AR-309: ARCHITECTURE AND TOWN PLANNING (A&TP-B) By: RAVINDAR KUMAR Assistant Professor, DAP-NED

LECTURE NO: 1 TOPIC: TECHNICAL TERMINOLOGY USED IN TOWN PLANNING TOWN, CITY & URBAN Town: The town name applied generally to small municipalities, larger than the village and smaller than the city or county. The town is usually operated under its own powers of local government granted by the government. Municipality: According to Anglo-Saxon law, public corporation created by a state and under its legislative control, typically a town, village, or other regional administrative unit. Until recently a special charter designating specific powers formed municipal corporations. Now, however, they may be formed under general statutes. Among the more important provisions in a charter and the general laws of a municipality are those that give a municipality the power to tax and the power to pass ordinances effective as law for the protection of the public health, safety, morals, and general welfare. The rate of taxation that a municipality may levy is limited in many states by the municipal charter. Among other rights that may be granted under a charter are the powers to sell bonds or notes, to award franchises, to acquire property, to construct public improvements, and to operate public utilities. Municipalities are essential units of local government. City: The city is defined as a large centre of population organized as a community. The word city is derived from the Latin word civitas, which denotes a community that administers its own affairs. In ancient Greece such an independent community was called a city-state; it consisted of a chief town and its immediate neighbourhood. The City is also described as a place where people live with collective sense of purpose/perception. Where internal and external processes shape environment. The city can also be defined according to scale of the settlement and types of services available in it. Some times it is directly connected to the production of the area. The city is also defined with the system of movement and relationships with the region. It has distinctive physical, social & economic characteristics, which differentiate it from the village. There was a big debate in 18th century that, what is the sense of city? And it was established that, city means, that kind of settlement which is developed as a result of industrial revolution in which the production is related to people. Before industrial revolution there were guild towns. However after industrial revolution it was termed as industrial towns/cities. Thus towns & cities can be described with respect to pre industrial & postindustrial scenario.

Local Government, the government of smaller units within nations or state, mostly at the level of the county, town, or district. Local government bodies and structures are normally creations of the central government, which delegates authority to them. The personnel of local government are customarily directly elected, because of the immediate relevance of their decisions to local life, and their powers differ from country to country. Local government usually provides administrative, fiscal, and other public services and amenities to local residents. In highly unitary centralized states, such as France or Great Britain, local government enjoys only limited powers, and in some areas these have been subject to erosion by central authority. Though some have regarded it as a basic underpinning for national democracy, local government is ill fitted to resist any encroachment on its powers by the central government. Megalopolis (Greek megas, great; polis, city), the term was first used in the early 1960s to describe the conurbation of the north-eastern United States extending from Boston in Massachusetts to Washington, D.C. and including the major cities of New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore. The term megalopolis was initially applied to those urban agglomerations, or superconurbations, that developed when separate towns and cities grew together. Such megalopolitan areas are found in many highly urbanized countries and include the area between London and Manchester in the United Kingdom, the Pacific coastal district of Honshu, Japan, and the Randstad region of the Netherlands. Their growth has depended largely on the economic prosperity of the immediate surrounding region. Since the 1970s, however, the most rapid large-scale growth of cities has occurred in newly industrializing nations. Megalopolitan areas are now a major feature of the countries of Asia and Central and South America. Examples, with their projected populations for the year 2000 include Mexico City (25.6 million), So Paulo, Brazil (22.1 million), Shanghai, China (17.0 million), Jakarta, Indonesia (13.7 million), and Calcutta, India (15.7 million). It is estimated that by the year 2000, 8 of the worlds 15 largest cities will be in Asia. Mega-cities: The Modern mega-cities owe their origins to the globalization of international trade and their ability to attract multinational companies from anywhere in the world. Foreign investors prefer to locate in a single city where services and economic opportunities can be concentrated and encourage further growth. The emphasis on export-oriented industry means that the development of internal markets is generally weak with few opportunities for other towns to develop as industrial centers. These processes result in a snowballing of investment in the largest cities. For example, Shanghai, with about 1.5 per cent of Chinas population, accounts for about 12 per cent of the nations industrial output. A characteristic of modern mega-cities is that they dominate the urban settlement structure with a disproportionate number of people living in them compared to other towns. Their rapid growth has tended to outstrip local resources, creating environmental and social problems. The supply of housing, water, sanitation, power, and transport services is often seriously inadequate. Despite appearances, the supply of jobs does not always keep pace with the arrival of rural migrants from other parts of the country, leading to further problems of social segregation and economic inequality. Rapid migration (frequently coupled with a high birth rate) has lead to the development

of inner-city slums or ghettos, or more often the creation of extensive, makeshift, and unofficial shanty settlements on the outskirts of the mega-cities. Although the growth of these cities looks set to continue for the foreseeable future, their vulnerability to changes in world markets is now being recognized, and controls on their growth and economic structure are starting to be considered. New Towns planned urban settlements built either to ease the pressure on existing urban areas or to regenerate a regions economic prosperity. New towns are largely associated with urban planning in the United Kingdom, although similar developments are to be found in other countries, for example, around Paris, France. During the Communist era, the Soviet Union built new towns in remote areas for specific economic projects, and in some countries new capital cities have been built as symbols of development, such as Braslia in Brazil and Islamabad in Pakistan. In the United Kingdom, new towns were initially conceived in the 19th century to improve living conditions in industrial areas. A few enlightened employers provided model towns for their workers, for example, Port Sunlight near Liverpool; Bourneville, built by the Cadbury family in the Midlands; and New Lanark in Scotland. The development of larger new towns did not begin until well into the 20th century. Two garden citiesLetch worth and Welwyn Garden City in Hertfordshirewere early examples but the major expansion of new towns in the United Kingdom occurred after the New Towns Act of 1946. Eight towns were built on the edge of Londons green belt, including Stevenage, Crawley, and Harlow, to take overspill population from the capital. Washington and Peter lee in the north-east of England, Cambrian in South Wales, and East Kilbride in Scotland were built to revive their regions depressed economies. All these towns were designed to create a pleasant residential environment with low housing density. Homes, shops, and other facilities were clustered to create a sense of community, and to reduce the need for transport. By 1973, 28 new or expanded towns housed 1.7 million people and provided 200,000 new homes. The best known of the later new towns is the city of Milton Keynes in Buckinghamshire which occupies an area of 309 sq km (119 sq mi) and has a population of 165,000 (1997). The general principle behind new towns is that they should be socially balanced and as independent as possible from existing urban areas. However, with the passing of time, these towns have mainly attracted younger skilled people. Opportunities for work have not kept pace with housing and commuting to and from the new towns are now at a high level. The planned residential mixing of different socio-economic groups has also faced problems. In the future, new towns are likely to be built in countries where economic growth and urbanization are occurring rapidly. Elsewhere, the preferred approach is now the careful redevelopment of existing centers or, like Pound bury in Dorset, England, the building of small new settlements modelled on the lines of traditional villages. County: The County is a unit of local government in the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland, and other nations influenced by the Anglo-Saxon tradition of government. In England a county was originally a tribal settlement, or even a whole kingdom, known to the Saxons as a shirea term still preserved, as in the county of Hampshire. With the formation

