly,merger Himachal Pradeshwith PEPSU and of the Punjab into a Punjabi speakingstate,advocatedin i953, is now abandonedin favorof separatestatusfor Himachal Pradesh.These changes, coupledwiththeParty's of advocacy separate provincial status forTripuraand Manipur (two tinystatesin north-east India where theCPI is strong)tendto support allegation the thattheParty shiftis to ing itsstrategical areasof NorthIndia. emphasis theborder Unlike the democratic within the CPI is parties,disagreement from public;decisions made in secret. concealed the generally are Thus
25, I953),
32 People's Age. Vol. VII, No. io, (September 5, I948), p. i6. 33 "Unite People forLinguistic StatesHere & Now," Crossroads, Vol. IV, No. 38, (January

In linewith policy Communists taken active inthe this the have an part linguistic agitation haveinfiltrated the and into various hocorganizaad tions up topromote set linguistic causes. In JuneI954 the Central Committee the CPI published of the memorandum whichit has submitted the States to Reorganization Commission."4 callsfor redivision This a which would reduce numthe ber of states fromtwenty-eighttwenty, stateborders be to the to determined the linguistic by principle. The document dodgesthe

34Memorandum the CentralCommittee the Communist of of Partyof India to the States Delhi: CPI, I954. 9 pp. Reorganization Commission.

pp. 8-9.

3"1

PacificAffairs has question states whichthelinguistic to it is difficult assessthestrains seriousdisagreethat imposedupon the Party.There are indications Party mentsexistwithinthe CPI on this issue,but the Communist seems membership with its severedisciplineand well-indoctrinated are them.The Communists or equippedto resolve suppress adequately the from controversy. thanto suffer morelikely profit to the Moderationhas characterized attitudeof the Praja Socialist The PSP has recogstates. Party(PSP) on thisquestionof linguistic a but nized the need forsomereorganization, it has notfavored hasty held their basis. When the Socialists decisionon a purelylinguistic on at specialconvention Betulin June1953 theyadopteda resolution to be the Partypolicy.It which continues reorganization linguistic "the and recognized welcomedthe decisionto appointa commission to desire of the variousregionsof the country have overwhelming It on basis".35 continued: Statesas faras possible [a] linguistic of that wishes emphasise theredrawing theadministo "The Convention to basisshouldbe confined themajorlanguages trative map on linguistic is The to in enumerated the 8th Schedule the Constitution. Convention of to precedent thecreation a new of that further theopinion theconditions and efficiency."36 and are state economic viability development administrative consideraprimary giving approach, arguefora cautious The Socialists unity. of tionto theproblem national the communal parties, two mostimportant, Among theright-wing the Jan Sangh and the Hindu Mahasabha,agree thatsome formof The is reorganization necessary. Mahasabha"does notregardlanguage of as the onlybasis forre-formation Stateseven thoughit recognizes The basisforsuchreformation".37 Jan languageas the mostimportant but Sangh sayslanguageis important shouldnot be thesole criterion. the and formof government favors disintegraIt arguesfora unitary tionof Hyderabad.38 comes fromconto principle The main opposition the linguistic OrganiBoththeAll India Manufacturers interests. economic servative memohave presented Association zationand the All India Exporters Commissionopposing linguistic randa to the StatesReorganization wishesto retainthe status Whereasthe latter quo, the reorganization.
35

Party(Betul). Bombay:PSP, I953. of Report the Special Convention the Praja Socialist of

p. I23. 36 [bid. 37 Hindustan Times (Delhi), 88

Junei, I954. Timesof India (Delhi), May 28, 1954.

