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= (1 2M/r )t +
NC a^va^H*NPR3NPOWT \

d = (1 2M/r )tdt
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8
= (1 2M/r)(T t) +
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d = (1 2M/r )(T t)dt.


a^OWS SULHKNPSUL(d`EGfPT dOWd X5C T Hx\ULSUFGEIX X L@\ULdeQ:a^SULX:\UaI\EIX = + QKEIScSEIQWQ:a^Sh\c
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LM\ T t = t WT XFT LHx\ rsE^JMT X LdeLHx\
t=t
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NPa^HKJZJMLZSUR3[hOWX \EG\@JEIQWT \EIX[ha^OK[cX_E-ra^SUdeL
]^
E/m = (1 2M/r)(dt/d )
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X L3[ T Hx\ULSUFGEIX X L3[ t LM\ w
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i^T L E LM\.X_Evd`E^[U[hL M [C LMfPQWSUT deLHx\.E'F^L3JX_Ez8d deLeOWHWT \UR^QKEISZLMfPLdeQWX L-X_E*[hL3JMa^HKNPL
a^OvX LJMLHx\UT demM\USUL w
 "   vMp v M"*. 
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QWSUa^QWSULZLH*rsEIT_[UEIHx\FGEISUT LS@X LZ\ULdeQK[(NPLX5C RF^RHWLdeLHx\@T Hx\ULSUdeR3NPT_EIT SUL^wWL3JMa^dedeLHKtMa^HK[
X_Ee8d deLa^Q:RSEG\UT a^Hvd`EIT_[@LHvrsEIT_[UEIHx\@FGEISUT LS(JMLM\h\UL.ra^T_[X5C EIHWi^X L NPLJMLM\(RF^RHWLdeLHx\3
EIHWi^X Lc[hLSUFGEIHx\ (SULQ:RSULSX_EANPT SUL3Jp\UT a^H-NPOdea^WT X LcQKEIS
SEIQWQ:a^Sh\ (OWHWL NPT SUL3Jp\UT a^Ha^SUT i^T HWL
LM\.xOWLHWa^OK[ZEIQWQ:LX X LSUa^HK[(E T dOP\3w~@a^OK[AJMa^HK[hT_NPRSUa^HK[(oHWa^OWF^L3EIO\USUa^T_[(RF^RHWLdeLHx\[
JMa^HK[hT_[]\EIHx\LHX5C RdeT_[U[hT a^H NC OWHR3JMX_EIT S-X5C T Hx\URSUT LOWS-NC OWH FGEIT_[U[hL3EIO[hQKEG\UT_EIX KaI\h\EIHx\
X T WSULdeLHx\.NWEIHK[(X5C L3[hQKE^JML^w|BL-QWSULdeT LSZ[hLi^deLHx\ A SULX T LX5C RF^RHWLdeLHx\ E zX5C RF^RHWLMy
deLHx\ E wBLo[hLi^deLHx\ B SULX T L E E wBDC EIHWi^X L`NPOQWSULdeT LS.RF^RHWLdeLHx\.L3[]\ZnWfPR

X5C EIHWi^X LzNPONPLSUHWT LS-


\EIHKNPT_[xOWLzX5C EIHWi^X L`T Hx\ULSUdeR3NPT_EIT SUL`L3[]\-QWSUT_[
JMa^dede=L*0FGEISUT_EIWX L^ LM\`RixEIX@ w 9( L=HWa^OWF^L3EIO Q:a^OWS`HWL*QKE^[-rsEIT SULvFGEISUT LS-\Ua^OP\zlX_E
ra^T_[|HWa^OK[A[hOWQWQ:ax[ha^HK[AxOWL-X L-SE'b^a^H r EIOKxOWLX X5C R3JMX_EIT SA=H < L3[]\ZRdeT_[ASUL3[]\UL\Ua^O q a^OWS[
X LZ8d deL^w
BLASEIT_[ha^HWHWLdeLHx\c[hLZNPRF^LX a^QWQ:LAJMa^dedeLANWEIHK[cX_E[hL3Jp\UT a^HoQWSUR3JMR3NPLHx\UL^w 9C EIQWSUm3[X_E
deRM\USUT_xOWLe  WX5C T Hx\ULSUFGEIX X L(\ULdeQ:a^SULX [hOWS X LZQWSULdeT LS@[hLi^deLHx\ L3[]\@NPa^HWHWRZQKEIS[ha^H
JEISUSUR
\ULSUdeL3[ HWLJMa^Hx\ULHKEIHx\QKE^[
] ^
= r +
LM\@X5C T Hx\ULSUFGEIX X L [hOWSX L.[hL3JMa^HKNzQKEIS
\ULSUdeL3[ HWLJMa^Hx\ULHKEIHx\QKE^[
] 
= r ( ) +
NC a^vT XFT LHx\
] 3
d
= r d
]
d
= r ( )d
a^OWS d`EGfPT deT_[hLS = + B a^HvR3JMSUT \xOWL d /d = d( + )/d = 0 LM\a^H
a^P\UT LHx\ rsE^JMT X LdeLHx\3KNPLZrsE^tMa^H*EIHKEIX a^i^OWLAeX5C R3xOKEG\UT a^H] x
]
r / = r /
LHoE'bxEIHx\DQ:ax[hR\Ua^OP\cHKEG\UOWSULX X LdeLHx\ = LM\ = wBL@deLdWSUL(NPL@ixEIOKJVWL^
xOWT
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NPSUa^T \UL^GxOWTWHWLJMa^Hx\UT LHx\xOWLNPL3[
\ULSUdeL3[ SULX_EG\UT rs[EIOe[hL3JMa^HKN[hLi^deLHx\3wI~@a^OK[
LMfPVWT :a^HK[
1