of the United Kingdom, the English county form was adopted in Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. Today counties remain Great Britain's chief governmental division for administrative and related purposes; though in some fields their competence has been reduced as a result of governmental centralizing policies during the 1980s. In the United States they are the largest organized unit in almost all states. In Canada counties are generally less widespread and important than in England. In Australia counties are generally referred to as shires. Guild Towns: Guilds are the communities living together for the practice of their mode of productions and professions. For example in medieval times there were production units at the ground floor and residential units were at upper floors where the communities lived and worked at the same place. Satellite Town: A town conceived as an extension of existing city, Mega city or metropolis which provides the employment and residential needs of people and served locally can be termed as satellite town. In addition it does not provide any commuting facility to the parent city such as Landhi Korangi and Steel Town and Gulshan-e-Maymar are the few examples of satellite town. Garden City: It is a conceptual outcome of the environmental conditions of city. In which there should be residential areas, which are linked to the city but located away from the city. For example in London there are suburbs, which are, located around one hour drive away from the city of London. In Karachi Maymar Complex was designed on such concept. CITY/URBAN ELEMENTS City Centre: The city centre can be defined as a place where all the major commercial, administrative and cultural activities of city take place. Where all the major commercial and public buildings exist or which should be the hub of all these activities and spaces where popular interaction between people is evident can be termed as city centre. Mostly the city centers were the places where major cultural activity occurs or where the origin of city is located from where the city started. For example: Kharadar Methadar, Old Town area or currently Empress Market or Time Square in New York or Eiffel Tower at Paris etc. CBD: CBD stands for Central Business District. CBD is a place where all kinds of shadow transactions take place. In case of Karachi I.I.Chundrigar Road can be termed as CBD because of stock exchange and offices of money market or foresee or brokerage forms, etc.

OBD: OBD stands for Outer Business District. When the functioning of cities decentralized and CBDs activities fails to fulfill the needs of citys shadow transactions and city centre. For example in London city of west minister is a CBD which could not fulfilled the needs of city so OBDs developed in other parts of London. Simultaneously in Manhattan where, Wall Street exists in known as CBD but because it is located in an island and there were also other islands in the surroundings so they developed their own OBD. Well take the case of Karachi. I.I.Chundrigar Road is known as CBD but now there is different brokerage houses developed in Clifton where the forex business is going on. If this trend continued the Clifton might develop as OBD. Sub Centre: When the city centre cannot grow further and constrained to a particular limit sub-centers develops in other parts of the city. When the physical accessibility to city centre become difficult and city centre becomes saturated the sub-centre emerges as a repercussion. For example Saddar Empress Market area can be termed as city centre, which reached to its zenith/peak. As a result Tariq Road emerged, as a sub centre, Liaquatabad market, Hydery market, Babar Market at Landhi Korangi are all examples of sub-centers. Neighbourhood: The neighbourhood is a residential unit, which possesses all the characteristics of livelihood that is dependent on an economic centre. Neighbourhood Centre: It is a commercial centre or market place for the settlement or a neighbourhood. For example one can observe in their neighbourhood that row of shops develops as the settlement or neighbourhood grows.

Fringe: It is the outer boundary of the city where the activities of city diminished. In Karachi its example is Hawks bay, Pipri, Korangi extension. The city fringes of existing cities, mega cities, and metropolis are changing continuously. There are also administrative limits of city. Such as Greater Karachi Metropolitan region, Karachi Divisions, Karachi Metropolitan/Urbanized area (16000 hectors). URBAN SOCIOLOGY Family: Unit of society with particular context, surviving on each other. Unit of people living in the one devilling unit (devilling unit is a house where a single family lives. Nuclear family, joint family).

Migration: It reflects movement of people from one place to another for any reason (income, economic, security, natural calamities, etc.). Public Utilities, business operations that provide essential services to the publicfor example, electricity, gas, water supply, sewage disposal, and telecommunications. Utilities are an essential part of the infrastructure of modern developed countries, which require highly integrated networks of distribution or coordination for many essential services, such as the national grid for electricity suppliers. Many operate under favorable cost regimes whereby the unit cost of service to a customer falls as the network grows. However, the existence of these networks often gives public utilities a natural monopoly of provision of service within their area. URBAN TRANSPORTATION Street: It is a path where the pedestrian and vehicular traffic flows. Road, public way, usually maintained by governmental authority, for the passage of vehicles, people, or animals. Roads in cities or towns are also called streets, lanes, avenues, or boulevards. Roads that connect populated areas to one another are often called motorways or highways. Highway: Highway is a major road where pedestrian movement is discovered and vehicular traffic is allowed. These are connecting different cities or industries. Motorway: Motorway is same as highway where notarized vehicles are allowed to flow with a certain speed limit. Transport, conveyance of people or property from one place to another. Modern commercial transport includes all the means and facilities used in the movement of people or property, and all services involved in the receipt, delivery, and handling of such property. The commercial transport of people is classified as passenger service and that of property as freight service. Transport is one of the largest industries in the world. Public Transport, conveyance of large numbers of passengers, whether in the town or country, by vehicle, usually in return for payment of a fixed fare. Mass Transit: It is an urban transportation mode which addresses the needs of major urban transit/movement of people especially the movement of people from suburbs to city centre and vice versa. Example: Karachi Mass Transit/Circular Railway or Urban Railway System of Bombay.

URBAN LANDSCAPE Park: It is an open space with natural and man-made landscape. Street Park: Basically the street parks are developed from the classical planning of Greeks and Romans. The street park can be termed as open spaces located at the corners of an intersection or at the end of street. Locality Park: It is designed and developed at the level of a neighbourhood. For example Aziz Bhatti Park in Gulshan or Jahangir Park in Saddar. Urban Park: The Park developed at the city level both by scale and nature, having majority of as Urban Park i.e. Hyde Park and Kingston Park in London. In New York there is central park which combines the Manhattan with other spaces. The Urban Park provides a relief a breathing space for the people living in the city. National Parks: It is common term used in geography. It is a park provided at the regional level. It is a large landscape unit at a regional scale with a focus on conservation of the national landscape, floors, and fauna natural and wild life. For example, Kheerthar National Park in Sindh which is more than 23000 hectors of land. National Parks and Nature Reserves, areas selected by governments or private organizations for special protection against damage or degradation. They are chosen for their outstanding natural beauty, as areas of scientific interest, or as forming part of a country's cultural heritage, and often also to provide facilities for public recreation. Hard Landscape: The artificial/manmade landscape can be termed as hard landscape. Soft Landscape: The natural landscape can be termed as soft landscape. Townscape: It is a system of appropriate livable settlements. There are both residential and working spaces existing in each city with exclusive right of use. Simultaneously there are some open spaces of common use which are collectively used and managed with no exclusive right of space use. The system of management, maintenance and utilization of all these spaces in an appropriate way can be termed as townscape. A townscape always faces the pressure of population increase and utilization of its spaces.

URBAN CONSERVATION Urban Conservation: It means protection of built environment. The term conservation cannot be understood in isolation until and unless one must define a parameter for it. For example, an architectural conservation, area conservations or urban conservation. Conservation, means sustainable use of natural resources, such as soils, water, plants, animals, and minerals. In economic terms, the natural resources of any area constitute its basic capital, and wasteful use of those resources constitutes an economic loss. From the aesthetic and moral viewpoint, conservation also includes the maintenance of national parks, wilderness areas, historic sites, and wildlife. In certain cases, conservation may imply the protection of a natural environment from any human economic activity. Preservation: It means provision of safe guard from any kind of harm. The term preservation gives a definite meaning of a process. Restoration: It means rebuilding towards originality. There is again controversy in this term. It is also associated to entire field of studies. For example what kind of restoration is required? There are some 1st grade monuments where one cannot change any thing to modify it. Where as in 2nd Grade monuments/buildings one can do some modifications. Redevelopment: It means re-bring to its visible state. It is again another controversial term. In redevelopment one has to recapture the sprit of space, in addition maintain the morphology of the area and its physical density. Rehabilitation: It means reestablish to former state. In rehabilitation an object/space should be established in such a way that it gets a formal status. Therefore at first it needs restoration through which the object will get its former sate. This can also be termed as empirical stage of an object. Renovation: It means renew or to make it as if new. In the context of conservation the term renovation leads us towards renewing the function and no change in spatial quality is allowed. This term directly related to buildings. Where as in urban context the term urban renewal will be used. Rejuvenation: It means to make young with respect to specific period. In rejuvenation we revive the object to same layout and function as it was at the time of its youth.

