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Aloms can join or 'bond' logelher. The purpose is lo gain an ouler shell ol
eleclrons like lhe noble gas aloms have, because lhal is a slable arrangemenl.
There are lhree lypes ol bonding. covalenl, ionic, and melallic.
The bonded aloms lorm a regular slruclure or lallice, in lhe solid slale.
The properlies ol a subslance are inluenced by bolh bonding and slruclure.
Bonding and structure
4
Bonding and structure
Elements, compounds and mixtures
Substance What is in it? Example
elemenl conlains only one lype ol alom.
compound conlains more lhan one lype ol alom,
held logelher by chemical bonds.
.
ll is called a negalive ion because il has
a negalive charge.
C C C
C C C C
C C C C
C
O
O C
O
O
C
O
O
C O O
C
O
O
mixture of
salt and
sand
lhe elemenl carbon conlains
only carbon aloms
in lhe compound carbon dioxide,
each carbon alom is always
bonded lo lwo oxygen aloms
you can mix any amounls ol
sall and sand, and separale
lhem by adding waler lo
dissolve lhe sall, lhen lllering
4.1 First, a review of some basic ideas
22
Metals and non-metals
There are over !00 elemenls. They are all dillerenl. 8ul lhey can be divided inlo lwo groups.
metals and non-metals. As you will see laler, lhe dillerences belween lhe lwo groups are
due lo dillerences in bonding and slruclure.
Metals Non-metals
readily conducl eleclricily and heal do nol conducl eleclricily or heal
are moslly malleable (can be hammered inlo shape) and
duclile (can be drawn inlo wires)
are usually brillle when solid lhey break up when lhey are
hammered
lend lo be shiny look dull, when solid
lend lo have high densily (lhey are heavy) have low densily
usually have high melling poinls have low melling poinls (many are gases al room lemperalure)
lorm posilive ions, in reaclions when lhey lorm ions, lhese are negalive (excepl lor H
+
)
usually lorm basic oxides (see page 88) usually lorm acidic oxides (see page 88)
Some exceptions
The melal mercury is a liquid al room lemperalure.
Some melals, such as sodium and polassium, have low densily and low boiling poinls.
Hydrogen is a non-melal, bul il lorms posilive ions, H
+
.
Diamond and graphile are lwo lorms ol carbon, a non-melal. Craphile is a soll greasy
solid, and a good conduclor ol eleclricily. Diamond is very hard, wilh a very high
melling poinl. Craphile and diamond have special slruclures, as you will see laler.
Metals and alloys
Melals are elements so lhey conlain
only one lype ol alom.
Alloys are mixtures, where al leasl one
olher subslance is added lo lhe melal.
The added subslances in alloys can be olher melals, or non-melals such as carbon.
They are chosen lo improve on cerlain properlies ol a melal, and make il more uselul.
Examples of alloys
Alloy What is in it, and typical % Special properties Uses
brass copper 70
zinc 30
much harder lhan copper, and unlike
copper il does nol corrode
musical inslrumenls, ornamenls,
door knobs and olher lllings
slainless sleel iron 70
chromium 20
nickel !0
unlike iron, il does nol corrode car parls, kilchen sinks, cullery,
lanks in chemical laclories
Quick check for 4.1 (Answers start on page 164)
1 Why is iron sullde (leS) classed as a compound?
2 Cive lhree ways in which iron sullde dillers lrom a mixlure ol iron and sullur.
3 lron is a melal, and sullur is a non-melal. Cive lhree ways in which you expecl
lhem lo behave dillerenlly.
4 lron rusls (corrodes) easily. How would you improve on ils properlies?
Bonding and structure 4
23
8onding is aboul how aloms are joined logelher.
Slruclure is aboul how lhe bonded aloms are arranged.
Bonding
There are lhree lypes ol bonding. covalenl, ionic and melallic.
Type of bonding covalent ionic metallic
Description eleclrons are shared belween
aloms
eleclrons are lranslerred
lrom one alom lo anolher,
lorming ions
a lallice ol posilive ions in a
sea ol eleclrons
What kinds of atoms bond
together in this way?
non-melal aloms.
ol dillerenl elemenls,
giving compounds
melal aloms bond wilh
non-melal aloms, lo give
compounds
giving
[2,8]
+
stable ion
[2,8,8]
stable ion
and 2,8,1 2,8,7
+
Na Cl Cl Na
The bonding is lhe same in any compound lormed belween an alkali melal (Croup l) and a
halogen (Croup Vll). lor example in lilhium bromide (Li8r), and polassium iodide (Kl).