3I2

Linguistic Regionalism India in former agreesthatsome reorganization necessary thatit should is but be based on economicand politicalprinciples rather than language.39 in It is impossible consider problem linguistic to the of regionalism India without dealingwiththequestion a national of language, because both are important facetsof the largerissue of nationalunity.It has beenapparent years for thatIndia wouldhaveto promote language one as an all-Indialanguageif it wereeverto meetthecomplexproblems of administration a twentieth in century worldand promote educathe tionaland cultural advancement its people.On thistherehas been of general agreement;the disagreement comes in decidingwhich language.And thedisagreement violent. is Among the hundreds Indian languagesHindi is spokenby the of greatest number people.In thecensusof i95i, overio8,ooo,ooo of people claimedHindi as theirmother tongue.Even before independence the nationalist movement recognizedthat Hindi was most likelyto becomethenational language. Hindi traces sourceback to Sanskrit bearsclosersimilarities its and to thatancientlanguagethandoes any other. is written the Sanin It a skritor Devanagarialphabet, precisebut complexand cumbersome of When the Islamic peoples began invadingIndia system writing. aroundthe eleventh century theybrought withthemthe Persianlanguage. Persian became a court language and efforts were made to Persianizethe Hindi of the local inhabitants. a Ultimately new lanin written thePersianscript bearing but guage developed, manyHindi features. Today it is known as Urdu and is the official language of Pakistan. One elementof the Hindu-Muslimconflict pre-independence of India was thefactthatHindi becameknownas a Hindu languageand Urdu as a Muslim tongue.Communalbitterness invadedthe fieldof To Mahatma Gandhi used the linguistics. minimizethesedifficulties a termHindustanito describe languagewhichcombined bothHindi to and Urdu, and he persuadedthe Congress acceptthistermto describethe nationallanguage.The device met with littlesuccessand Gandhi'sdeathhis followers after whichspeciadopteda constitution fiedHindi as India's nationallanguage.The Hindi-Urducontroversy In with unabatedbitterness. March I954 the Minister still continues for Education,Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, upon whom reststhe of for attacked responsibility thepropagation Hindi,was vigorously in
39Hindustan Times (Delhi), JuneIo and I6,
1954.

3I3

Pacific Agairs Hindustani to conspired promote theHouseofthePeopleforhaving Tandon, was attack Purshottamdas of of instead Hindi.The leader this Hinduof and President bestknown theextremist, Congress former Azad is a Muslimand also an in right-wingersCongress. minded to and Tandon's allegations replied He President. denied ex-Congress of in obstacle thedevelopment "The chief bitterness. withgreat them of mind narrow the from House,"is this he Hindi," saidamidcheers of lovers Hindi."40 theso called that of is notonlytheproponents Urduand Hindustani cheer It to hostility Hindi Evengreater are whenHindiprotagonists attacked. to can hostility betraced thedebates Muchofthis in isfound theSouth. of whenthe proponents Hindi,after Assembly in the Constituent as script thenational on agreement Hindiin theDevanagari securing as numerals of the to tried force acceptance theDevanagari language, of of well.Sucha lackof appreciation theproblems theSoutherners and werebeingaskedto adjustto botha new language a new who tosay: Nehru Minister Prime prompted script there and [to] listened here elsewhere I have of speeches ". . . insome the of a tone theHindimuch very of a much tone authoritarianism, is very and of the in of the area speaking being center things India, center gravity, of being the others just fringesIndia.""4 state will that provides English be theofficial lanThe Constitution timeit willhave that years, is untili965, at which guageforfifteen the to by replaced Hindi.Itwouldbe difficultoverstate immensity been in India of thelanguage administration has task. English been ofthis of it the since daysoftheEastIndiaCompany, hasbeenthemedium and and schools universities, it was thelanin instruction thehigher in the with South themoveto the enabled North unite which guage are Peoplewho speakEnglish found for ment India'sindependence. of country. corner the inevery English in of on Statistics thenumber people Indiawhounderstand language of the andtherefore importance this havenotbeencompiled, was basis. the on to is difficultassess a numerical Although i95i census who spokea second those and withbilingualism counted concerned to It about English. is difficult it Indianlanguage, askedno questions except resource national suchan important to the explain failure assess of But or of in terms chauvinism xenophobia. theimportance English
40 41

The Hindu (Madras), March30, I9,54. Debates.Vol. IX, p. Assembly Constituent

I4I4.