Revitalization: It means modification. It is very specific term which reflects the changes in the object with respect to some specific needs of that object. The revitalization also takes place to reuse that object in current context to suit the existing conditions, needs and demands. Restitution: Basically the restitution means to restore. The term restitution is mainly related to the development of different options for revival in present time conditions. In original terms it is an option development exercise. Animation: It means enliven or make it alive. This term leads us to a situation in which at first it is assumed that an object or place has lost its functions, characteristics and spirit. So a new function and sprit is introduced in it/or in computer graphics terms make it a live scene. Adaptive Reuse: It means make the object suitable for reuse. This term is mainly applicable to redundant things or objects which are in dilapidated condition or became obsolete and they needs to be sued again for some historical or emotional reasons. Where no drastic changes are required because it would be very vital when used the objects practically. Urban Renewal, the rehabilitation of decaying urban areas, usually funded by government finance and directed according to town planning policies. Urban renewal has been criticized because of the often-accompanying process of gentrification, whereby the stock of affordable housing is considerably shrunk, and essential facilities such as inexpensive food shops may disappear. Urban renewal may, therefore, result in a displacement of the urban poor. URBAN ECONOMICS Urban Economics: There are two types of economics Capitalist Economy and Socialist Economy. Socialist Economy: In socialist economy state works for people and people work for state. Capitalist Economy: In capitalist economy private entrepreneurs works for people to mobilize the whole economy i.e. chemical, textile industry etc. In urban economics three things are important i.e. capital, goods and labour. The free movement of these three elements denotes free market economy. Employment: Effort to earn livelihood.

Production, in economics, manufacture and processing of goods or merchandise, including their design, treatment at various stages, and finance contributed by banks. As the means by which wealth is created by human labour, it is regarded by some as the fundamental economic process. Various economic laws, price data, and available resources are among the aspects of production that must be considered by both private and governmental producers. The inputs or resources used in production are known as the factors of production. Factors of Production, inputs used in the production process. These are conventionally defined as land, labour, and capital (investment in machinery, for example), but enterprise or entrepreneurship is often listed as a fourth factor of production. The relative availability of the various factors of production in a country (its factor endowment) is an important influence on investment and international trade. In order to be successful, a business needs to achieve as good a mix as possible of the factors of production. The desirable mix will change from time to time and will depend on such things as the need to expand, the availability of skilled labour or experienced and enterprising managers, and new technology, as well as, of course, the market price for the different factors of production. Money, any medium of exchange that is widely accepted in payment for goods and services and in settlement of debts. Money also serves as a standard of value for measuring the relative economic worth of different goods and services. The number of units of money required to buy a commodity is the price of the commodity. The monetary unit chosen as a measure of value need not, however, be used widely, or even at all, as a medium of exchange. During the colonial period in North America, for example, Spanish currency was an important medium of exchange, while the British pound sterling served as the standard of value. Prices, in economics are the value of things measured in terms of what the buyers in a market will give in exchange for them. Prices are usually measured in moneyindeed, money's effectiveness as a medium for expressing prices is the main reason for its existencebut in barter systems prices could be expressed in other commodities with their own value, so that prices of all commodities were mutually determining without the intervening medium of money. Prices are the fundamental mechanism of adjustment of supply and demand, for any commodity in a free market economy should eventually find the level at which production and consumption are balanced: this equilibrium price will be the compromise reached between what the producers can afford to charge and what the consumers are prepared to pay. Prices will therefore decide what and how much is produced, how it is produced, and who can buy it. Questions of price are therefore crucial to economics, particularly microeconomics, and the subject of intensive study. Market: Theoretically the market can be defined as a place where transactions take place. These transactions can be both physical and shadow. However, practically the market is generally known as a place where sell, purchase and storage take place.

Market Forces, underlying influences on the operation of the economy. They boil down to supply and demand, which determine price and the allocation of resources. In a pure free market economy, market forces are unrestrained. However, in all countries, governments to a greater or lesser degree restrict the operation of the free market and therefore distort (even negate) the effect of market forces through economic policy. In the former communist countries the system of central planning left no room for market forces to operate. In other parts of the world governments have often, for different reasons, sought to override market forces through such actions as the granting of subsidies to firms or services that (it is judged) could not survive in a free market, or the imposition of tariffs or quotas on imports. Increasingly, however, countries are moving towards a position where market forces are allowed to operate more and more freely. A market revolution is taking place in the former communist nations, but changes have also taken place all over the worldfrom South America to Southern Africa. An open market in which market forces are allowed to operate freely is at the heart of the single market programme of the European Union. However, the principle has never been applied to farming in the EU, which is governed by the Common Agricultural Policy under which prices for agricultural produce are guaranteed, thus encouraging overproduction. Market forces vary from market to market and derive their power from the individuals who make up a market and on whose lives they have enormous influence. They are determined by such factors as wealth, consumer taste, regulation, and taxation. Stringent safety requirements may push up the cost (and therefore the price) of a potentially desirable product beyond that which a sufficient number of consumers can afford (or are willing) to pay. Tax differentials on alcoholic drinks have encouraged thousands of Britons to make day trips to France in order to stock up with beer and wine. Supply and Demand, in economics, basic factors determining prices. According to the theory, or law, of supply and demand, the market prices of commodities and services are determined by the relationship of supply to demand. Theoretically, when supply exceeds demand, sellers must lower prices to stimulate sales; conversely, when demand exceeds supply, buyers bid prices up as they compete to buy goods. The terms supply and demand do not mean the amount of goods and services actually sold and bought; in any sale the amount sold is equal to the amount bought, and such supply and demand, therefore, always equalizes. In economic theory, supply is the amount available for sale or the amount that sellers are willing to sell at a specified price, and demand, sometimes called effective demand, is the amount purchasers are willing to buy at a specified price. The theory of supply and demand takes into consideration the influence on prices of such factors as an increase or decrease in the cost of production, but regards that influence as an indirect one, because it affects prices only by causing a change in supply, demand, or both. Other factors indirectly affecting prices include changes in consumption habits (for example, a shift from natural silk to artificial silk fabrics) and the restrictive practices of monopolies, trusts, and cartels. In the view of many economists, the multiplicity of such indirect factors is so great that the terms supply and demand are inclusive categories of economic forces affecting prices, rather than precise, primary causal factors. The price-determining mechanism of supply and demand is operative only in economic systems in which competition is largely unfettered. Recourse, in recent times, to governmental regulation of