2 2

A
2

EIT HK[hTAOWHWLEIOP\USULJMa^HK[]\EIHx\ULNPO dea^OWF^LdeLHx\3[UE'F^a^T S


LH SULQKE^[U[UEIHx\v
_X EHWaI\EG\UT a^HNPT {|RSULHx\UT LX X L xOWLoX5C a^HL3[]\eJMa^HKNPOWT \eT_NPLHxr\UT d/d
nKLS*sJEIS-JIC L3[]\X_Ed8deL
ra^SUdeL-xOWLX_E`ra^SUdOWX LHWL \Ua^HWT LHWHWL E'F^L3J.X LSEIQWQ:a^Sh\ZNPOdea^deLHx\ZEIHWi^OWX_EIT SUL L NPL
X_E-QKEISh\UT_JMOWX L.e[UE-d`E^[U[hL m WJMLxOWLZHWa^OK[ R3JMSUT F^a^HK[
]G
L/m = r (d/d )
 Mcvv M    p
L3JVWHWT_xOWLdeLHx\eQKEISUX_EIHx\3X_E\USE q L3Jp\Ua^T SULzNC OWH dea^WT X LvX T WSULvNC E^JJMRX RSEG\UT a^HQKEIS
deaI\ULOWSDL3[]\cNPRM\ULSUdeT HWRL(JMa^dedeL([hOWT \3wPa^HWHKEIT_[U[UEIHx\X5C RHWLSUi^T L E LM\X L@dea^deLHx\cEIHWi^OPy
X_EIT SUL L NPLAX_EvpQKEISh\UT_JMOWX LNPLAd`E^[U[hL m E LM\ L NPRQ:LHKNPLHx\@NPL3[cJMa^HKNPT \UT a^HK[T Hx\UT_EIX L3[
HWa^OK[Q:a^OWF^a^HK[[hOWT FSUL@X_EQ:ax[hT \UT a^HzNPLAJMLM\h\ULAQKEISh\UT_JMOWX L@LHzT HKJMSURdeLHx\EIHx\c[hL3[cJMaa^SNPa^HPy
HWRL3[.\ULdeQ:a^SULX X L [hQKEG\UT_EIX L LM\eEIHWi^OWX_EIT SUL EIOrOWS-LM\-deL3[hOWSULoxOWLv[ha^HVWa^SUX a^i^L
QWSUa^QWSULoJMa^deQP\ULzX L`t \ULdeQK[ wr@X i^RWSUT_xOWLdeLHx\3Q:a^OWS-JVKE^xOWLoT HKJMSURdeLHx\-NPLo\ULdeQK[
QWSUa^QWSUL d HWa^OK[ZJEIX_JMOWX a^HK[-a^OX5C a^SNPT HKEG\ULOWSZJEIX_JMOWX L X L3[AT HKJMSURdeLHx\[ dt dr LM\ d
NPL3[ JMaa^SNPa^HWHWRL3[cNPOvdea^WT X L^wPBL3[JEISUSUR3[NPL3[ T HKJMSURdeLHx\[ dt LM\ d [ha^Hx\NPR3NPOWT \[NPL3[
R3xOKEG\UT a^HK[Z]^ LM\]G [ha^OK[cX_E-ra^SUdeL
]
dt = (E/m) (1 2M/r) d
]3
d = (L/m) r d
XDHWa^OK[.d`EIHKxOWLeX5C LMfPQWSUL3[U[hT a^HNPL w
~@a^OK[.X5C a^P\ULHWa^HK[ZLHQ:a^Sh\EIHx\JML3[.FGEIX LOWS[
NPL dt LM\ d NWEIHK[X5C R3xOKEG\UT a^H  NPL(X_EdrdeRM\USUT_xOWLALM\cLHzSUR3[ha^X FGEIHx\LH`ra^HKJp\UT a^HzNPL dr
JML.xOWTNPa^HWHWL