314

in Regionalism India Linguistic intoitsrole by to recourse statistics inquiring without can be measured institutions. and economic political in India'ssocial, to Englishwas the onlylanguagewhichwas understandable all of and when theyconcluded Assembly, the delegatesto the Constituent theirEnglishlanguagedebatestheyadoptedan Englishlanguagetext Englishwas the major version. whichremainsthe mostauthoritative language of the Indian National Congressand remainsso today.In by the memberwho wants to be understood the India's Parliament the of speaksEnglish.Englishstilldominates number delegates largest India's publications. and government correspondence courts,official in pressand it is paramount Englishlanguagepressis theonlynational theworldof Indianjournalism. domination, Englishhad beenthelanguageofforeign Nevertheless, If itsutility. thatit mustgo, whatever pridedictated and nationalistic arguedone delegateto the Constituent English were to be retained, "What will otherpeoplesay? What will the ghostof Lord Assembly, laughat us and say,'Old Johnnie Mecauley[sic] say? He will certainly that It Walkeris stillgoingstrong'."42 is thispsychology has dominated of the discussion the national language issue. Thus when the Conwhether adoptDevanagarior interto was debating Assembly stituent found numerals of the nationalnumerals proponents the international had their origin to it necessary frequently pointout thatthenumerals in India and thuswerenotforeign. AsA few kind wordswere said about Englishin the Constituent and R. K. Chaudhuri, by notably N. GopalaswamiAyyangar sembly, was by sentiment thatEnglishmustbe replaced butthe overwhelming view Nehruexpressed majority PrimeMinister the an Indianlanguage. whenhe said: had English doneus a lotof it right ". . . I think is perfectly to saythat no from andprogressed much it much-nevertheless goodandwehavelearnt Why?Because on language. great thebasisofa foreign nation become can of can be for a foreign language never thelanguage thepeople, youwillhave who tongue or of and twostrata more-those livein thought action a foreign we us taught that must wholivein another world. he [Gandhi] So andthose in more more ourownlanguage.... and do ourwork tolerate maybe,we cannot English important "However good,however massofourpeople should an English be knowing anda large elite that there Therefore must we haveourownlanguage."43 notknowing English.
43Ibid., I4I0, pp.
42Ibid p.
1349.

1414.

3I5

PacificAffairs languageto mostIndians thatHindi is also a foreign The factremains greater elite are frequently and that theirfearsof a Hindi-speaking of abhorrence English. thantheir was Assembly by of The question Hindi's adoption theConstituent but of in neverin doubt.Therewas some sentiment favor Sanskrit, it overthe anyreal battle Nor was nevera serious contender.44 was there Devanagari script,although the Roman scriptwas proposed.The in had Romanscript beenusedforUrdubytheBritish theIndianarmy iminternational the and aside from script's withconsiderable success, its whichmighthave prompted contherewereotherfactors portance for and in It sideration. is less cumbersome typesetting moreefficient witha DevanagaritypeFortywordsa minute use witha typewriter. and thesemachinesare still a commaximum, writeris considered to India was not prepared follow in rarity India. But sensitive parative the examplesof Turkey and Indonesia,and the Roman scriptwas interesting note thaton April 7, I954, a to abandoned.It is, however, the authorizing Roman script amendment motionfora constitutional in to an alternative Devanagariwas introduced the West Bengal as it State LegislativeCouncil. Althoughbacked by the majority was committee that suggestion an expert on withdrawn theChiefMinister's be appointed.45 has not years resulted, froma The assaultagainstEnglishin recent to nationaleagerness learn Hindi, but fromlocal desiresto promote the regionallanguages.Thus all over India schoolsand universities over are whichhaveused Englishas a mediumofinstruction switching In January 1954theBombay not of to theregional languages, to Hindi. children wentso faras to issuea circular prohibiting StateGovernment was notEnglishfrom in schools which attending tongue whosemother was themediumof instruction English.This actionmetwitha strong declared unconstitutional the by public outcryand was ultimately may promptsome rethinking SupremeCourt.The Bombayincident on the questionof English.There is alreadysome evidenceof this. of pointed of In January 1954 M. C. Chagla, ChiefMinister Bombay, Englishbut theregional out thatit was not Hindi thatwas replacing of "For heaven's sake,"he said,"letus notmakethemistake languages. which has helped us to bringabout language givingup the official
as K. 44The Union Home Minister, N. Katju, said as recently November1953, that he 4, as Sanskrit the nationallanguage.HindustanTimes (Delhi), November 1953. favored 45 The Mail (Madras), (Dak edition),April9, 1954.