the economy has tended to restrict the scope of the operation of the supply-and-demand mechanism. It was greatly restricted in many countries by the temporary governmental price regulations and rationing during World War II. Under Communist systems the planned economy is controlled by the state, the supply-and-demand mechanism being overridden. However, in recent years there has been a remarkable trend towards the reintroduction of market forces in many former planned economies. Commodity, the economic term with two meanings: in economic theory it is a tangible good or service that is the result of a production process; in general terms it is a primary product (or raw material) that is grown, such as coffee, tea, rubber, or cotton, or an extracted mineral resource, such as gold, copper, or tin; it may also be something that is (in effect) reared, such as wool. Here we concern ourselves only with the second meaning. Countries that are rich in commodities or natural resources have the advantage over others that are not so well endowed in that their economies are (up to a point) less dependent on the ingenuity and effort of their inhabitants. They are, however, dependent on the market for commodities, which determines price. Experience has shown that commodity prices are more vulnerable to dramatic price shifts than are manufactured goods. In the past two decades many commodities, including oil, tin, copper, and coffee, have been subject to huge price fluctuations that were often not foreseen or prepared for by both producers and consumers. Some of these price increases were to a large extent the result of natural conditions that have resulted in crop failures or crop surpluses. Other price shifts have resulted from one or other of a combination of politics and changing markets. Because, on balance, consumers and producers have tended to be in favour of more stable commodity prices, attempts have been made to achieve commodity price stability through agreements that have involved export and/or production quotas; intervention in the market by buying a commodity when the price is falling (which helps slow or reverse the fall) and storing it until the price has recovered; and long-term contracts between suppliers and purchasers. None of these have worked consistently well, and there have been some serious failures, notably the dramatic collapse of the tin agreement in the mid-1980s. Increasingly, international organizations such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF) have been using other ways to help those developing countries whose commodity exports are crucial sources of foreign exchange earnings. There are a number of commodity markets in the world, most of which concern themselves primarily with rights of ownership rather than physical possession. A spot price for a commodity is the current price. A future price is one agreed for transfer of ownership of a specified quantity of the commodity on a specific date in the future (perhaps a month, perhaps a year). The futures market allows buyers to know in advance what they are going to have to pay for a commodity and protects them from unforeseen fluctations in the spot price. It also offers speculators opportunities to profit from price fluctuations they have foreseen (or have been prepared to gamble on) but which the market has not. Suppose you judge that the spot price will be 5 per cent higher in 30 days' time than the current (30-day) future price for a commodity, you will (if your judgment is correct) make a 5 per cent profit (less commission costs) by buying at the future price and selling the commodity on the spot market in 30 days' time. However, if the spot price has fallen below the future price you paid, you will have incurred a loss.

Goods: Goods are the commodities, which are produced through a process. These are products which has some determined value. Goods are all tangible tings which human being requires/desires. Services: Services are the counter part of goods. All the work done for others known as services. The services cannot be quantified in a materialistic way. Resources: Resources are the input required to deliver goods and services. The resources can be tangible and intangible such as Natural resources, Capital Resources, and Technological Resources. Poverty, is the economic condition in which people lack sufficient income to obtain certain minimal levels of health services, food, housing, clothing, and education generally recognized as necessary to ensure an adequate standard of living. What is considered adequate, however, depends on the average standard of living in a particular society. Relative poverty is that experienced by those whose income falls considerably below the average for their particular society. Absolute poverty is that experienced by those who do not have enough food to remain healthy. However, estimating poverty on an income basis may not measure essential elements that also contribute to a healthy life. People without access to education or health services should be considered poor even if they have adequate food. Scarcity: It means fewer resources. It is the limitations of the amount of resources available to individuals and societies to produce goods and services. Free Good: Goods which are available in such abundance that they are able to full fill any quantum of choice i.e. air, sun light, wind, snow. Land cannot be a free good. Economic Goods: Opposite to free goods. Economic goods are those which generate revenue. The economic goods emerge from scarcity. They are produced to fulfill certain proportion of scarcity i.e. 15 million households in Pakistan and each requires T.V., clothes. Difference b/w free goods & economic goods: We always have access to free goods through natural behaviour without any hindrance where as in economic goods we have one practical hindrance i.e. we pay the price. So it leads to cost.

Cost: Cost is the value of opportunity in making choices. What is value of opportunity? It is the capacity to fulfill choices and cost is the function of it i.e. you can make highways or you can make missiles. Therefore cost again depends on the availability of resources. Absolute Cost: It is the input required for production such as, capital, human resource, and technology. In theory it works. But in practice it would not. Because one cannot measure the human factor and its cost. Therefore non-human mechanism of production is the absolute cost. Opportunity Cost: It is related to both individuals and societies. It is the value placed on opportunities and choosing to scarce goods i.e. time has certain value it is a scarce good utilize your fee hours and get benefit. If you would not get benefit means you loose and pay the opportunity cost. Its the choice available to you. For example national parks most people use it most not, they pay the price for non-utilization. Accounting Cost: It is a calculated cost. It is the direct definite cost reflected in monitory terms. All costs are convertible to accounting cost. It can be applied on both tangible and non-tangible costs. Margin: Margin can be understood as a profit line. It is the difference b/w cost and benefit in any given situation. In terms of net benefit it is profit. Marginal Analysis: In any mechanism of production how the margining is carried out. In Marginal Analysis it is calculated that, how much maximization and minimizing of cost and benefit is possible. Marginal Analysis suggested that, how the optimum benefits can be obtained while doing an activity. Prices: These are opportunity cost/market value of a product. It does not give certain value but give idea how to maximize opportunity. Market: It is the Hypothetical arrangement b/w buyer and seller. How market operates? It operates through barter (exchange of goods or commodities). Money: It is generally accepted medium of exchange or transaction. Currency: Currency is the representation of money.

Inflation: It is the sustained degradation of money against the increase of prices and reduction in purchasing power of money i.e. in Pakistan inflation rate increased up to 26 percent from last 12 percent due to devaluation of money in Pakistan. Microeconomics: Individual/Personal/Small enterprises. Behaviour of individual units regarding goods production i.e. Panwala, Dal chawal wala. Macroeconomics: It is the study of economy as a whole scale is flexible policy making of govt. or international agencies affect the whole region. Economic Growth: Higher production of a society or sustained increase in productive capacity means economic growth i.e. more goods, more services and human resources. Economic System: The economic system means to determine what, how and for whom the goods and services to be produced. There are three major economic systems i.e. (i) Traditional economic system (ii) Command society economic system; and (iii) Market economic system. Traditional Economic System: It is a tribal/jarga, system where the customs, habits and rituals are the determinant forces of the economic system. This system is unaccountable. Command Society Economic System: In command society a central authority decides about the production of goods and services. The example of command society is Monarchy, Dictatorship and Communists where a party leads and makes decisions about every thing. Market Society: People on their own interest decide about the economy system. In this system a balance and accountability is evident for consumers and producers.

URBAN HOUSING Shelter: It is one of the three basic necessities for human survival with minimum requirement (what each human need? i.e. food, clothes and shelter) Housing, is a permanent shelter for human habitation. Because shelter is necessary to everyone, the problem of providing adequate housing has long been a concern, not only of individuals but of governments as well. Thus, the history of housing is inseparable from the social, economic, and political development of humankind. History of Housing: From the beginning of civilization, attention has been paid to the form, placement, and provision of human habitation. The earliest building codes, specifying structural integrity in housing construction, are found in the Code of the 18th-century BC Babylonian King Hammurabi. Town planning activities during the Greek and Roman empires centered almost exclusively on the appropriate placement of urban housing from the perspectives of defense and water supply. These same concerns continued throughout the middle Ages. In 13th-century Europe, the city became a centre of trade, and its walls provided a safe haven from nomadic warriors and looters. People could find shelter for themselves and their flocks, herds, and harvests while the open country was being overrun by enemies of superior force. Demand for urban housing increased. For centuries this demand was filled by unplanned additions to, and subdivisions of, existing structures. Where climate permitted, squatting (occupying without title or payment of rent) became commonplace, but provided only temporary shelter.