Ix
dr = (E/m) (1 2M/r)[1 + (L/m) r ] d
uDH.rsEIT_[UEIHx\X LSEIQWQ:a^Sh\deLdWSULD deLdWSULNPL3[R3xOKEG\UT a^HK[D Ix LM\c]3 Ma^HEI:a^OP\UT \
NPT SUL3Jp\ULdeLHx\@-X5C R3xOKEG\UT a^H*NPL.X_E\USE q L3Jp\Ua^T SULALHJMaa^SNPa^HWHWRL3[cQ:a^X_EIT SUL3[


 

  


1 dr
E
2M
m
1
=
1
+
2

2 4

2 2

p ,v M"*M

uDHLM{|L3Jp\UOKEIHx\X LJVKEIHWi^LdeLHx\NPL.FGEISUT_EIWX L
r2

r2

u = 1/r, du = dr/r 2

X5C R3xOKEG\UT a^H NPLFT LHx\

^^
a^HK[hT_NPRSUa^HK[OWHWL QKEISh\UT_JMOWX L\UL3[]\E^JJMa^deQWX T_[U[UEIHx\
OWHWLca^SUWT \ULrLSUdeRL EIOP\Ua^OWSNPOeja^X LT X5w
jPE-NPT_[]\EIHKJML r X_Ed`E^[U[hLAJMLHx\USEIX L M QKE^[U[hL@ra^SJMRdeLHx\cQKEIS OWHzdeT HWT dOWd r LM\OWH

du
d

2

E2
(1 2M u)
L2

m2
+ u2
L2

d`EGfPT dOWd r JMa^SUSUL3[hQ:a^HKNWEIHx\oSUL3[hQ:L3Jp\UT F^LdeLHx\vEIOQ:RSUT VWRX T LLM\*X5C EIQWVWRX T L^wc a^OWS


HWa^OK[E^JJMa^SNPLS E'F^L3J(X LJVKEIHWi^LdeLHx\@NPLZFGEISUT_EIWX L u = (1/r) HWa^OK[ Q:ax[hLSUa^HK[
E'F^L3J r < r < r , w < u < v .
u = 1/r = v , u = 1/r = w ,
uDHJML3[NPLOPfvQ:a^T Hx\[NPL.X_E\USE q L3Jp\Ua^T SULAX_EeNPRSUT F^RL dr/d [C EIHWHOWX L^WJML.xOWT[C R3JMSUT \.



E
m
(1 2M v)
+v
= 0
L
L


E
3
m
(1 2M w)
+w
= 0.
L
L
XL3[]\rsE^JMT X L.NPLZ\UT SULS E /L LM\ m /L NPL.JML3[@NPLOPfzR3xOKEG\UT a^HK[JMa^dedeL

m
= [v + w 2M (v + vw + w )]/2M
L

E
= (v + w)(1 2M v)(1 2M w)/2M
L
BDC LMfPQWSUL3[U[hT a^H ^^ QWSULHKNvEIX a^S[cX_E-ra^SUdeL
 

du
= (v + w)(1 2M v)(1 2M w)/2M
+

(1 2M u)[v + w 2M (v 2 + vw + w2 ) + 2M u2 ]/2M

xOWT[C EIHWHOWX LZWT LH*Q:a^OWS u = v LM\ u = w w


uDHdOWX \UT QWX T_EIHx\A`NPSUa^T \UL.LM\A`ixEIOKJVWLZQKEIS@X L.rsE^Jp\ULOWS
X a^QWQKEIHx\@JMLA\ULSUdeLEIO*NPLOPfPT mdeLZa^SNPSULZLH*Y

LM\(LHNPRF^LMy

(1 2M u)1 ' 1 + 2M u + 4M 2 u2

a^Hva^P\UT LHx\
(1 2M u)