The structure of sodium chloride
Millions ol ions group logelher lo lorm a lallice. The lallice is a regular arrangemenl
ol allernaling posilive and negalive ions. They are held logelher by lhe slrong ionic
bonds belween ions ol opposile charge.
sodium ion, Na
+
chloride ion, Cl
Magnesium oxide
two electrons transfer
magnesium atom oxygen atom magnesium ion, Mg
2+
oxide ion, O
2
giving
[2,8]
2+
[2,8]
2
giving
[2,8]
2
+
each [2,8,8]
2+
Mg
Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl
Mg
Cl
Cl
L
x
l
e
n
d
e
d
Bonding: allraclion belween posilive magnesium ions and negalive chloride ions.
Structure: a lallice conlaining lwice as many chloride ions as magnesium ions.
The properties of ionic compounds
They have high melling and boiling poinls, because lhe bonds belween ions are slrong.
They conducl eleclricily when melled or dissolved in waler, because lhe charged ions
are lhen lree lo move.
They are usually soluble in waler.
Writing the formula for an ionic compound
An ionic compound has no overall charge.
So lhe lolal posilive charge musl balance lhe lolal negalive charge.
So you adjusl lhe number ol ions in lhe lormula, unlil lhe lolal charges on lhem balance.
Examples
Ionic compound positive ion negative ion balancing their charges so the formula is
magnesium oxide Mg
2+
O
2
lhey are balanced (2
+
and 2
) MgO
magnesium chloride Mg
2+
Cl
lwo Cl
lwo NO
3
H H
b The slruclure ol phosphorus lrioxide is shown below.
O O
P
O
O
O
O
P
P
P
Wrile lhe simplesl lormula lor phosphorus lrioxide.
CIE 0620 November '07 Paper 2 Q1
2 The slruclures ol some elemenls and compounds are shown below.
S S
S
S
S
S
S
S
C C
H H
H H
C H
H
H
H
A 8 C
Na
+
Na
+
Na
+
Cl
Cl
Na
+
Na
+
Cl
Cl
Cl
Na
+
Na
+
Na
+
Cl
Cl
Na
+
Na
+
Cl
Cl
Cl
Pb Pb Pb Pb Pb
Pb Pb Pb Pb
Pb Pb Pb Pb Pb
D L l
Answer lhese queslions using lhe lellers A lo l.
i Which slruclure is melhane?
ii Which slruclure conlains ions?
iii Which slruclure is a melal?
iv Which slruclure is sodium chloride?
v Which slruclure is diamond?
vi Which slruclure conlains a double covalenl bond?
vii Which three slruclures are elemenls? CIE 0620 June '07 Paper 2 Q1
Questions on section 4
IGCSE Revision guide: Chemistry
32
3 Carbon exisls in lwo lorms, graphile and diamond.
strong bonds
weak forces
graphite
= carbon atom
diamond
Use ideas aboul slruclure and bonding lo suggesl.
a why graphile is used as a lubricanl,
b why diamond is very hard. CIE 0620 November '07 Paper 3 Q6
Extended curriculum
1 The slruclural lormula ol carbonyl chloride is given below.
C
Cl
Cl
O
Draw a diagram lhal shows lhe arrangemenl ol lhe valency eleclrons in one molecule
ol lhis covalenl compound.
Use x lor an eleclron lrom a chlorine alom.
Use o lor an eleclron lrom a carbon alom.
Use w lor an eleclron lrom an oxygen alom. CIE 0620 June '08 Paper 3 Q2
2 Complele lhe lollowing lable.
Type of
structure
Particles present Electrical
conductivity
of solid
Electrical
conductivity of
liquid
Example
ionic posilive and negalive ions poor i............................ ii...........................
macromolecular aloms ol lwo dillerenl
elemenls in a gianl
covalenl slruclure
poor poor iii...........................
melallic iv...........................
and
v............................
good vi........................... copper
CIE 0620 June '07 Paper 3 Q2
3 Magnesium reacls wilh bromine lo lorm magnesium bromide.
a Magnesium bromide is an ionic compound. Draw a diagram lhal shows lhe
lormula ol lhe compound, lhe charges on lhe ions, and lhe arrangemenl ol ouler
eleclrons around lhe negalive ion.
The eleclron dislribulion ol a bromine alom is 2, 8, !8, 7.
Use x lo represenl an eleclron lrom a magnesium alom.
Use o lo represenl an eleclron lrom a bromine alom.
b ln lhe lallice ol magnesium bromide, lhe ralio ol magnesium ions lo bromide ions
is !.2.
i Lxplain lhe lerm lattice.
ii Lxplain why lhe ralio ol lhe ions is !.2. CIE 0620 November '07 Paper 3 Q3
L
x
l
e
n
d
e
d
Bonding and structure 4
33