By the 19th century, with the Industrial Revolution, people were moving to cities in unprecedented numbers. Workers lived in sheds, railway yards, and factory cellars, typically without sanitation facilities or water supply. In the post-industrial society of the 20th century, housing in developing nations and poor parts of developed countries continues to be of insufficient quality and does not meet the demand of some parts of the population. Vacant, abandoned inner-city housing exists alongside structures that are usable but overcrowded and buildings that are structurally reclaimable but are functionally obsolete. At present, there is both a demand for housing and a supply of reusable structures that are going unclaimed. This situation is a good example of the complex role housing plays in society. Its primary function was to serve the need for shelter, security, and privacy, but housing must now offer other advantages: (1) location, including proximity to the workplace, shopping, businesses, schools, and other homes; (2) environment, for example, the quality of the neighbourhood, including public safety and aesthetics; and

(3) investment potential, or the degree to which home ownership may affect capital accumulation. Housing Policy: Housing programmes in the United States and in Western European nations share many similarities. All these countries have initiated public housing, urban renewal, and new-town programmes. However, public intervention in Europe began sooner and has been more extensive than in the United States. Great Britain, for example, embarked on public-housing development in the late 19th century. Labourers' dwelling acts, authorizing local governments to construct public housing, were enacted as early as the mid-19th century, more than 75 years before comparable US housing legislation was passed. Urban-renewal demolition activities were empowered during the same period, almost a century before equivalent American activity. Massive public-housing programmes were started after each of the world wars. By the 1970s, approximately one-third of Britain's housing was publicly subsidized, compared with only 1 to 2 per cent in the United States. Great Britain has also constructed several new community developments that are in contrast to the fledgling and largely unsuccessful new-town ventures in the United States. Housing policies in other Western European nations are similar to those in Britain. For instance, extensive provision and regulation of housing exists, taking the form of subsidies for slum demolition and rental housing assistance. Germany, France, the Netherlands, and other nations provide low- or no-interest housing loans. The development of new-towns is also encouraged or subsidized; indeed, more than ten have been built on the outskirts of Paris. The problems of housing in Canada, both public and private, have been treated with considerable imagination and effectiveness. Federal funds for housing have been directed almost entirely at people with lower incomes. The government provides assistance to the provinces and municipalities and to individuals, to be used for neighbourhood improvement, the purchase of homes, the rehabilitation of residential housing, and the development of new communities. At the same time, the private sector has channelled a high volume of financial support into the mortgage market. Housing in the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR)and in Eastern European nations was almost exclusively characterized by government regulations and provisions. These countries pioneered the production and installation of massive prefabricated housing units in urban areas. Housing units, usually of pre-cast concrete, were manufactured in factories and then transported to the housing site, where they were assembled into large, multifamily complexes. The former USSR was also a pioneer in developing new towns, which were frequently located around massive industrial or power-generating facilities. One example was the town of Bratsk, near the Bratsk hydroelectric plant in Siberia. Housing in economically developing countries is typically inferior in quality and space to that found in economically developed nations. Government efforts to upgrade housing conditions are evolving slowly, however. In the 1950s, slum demolition was effected on a large scale in many cities, such as Manila in the Philippines and Baghdad in Iraq. In the 1960s, new-town development, such as Braslia in Brazil, became commonplace. These strategies often proved ineffective; demolition was not usually accompanied by replacement housing, and the new towns sometimes proved to be islands in

a sea of slums. In the 1970s, some developing nations turned to self-help housing. Families were given plots of land and building materials to construct or improve their own shelter. This housing approach is commonly referred to as a sites-and-services programme; so far it has been implemented on a large scale in India and many South American countries. Numerous organizations assist housing development and the upgrading of housing standards. These include the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the United Nations Commission on Human Settlements, and the US Agency for International Development. Future Trends Housing is a critical component in the social and economic fabric of all nations. No country is yet satisfied that adequate housing has been delivered to the various economic groups that make up its populace. Thus, most nations, in one form or another, continue to claim a housing problem. As the 1990s began, the West generally was facing a critical shortage of affordable housing for lowand middle-income wage earners, as well as for the poor, and the numbers of homeless people were rising, especially in the cities. Higher home prices plus a reduction in low-income housing led to greater demand for rented accommodation, which resulted in higher rents and fewer available rental units. In addition, different types of housing are required to meet the needs of people with disabilities, as well as of the elderly and of people living alone. A variety of solutions have been suggested, including rehabilitating public housing, organizing public-private partnerships, issuing housing vouchers, granting public funds to non-profit-making developers, amending zoning restrictions, promoting tenant management of public housing, improving mortgage-guarantee programmes, and encouraging companies to provide housing assistance programmes for their employees. Each country also faces its own specific problems. Great Britain and much of Western Europe must grapple with suburbanization and the decentralization of cities, while in the former USSR and in Eastern Europe, demand for more private dwelling space has increased. In developing nations, raw housing demand is still largely unmet, with the result that many of the population find themselves forced to live in shanty towns, settlements in which the houses are very poorly equipped to deal with basic human needs. Shanty towns have very little in the way of infrastructure; they are usually without water, sanitation, electricity, or roads. The houses are usually built by the residents themselves, made from whatever materials have come to hand, and constructed often on land where no building rights exist, or on land illegally squatted. Household: Nos. of kitchen is the determinant of household in Pakistan. Public Sector: The activities and initiatives of state decide on account of people. State is Mumliquat-e-Khudadad. Private Sector: Individual or group of individuals working within the framework of state for free enterprise or for earning surplus.

Private Sector, part of the economy that is not owned or controlled by the state. It includes personal and corporate private enterprise, including what are known as public companies (those in which there is a market for members of the public to buy shares). After World War II, in many countries governments organized a shift from the private sector to the public sector. The countries that fell under the influence of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics adopted centrally planned economies with maximum state control. In the United Kingdom, the Labour government elected in 1945 firmly believed in the principle of common ownership, and that it was better for the public sector to run certain essential industries and services. Its extensive programme of nationalization included taking control of the Bank of England, the coal industry, most hospitals, transport, and the gas, electricity, and iron and steel industries. Since the 1980s, as a result of the policy of privatization championed by Margaret Thatcher, there has been a big shift in economic activity away from the public sector in the United Kingdom as many large state-owned companies have been sold to the private sector. Many other countries have also been following the trend by reducing the public sector in favour of the private sector, including, most notably, the former Communist countries of Eastern Europe and what was the Soviet Union, where there always was a small private sector even if it was not officially acknowledged. Even in current Communist states such as China and Vietnam, there has been a remarkable shift in emphasis towards private enterprise. Many African countries, which followed socialist economic principles, are now too encouraging growth of a private sector. Cooperative Sector: One basic difference between private and cooperative sector is, to get the basic need of people or some specific group identify need and gather around it. Informal Sector: Develops around basic needs within the framework of Government rules and regulations. Where government fails to provide goods and services the informal sector operates parallel, i.e. water supply, tanker mafia, housing (squatter) lands grabber etc. Labor Housing/Colonies: It reflects in the historic development of Industrialization in 1880s. When mass influx of people come in the city with no facility available to them. So they occupied the available plots and no place left for housing expansion. At that time revolution took place by labour and they had 3 demands. Food, clothes and shelter. So; on that basis the industrialists accepted their demands and provided them labour colonies. Social Housing: This concept developed in the west and their main application is also seen in the west. In social housing, the houses are provided by government to destitute, disables worriers, widows and old people they may be groups or individuals who can not survived on their own, (then the concept of welfare state emerged, in UK and France in 1880s) and state become responsible for their housing needs. If we look into the housing policy document of Pakistan and other developing countries this concept is very much alive but not actually.