3i6

in Linguistic Regionalism India unityand substitute itsplace in administrative, politicaland linguistic our and undermine different regionallanguageswhich may sacrifice committed the replaceto The Government India standsfirmly of By i96i the work of the central mentof Englishby Hindi by i965. Then administration to be carriedout in both languagestogether. is and program, in i965 English is to be dropped.It is an ambitious trends will not reachfruition. it Linguistic regionjudgingby present alismis toostrong Hindi is a weak antidote. and of On December 1953, Ministry Home Affairs theGovernthe of 29, to commission inquireintothe linmentof India set up a three-man knownas theStates The Commission, states Reorganiguistic question. Indian statesis zation Commission, composedof threedistinguished of HridayNath Kunzru,Memmen,SaiyidFazl Ali, Governor Orissa, preber of the Council of States,and Kavalam Madhava Panikkar, has to Ambassador Egyptand to China.The Commission been viously not directed make itsfinalreport laterthanJune 1955. to 30, which set up the commission outstatement The Home Ministry received whichwerenot enthusiastically of linedforit terms reference It advocates. read: amonglinguistic hisof the will "The Commission investigate conditions theproblem,-the and of torical theexisting situation thebearing all important background, any and relevant factors thereon. They will be freeto consider proposal The expect theCommission that relating . .. reorganization. Government to in but would, thefirst instance, go intothedetails, makerecommendanot tions regard thebroad in to which should govern solution the of principles lines which on particular States this problem ifthey chose, broad and, so the reports theconsideration for of should reorganized, submit be and interim theGovernment."47 as Thus the Commissionis not a boundaryCommission some had concerning hoped,and, sinceit is directed make recommendations to statesproponents view only the "broad principles", many linguistic theentire delaying tactic. operation merely as another Certainlythe Government has not yet embracedthe linguistic The Home Ministry that"thelanguageand culture principle. concedes of an area have an undoubted but essential conimportance," "the first sideration thepreservation strengtheningtheunity security is of and and
Timesof India (Delhi), January 1954. 23, 47 Ministry Home Affairs, of Resolution, New Delhi, 29 December 1953, New Delhi: GovernmentofIndia, I954. I p.
46

46 unity."

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PacificAfairs are considerations of India. Financial,economicand administrative so ...48 With languageranking fardown almostequallyimportant. of thatthe appointment the Comis hardlysurprising on the list it has, in fact, Agitation agitation. missiondid littleto stem linguistic one attitudes: sinceDecemberbecauseof two contradictory increased and must,therefore, will do nothing fearthatthe Commission is the be prodded;the otheris thefearthatit will redrawthe map of India to is agitation necessary see thatit is done properly. and, therefore, for responsibility, is The new Commission facedwithan enormous The size of consequences. will have tremendous it the report submits have memoranda oversevenhundred thetaskis equallygreat-already the all In been received. additionto examining of thesememoranda, of studies itsown,drawing and statistical other is Commission making of upon the experience India and othernationsin the whole broad and nationbuilding.Hearings finance fieldof public administration, are beingheld in all partsof India wheretheviewsof local leadersare are The factthatthesehearings held in camerahas aroused solicited. have thatcertain public figures suspicion and some criticism a strong viewswhen talkingto the Commission. published fromtheir deviated public who surveyed University), Dean Paul Appleby(of Syracuse a focused request, in India in i953 at the government's administration he said in his lighton the problemof Indian unitywhen disturbing of that"the new nationalgovernment India is givenless basic report nation... ." "The other largeand important in resource powerthanany and in organically New Delhi is theuncertain powerthatis exercised than power."49 rather It power of prestige. is influence discontinuous rapid and bold actionby the governThere is no doubtthatwithout to states may developinto a threat for mentthe movement linguistic as thatpower,to nationalunityand to India's veryexistence a single that to a It nationstate. is,therefore,tribute Indian democracy thefree scope.Opportunism play of ideas on thisquestionhas had the fullest with but exist and irresponsibility on bothsidesoftheissue, soberminds are and foresight also at work. The outcomewill have imagination in of for significance the future democracy Asia. profound

July Bombay, I954

[bid. in Paul H. Appleby,Public Administration India, Reportof a Survey.Delhi: Cabinet I953. pp. i6, I7. Secretariat,
48 49

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