(1 2M u)1

du
d

2

= (v + w)(1 2M v)(1 2M w)(1 + 2M u + 4M 2 u2 )/2M


[v + w 2M (v 2 + vw + w2 ) + 2M u2 ]/2M

BDC E^[]\UOKJML Q:a^OWSD[hT deQWX T nKLSDX L deLdWSULNPL@NPSUa^T \ULcL3[]\NPL SULd`EISxOWLSxOC a^HeEZEG{EIT SUL
OWHoQ:a^X bH^deLANPOvNPLOPfPT mdeLANPLi^SUR@LH u xOWT|[C EIHWHOWX L(Q:a^OWS u = v LM\ u = w wX:L3[]\
NPa^HKJZNPL.X_Era^SUdeL
C(v u)(u w)
LHzHWRi^X T i^L3EIHx\cNPL3[\ULSUdeL3[cNC a^SNPSUL M wWBEFGEIX LOWS NPLAX_EJMa^HK[]\EIHx\UL.L3[]\ca^P\ULHOWL
T dedeR3NPT_EG\ULdeLHx\@LHzrsEIT_[UEIHx\ u = 0 JMa^dedeL
3

C = 1 2M (v + w)

JML.xOWTQ:LSUdeLM\@NC R3JMSUT SULAX5C R3xOKEG\UT a^H NPL.X_E\USE q L3Jp\Ua^T SULZ[ha^OK[cX_Era^SUdeL(nKHKEIX LdeLHx\


E^[U[hL ASEId`E^[U[hRL
 

du
= (1 2M u)[1 2M (v + w)](v u)(u w)
d
uDH*QWSULHKEIHx\ X_E-SE^JMT HWLZJEISUSURLANPL3[ deLdWSUL3[ NPL.JMLM\h\ULZR3xOKEG\UT a^HzLM\@HWRi^X T i^L3EIHx\cX L3[
\ULSUdeL3[(NC a^SNPSUL[hOWQ:RSUT LOWSAa^ORixEIX
M X_E`\USE q L3Jp\Ua^T SULNPLX_EoQKEISh\UT_JMOWX L-EIOP\Ua^OWSANPO
ja^X LT XQ:LOP\([hLJEIX_JMOWX LS LH*T Hx\URi^SEIHx\ X5C LMfPQWSUL3[U[hT a^H
  x
d
1 + M (u + v + w)
=p
.
du
(v u)(u w)
BDC T Hx\URi^SEG\UT a^HL3[]\Z\USUT FT_EIX L-[hT a^HlrsEIT \ZX L`JVKEIHWi^LdeLHx\ZNPL-FGEISUT_EIWX L u NPRMnKHWT
QKEIS
1
1
 W
u = (v + w) + (v w) cos
2
2
xOWTJMa^HKNPOWT \([UEIHK[ Q:LT HWL


a^O

(v u)(u w) =

1
(v w) sin = du/d
2

du
= d
(v u)(u w)

 ^

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Z
  
3M
M
(u) =
1+
(v + w) +
(v w) cos d
2
2
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  3
1
1
1
u = (v + w) + (v w) cos
JMLxOWT
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p
r=
1 + e cos
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1
1
1 1
1
= (v + w) =
+
p

(u)

r+

LM\

 
a^O q a^OWS[ E'F^L3J(X L3[ HWaI\EG\UT a^HK[cVKEIWT \UOWLX X L3[ X L.NPa^OWWX L.NPO*i^SEIHKNzEGfPL a NPLZX5C LX X T QK[hLZL3[]\
 
2a = r + r
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e=

vw
r+ r
=
v+w
r+ + r

v   MM
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S[UxOWL*X_EQW+X_EIw)
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sJMa^SUSUL3[hQ:a^HKNWEIHx\@
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 ^
6M
=
p
a^ p L3[]\(NPRMnKHWTLH  w


Avc

p = a(1 e2 ) .

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sin
\EIHx\@JMa^dedeL.OWHWL.[ha^Sh\UL.NPL.WSUOWT \3w
cEIX_JMOWX a^HK[X_E(FGEIX LOWS
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i
p = 5.5510
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SE^NPT_EIH > SURF^a^X OP\UT a^H = 0.103 > SURF^a^X OP\UT a^H
= 5 10
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NPL.YLSJMOWSUL.NPL
QKEIS@[hT m3JMX L .
= 43

  `v v  M 
 
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L3[]\
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T SULDRX RdeLHx\EIT SUL dA KEIX_E'b^RLQKEIS
X L
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EIOz\ULdeQK[ NPLQWOWT_[X LZ\ULdeQK[ = 0 L3[]\
3 x
A = (1/2)(L/m)
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3
T = 2(m/L) ab
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12

12

33

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a^Hz\USUa^OWF^L

m2
1
1
= (v + w)/M =
2
L
2
pM

p = a(1 e2 ) , b = a

T2 =

1 e2 ,

4 2 a3
.
M

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T 2 /a3

= 4 2 /(GM ) ,

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3 ^

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