Rental Housing: This concept mainly developed in France where state established the housing stock so that earning could be done and shelter should be provided to shelter less. It is commonly used term refers to provision of housing to people with a contract between owner and tenant. It is different from normal kind of housing. In developing countries only few countries has this facility but in developed western countries this concept is very popular. Housing Finance: What do we mean by finance? It is the system through which the housing process is monetarily supported. Housing is the process with number of steps. The financial aspect of housing is a first step. The laid is the first commodity. So, the land and finance is the both equitable entities. In Sindh we find that state cannot participate in housing finance because state owns a large amount of land and it got the value and it has certain kind of financial aspect added to it i.e. KDA started a housing project the first thing is set of terms and conditions with respect to financial aspect that how much money will be rotated/revolved. There are three stages of housing finance: (i) Acquisition of land, (ii) House building (it takes time because financial institutions given the loans i.e. HBFC) and (iii) Infrastructure, it is distributed in components with different institutions that provide these facilities i.e. water, gas, electricity, telephone, etc. This is the very set system of housing finance. There are also alternatives for housing finance i.e. from open market lands, materials, credit. Housing Construction: It is the over all process through which the settlement develops and sustains. The actors involved in it are land grabbers, developers, interest groups and state. Subdivision: It has various meanings but division of land is appropriate for housing and landuse. These are the dimensions assigned by developers for land use pattern of the settlements. Lease: It is the contractual mode of ownership tied up with time frame i.e. in Karachi it is 99 years. In Punjab it is one year Yaksala Pata. Freehold Land: It is the most common pattern of land ownership. It is the land owned by one person and then inherited.

Trusts hold Land: It is the ownership acquired by the Government of Pakistan. After independence government established an Evacuee (eviction) property trust. They make charter that who ever left the land in India can make claims and get the trust property here in Pakistan. Demarcation: It has two angles (point of views) Settlement itself and at city level process of demarcation. At the plot or unit of house, marked on site according to the reference taken on site. It is the process of verifying housing unit boundaries. All the right of ownership develops on the basis of demarcation. Land Acquisition: Land is the basic commodity in the process of development of any settlement. Now, the government can acquire the land, private owners acquire the land, informal owners acquire the land. A public sector example in this regard is acquisition of Landhi Korangi Area, which was a rural land. During 1958 Greater Karachi resettlement plan govt. gave notice to the owners to come and sell their land. Land Appropriation: The available land is the first appropriation mechanism used by illegal subdivides. Eviction: It is the process through which illegal or undesired settlements are bulldozed or removed from the (scene) area. Type of Houses (property unit): In housing census we measure the housing in these three categories, katcha, semi pucca and pucca. (i) Katcha house can be considered with no roof, no foundation walls and no permanent structure. (ii) Semi pucca house can be considered with no permanent foundation where as walls and roof structures are permanent. (iii) Pucca house can be considered with permanent foundation, walls and roof. Housing Policy: It is a Federal Document made by EUAD i.e. Environment and Urban Affairs Division according to National Housing Policy. It describes the housing stock, demand and supply level at national scale. Land Grabbing: It is the illegal occupation of land under the umbrella of various institutions.

AR-309: ARCHITECTURE AND TOWN PLANNING (B) By: RAVINDAR KUMAR Assistant Professor Department of Architecture and Planning NED University of Engineering and Technology Karachi

LECTURE NO. 02 TOPIC: DEFINITIONS OF TOWN PLANNING What is town (and country) planning?

Town and country planning is the process of making decisions on the development and use of land. It is a tool for guiding and facilitating development and regeneration in a way that also preserves the best features of our environment.[1] Town Planning is the determining and drawing up plans for the future physical arrangement and condition of a community or the comprehensive planning of the physical and social development of a town.[2] Town Planning is the physical, social and economic planning of an urban environment (such as a town)[3] Town Planning is the planning and design of all the new buildings, roads and parks in a place in order to make them attractive and convenient for the people who live there.[4] Town Planning is the designing the physical layout of cities, planning the infrastructure of an urban area.[5] Town planning, the conscious intervention by government into the orderly growth of urban centers, aims to improve health, ensure efficient land use, protect the environment and facilitate economic development.[6] Urban, city, and town planning is the integration of the disciplines of land use planning and transport planning, to explore a very wide range of aspects of the built and social environments of urbanized municipalities and communities.[7] Town Planning Retrospect: [8]

The practice of town planning is much older than the modern profession. And its desired effects have grown. The aims of planning have varied to create grandeur, to promote empire and to instill

civic pride. This page traces the emergence of these ideals. It leads to pages about planning styles, movements and what planners do today.

Unplanned, organic cities Humans have built towns and cities for thousands of years. A cluster of huts, a camp by a river, a citadel on a commanding height numerous places like these have grown organically into permanent settlements. With streets and housing following the contours of the land, many of these organic cities were charming. Others were overcrowded and unsanitary, failing to provide enough sunlight or fresh air. Some made poor use of their sites or outgrew them. Origins of town planning Alongside organic communities, planned cities and towns have also existed from ancient times. Often, they followed a simple grid laid over the landscape, with houses placed side by side along straight streets. In the Renaissance (15th century), rulers of city-states aimed to achieve grand effects, with bold geometry and large public areas. In the Baroque era (17th century), this tendency grew and monumental architectural and landscape ensembles were designed and built. Examples include Louis XIVs Palace of Versailles (17th century) and Pierre LEnfants plan for Washington DC (18th century). Plans imposed on colonial lands Towns and cities in the Australian colonies and other 19th-century British colonies were often planned in distant London. The Colonial Office produced plans to be imposed on the land; regardless of how well (or badly) they suited a site. Planning to instill pride Creating beauty in towns and cities to inspire civic pride was also a feature of 19th-century park and city plans. Parks and recreational spaces were set aside for citizens leisure. An example is New Yorks Central Park, designed by Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux. Reforms for industry and society Town plans also took on broader social ideals in the 1800s in response to the industrial revolution. Workers in factory towns lived in crowded slums with poor drainage and little access to light and air. Social reformers in England proposed solutions ranging from public health improvements to utopian communities. Some factory owners built model towns for their workers, to improve their wellbeing and productivity. Town planning the profession By the early 20th century, town planning was developing as a profession in its own right. Several schools of thought about civic design became influential. They included the Garden City and City Beautiful movements, and the modern revival of historic place-making associated with Viennese planner Camillo Sitte. New Towns:[9] New towns by definition are completely designed and constructed urban complexes and the

common notion is that all the towns in history have had organic growth and that the new towns have had a relatively short history, starting after the ugliness of industrial revolution became pronounced and unbearable. By definition, a town, to qualify as one, needs to be of a certain size, followed by the requirement that a majority of its workforce need to be in non-primary activities.

"New towns" mean all towns built on a site without any urban concentrations, towns which are large enough to have an independent existence; in other words, self-contained towns with commercial, educational, social and cultural institutions that satisfy all the needs of families and individuals alike; above all, the towns must have a sufficient number of industrial enterprises to create a wide labour market. Entirely new towns, deliberately created by an act of will on the part of individuals or groups for a given purpose and in accordance with a carefully devised plan, bearing in mind the need for economic and demographic balance. The term new community was coined a few decades ago in the United States as a result of this country's unique socio-economic and political conditions. It describes a new type of settlement similar, but not identical, to a new town. The American Institute of planners (AIP) envisions the new community as:

"a settlement entailing prices and rents, an internal transportation system as well as convenient access to other communities and metropolitan areas, community facilities, services and amenities and an effective local government. Such settlements could range from small towns of 25,000 populations to very large cities with a population of a million or more". (Clapp, James. 1971, p.46) In another definition new communities can be defined as: Large-scale developments under single or unified management, following a fairly precise, inclusive plan for different types of housing, commercial and cultural facilities, and amenities sufficient to serve the residents of the community. They may provide land for industry, offer other types of employment opportunities, and may eventually achieve a considerable measure of self-sufficiency. With few exceptions, new communities under development today are within commuting distance of existing employment centers. Planners have viewed new towns as laboratories that can contribute to their experiences from older cities and can afford a chance to break away from conventional development thinking and to try alternative arrangements. Since they are developed literally from ground up, new towns are pioneers in technological innovation, social management, governmental and administrative structures, and urban planning and design. Thus definition of new towns varies from country to country and from region to region. Definitions of Town/City and Urban Agglomeration as adopted in Census of India, 2001[10] Statutory Towns: All places with a municipality, corporation, Cantonment board or notified town area committee, etc. so declared by a state law.

Census Towns: Places which satisfy the following criteria: i) A minimum population of 5000; ii) At least 75 percent of male working population engaged in non agricultural pursuits; and iii) A density of population of at least 400 persons per sq. km. Urban Agglomeration:

Urban agglomeration is a continuous urban spread constituting a town and its adjoining urban outgrowths (OGs), or two or more physical contiguous towns together and any adjoining urban outgrowths of such towns. Examples of Outgrowth are railway colonies, university campuses, port area, military camps etc. that may have come up near a statutory town or city but within the revenue limits of a village or villages contiguous to the town or city. For Census of India, 2001, it was decided that the core town or at least one of the constituent towns of an urban agglomeration should necessarily be a statutory town and the total population of all the constituents should not be less than 20,000 (as per 1991 Census). With these two basic criteria having been met, the following are the possible different situations in which urban agglomerations could be constituted.

i) A city or town with one or more contiguous outgrowths; ii) Two or more adjoining towns with or without their outgrowths; iii) A city and one or more adjoining towns with their outgrowths all of which form a continuous spread. Definition of Town and country planning in the United Kingdom[11] Town and Country Planning is the land use planning system by which the British government seeks to maintain a balance between economic development and environmental quality in the United Kingdom. The essential framework for the system was set in the Town and Country Planning Act 1947, with a critical addition in 1955 of green belts, which were introduced via a Government Circular. Development Control or Planning Control is the element of the United Kingdom's system of Town and Country Planning through which local government regulates land use and new building. It relies on the "plan-led system" whereby Development Plans are formed and the public consulted. Subsequent development requires Planning permission, which will be granted or refused with reference to the Development Plan as a material consideration.[12] A green belt or greenbelt is a policy or land use designation used in land use planning to retain areas of largely undeveloped, wild, or agricultural land surrounding or neighbouring urban areas.[13] The purpose of town planning[14] is to regulate the usage and construction of land. When a plan is drawn up it includes plans of where for example residential areas, workplaces, park and garden areas and traffic will be placed in the city. Town planning is divided into different planning levels. The more general plan directs how the more precise levels can be planned.

The Master plan is the overall scheme over land usage and traffic arrangements. The plan covers the whole city and directs planning on the more detailed level. The Master plan can also be drawn up to direct land usage and construction in a certain area on the level of the Local plan. The Local plans examine the whole city more precisely than the Master plan. The Local plan contains planned locations for functions like living, work and recreation. The Local plan will later direct the more detailed plan for the area, the detailed plan level, which usually is carried out in zones.

At the Detailed plan level, changes made in the plan, creates the preconditions for construction. The plan regulates for what purpose a certain piece of land can be used and how much can be built on it. The regulations also consider the height of buildings, the width of streets and other matters that will affect on the structure and the townscape of the area. Construction can start when the plan has been approved by the town council and has reached legal validity. The planning process usually lasts at least a year, but can also take several years. Transportation and traffic planning,[15] is a part of land-use planning, includes all modes of transportation: public transport, vehicular traffic, parking, as well as cycling and pedestrian networks. What do town planners do?[16] The modern profession of town planning mainly arose in response to the urban problems caused by rapid industrialisation from the late 19th century. The rapid growth of towns shook contemporary habits and concepts. Social reformers recognised the need for corrective intervention to deal with the growth forces unleashed by modernisation. Pioneering professionals often worked first in another built environment area like architecture, surveying, engineering or landscape architecture. Planning was a chance to exercise a distinctive overall spatial and social vision that drew on specialised inputs. Town planners could either design entirely new urban areas (such as suburbs and garden cities), or develop ways to reform and reorder existing ones to provide plenty of space and light, clean water and adequate drainage (through urban renewal). Early town plans concentrated on securing adequate provision for key urban needs such as: Housing, Commercial and industrial uses, Railways and roadways, Water, sewerage and energy supply, Open space and recreational areas. Each element of a well-planned urban environment would work alone and as part of the whole. A town plan also had to be affordable, and to fit the designated site. The vision of what the town or city could become was critical. The drawings produced were as important as the vision itself. Planning today retains its commitment to ideal urban environments, but has to work within challenging political contexts. The task of reconciling competing development and environmental goals in the interests of sustainability usually falls to the planning function in government. Much attention is now directed at better managing existing cities than creating completely new ones. Conclusion: At the end of lecture one can conclude that, Town Planning is the process of improving the physical,

social, and economic conditions of any urban context. The definition of urban area varies with respect to context and different authors interpretations or viewpoints. The current paradigm of town planning revolves around the concept of environmental sustainability viewpoint i.e. Meeting the Needs of Present Generation without Compromising the Ability of Future Generations to meet their Own Needs. Or in other words with an inter-generational and intra-generational equity the development of an urban context shall takes place. REFERENCES

[1] http://www.merthyr.gov.uk/NR/rdonlyres/E649C517-C885-4EA6-909E4EFB30031070/0/Planning_Information_Leaflet_No_1.pdf [2] http://www.thefreedictionary.com/town+planning [3] http://www.allwords.com/word-town+planning.html [4] http://dictionary.reverso.net/english-cobuild/town%20planning [5] http://dictionary.babylon.com/town%20planning [6]http://www.utas.edu.au/library/companion_to_tasmanian_history/T/Town%20planning.htm [7] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Town_planning [8] http://www.idealcity.org.au/town_planning-1.html [9] http://www.planninginstitute.org/index.php?option=content&task=view&id=159&Itemid= [10]http://urbanindia.nic.in/moud/theministry/subordinateoff/tcpo/CITIE_TOWN/DEFINITIONS.PDF [11]http://dictionary.babylon.com/Town%20and%20country%20planning%20in%20the%20United% 20Kingdom [12]http://dictionary.babylon.com/Development%20control%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom#! !ARV6FUJ2JP [13] http://dictionary.babylon.com/green%20belt#!!ARV6FUJ2JP [14]http://www.hel.fi/wps/portal/Kaupunkisuunnitteluvirasto_en/Artikkeli_en?WCM_GLOBAL_CON TEXT=/ksv/en/Town+Planning [15]http://www.hel.fi/wps/portal/Kaupunkisuunnitteluvirasto_en/Artikkeli_en?WCM_GLOBAL_CON TEXT=/ksv/en/Traffic+Planning [16] http://www.idealcity.org.au/town_planning-6-what_planners_do.html

AR-309: ARCHITECTURE AND TOWN PLANNING (A&TP-B) By: RAVINDAR KUMAR Assistant Professor, DAP-NED LECTURE NO: 3 & 4 TOPIC: TRENDS IN URBAN GROWTH & OBJECTIVES OF SOUND PLANNING 1. Introduction: The current discussion is based on the concept of urban growth trends and objectives behind sound planning. According to, Harold MacLean Lewis[1] the trends in urban growth can be visualized through population estimates. He classified the towns with relation to their population sizes. According to his classification the town population begins from 2500 to 5000 persons. He further classified town in nine categories. i) 2500 to 5000 persons may be termed as Eopolis or Infantile Municipality Town ii) 5000 to 10000 persons may be termed as Polis or Juvenile Town iii) 10000 to 25000 persons may be termed as Mature Trade/Industrial Town iv) 25000 to 50000 persons may be termed as Metropolis or Medium Size City v) 50000 to 100000 persons may be termed as Megalopolis Intermediate City vi) 100000 to 250000 persons may be termed as Trade/Industry/Service Sector City vii) 250000 to 500000 persons may be termed as Primate City viii) 500000 to 1000000 persons may be termed as Tyranopolis or a Metropolitan City ix) 1000000 or more persons may be termed as Senile City or Mega City The trends in urban growth can be seen from two major perspectives. One is the trends of emerging urban centers or cities over the period of time and other is the trends of urban growth within urban centers. Considering the first perspective in mind there are three different trends of urban growth evident in the world i.e. Development of Mega Cities, Development of Metropolitan Cities and Development of Small and Intermediate Cities or Secondary Cities. i) Development of Metropolitan Cities: These are cities with population between one million and above up to less than 10 millions. After the First World War up to Second World War the development trends was of metropolitan cities as a hub of economic activities and centers of administration and power. This development trend continued up to Second World War. In this era small manufacturing towns also developed as industrial cities. After the devastating effects of 2nd world war the redevelopment of cites toll place & large cities emerged as primate cities with large economic base. Due to both push and pull factors the urban areas transformed their morphology to greater extent.

ii) Development of Mega Cities: These are the cities with population of Ten million & above. There are total 25 mega cities in the world. The background of mega city development is that, The population explosions and mass migration towards primate cities caused the phenomenal growth & development in metropolitan cities and they become the economic base for the countries at national level and played their respective role in the countrys economic development. The change in these metropolitan cities not only remains at population level but in addition their physical nature and morphology has increase to greater extent. These are termed as mega cities. Mega cities are those which have mega economics and mega problems and issues. Such as its administration setup and physical maintenance and management issues. The devastating effects of Second World War also give birth to importance of small, secondary and intermediate level cities whose economic base also effect and serve the neighboring rural areas. iii) Development of Small and Intermediate Cities: These are the cities with population range from 2500 to less than one million. The development trend of these cities occurred in two different times in the history. At first this trends of cities was evident immediately after Industrial Revolution up to 1st world war and then after Second World War up till now. The current trend is development of small and intermediate cites which has to play an important role in national economics due to security reasons and maintenance and management. The basic reason behind development of such cities is to reduce the pressure of population from primate cities. Secondly such cities are having small size can be better managed and plays a pivotal role in national economics by supporting rural hinter land. 2. What is Urban Growth? It is basically the growth and development of urban areas, over a period of time. It can also be understood by the term urban sprawl. 3. What is Urban Sprawl? Urban sprawl is the term to describe development pattern in cities. Unfortunately it lacks a precise definition. However it can be understood through visualizing the on going process of growth in cities. The urban sprawl can refer to at least three different patterns. i) Low density continuous development. ii) Ribbon development. iii) Leapfrog development

i) Low Density Continuous Development Pattern: This is the development pattern on housing and related land uses in all direction of city. It is also termed as the horizontal growth, which occupy large amount of land and expand the boundary of the city. This development pattern is manly measure for at least 50 years. The affects of low density continuous development pattern are as follows: Waste of land resources. It increase the cost of development i.e. utilities, transport. It increases the travel time and energy consumption. ii) Leapfrog Development Pattern: It is a process of skipping over of parcels of land. This pattern occurs due to various reasons such as property value increase, deteriorating law and order, opportunities of better life & upward mobility. The affects of leapfrog development are as follows: It is unplanned growth that occurs spontaneously. It creates incompatible land uses. iii) Ribbon Development Pattern: It is the development that follows street, car lines roads. Subways, and commuter railroads, by leaving the interstices undeveloped. Mainly the highways promote ribbon development. Interstices mean space between things / objects. According to Encyclopedia of Urban Planning by Whittick Arnold, It is an urban development along main roads leading to cites. According to Mr. G.K. Hiraskar, in this growth pattern, the development takes place in the form of Ribbon or line. It is a single row of house, shops, market, commercial buildings along the bust routes railway lines, and highways. The ribbon development mostly occurs in newly developing towns where zoning rules and regulations have not been strictly enforced. The affects of Ribbon growth are as follows: It has only one advantage that resident have access to transport. Its disadvantages are traffic noise, danger for children, stretch of services, and aesthetically it looks bad thats why the UK has Restriction of Ribbon Development Act 1935. Initially this kind of growth is very small scale along the road side afterwards it occupy whole area and roads become congested and problem of accidents increase. Same is the case of railway lines. This kind of growth cause congestion and over crowding of all types of buildings i.e. Residence, Schools, Factories, Were housing, Petrol Pumps, Shops, Clinics etc. Every body wants to get frontage advantage of main road and the internal land will be left undeveloped which cause wastage of valuable land. Over growing at the road and narrow starts will raise the accidents. All types of buildings will coexist at the road frontage with no regard to zoning regulations, which will affect the health conditions of resident. The town spread will be far and wise which is costly to maintain. The future improvement will become costly. Incompatible land uses will occurs. Ribbon developed is inverse of planned growth because it is an organic growth which is uncontrollable. Therefore it is necessary to check this kind of development before it become problem for the planners.

4. Cellular Growth: As evident from the term itself the cellular growth is the growth and expansion of cells. What is cell? Cell is basically a unit of planning. Just like different biological organisms grow and expand, or a cell reproduce itself. Like wise in planning when a planned settlement is developed in a city; the city expands with it. For example KDA announces housing schemes in Karachi. Each settlement which is developed in a scheme can be termed as cell. Therefore, in planning cellular growth means repetition of existing cells in city structure or it is a planned addition of new neighborhoods to existing towns. Cellular growth may also means little more than haphazard urban growth. 5. Linear City: The linear city concept can also be termed as more refined version of ribbon development. The concept of linear city was developed by Mr. Don Arturo Soria Y. Mata in 1882, in Madrid. According to his concept, A city should be designed on the principal that transport rout will be the main determinant to develop physical shape / form / morphology of the city. In linear city the development is arranged in a long narrow belt along the both sides of road. There may be a series of linear towns along the route to link existing towns. In Pakistan one can find many examples of this nature such as along Indus Highway many towns and villages developed in this pattern. 6. Suburbs and Suburban Growth: Suburbs are the compactly developed / developing areas in the surrounding of a city. There is no identifiable boundary between city and suburban. However they are distinguished by their homogenous socio-economic and physical characteristics. Cities merge gradually into the suburban areas without and break in the physical aspect. 6.1 Character of Suburbs: Suburbs can be of different form and function depends on their age, location and circumstances and context within which they are developed. In case of America and Europe (West) they are of three kinds i.e. old suburbs, new suburbs and former independent communities. a) Old Suburbs: These are developed before the wise use of automobile and prosperity. These suburbs were generally located adjacent to central city. Their residents were of varied income groups. The social classes in old suburbs have commercial area or local shopping and ethnic background. They have very little amount of vacant land. The example of old suburb is PECHS area in Karachi. b) New Suburbs: These were developed after Second World War. When automobile use increased & people become affluent. They have low density. They have high rate of automobile ownership, high income, abundance of land and enough parking and open space facilities. Gulshan-e-Maymar in Karachi is its

example. c) Former Independent Communities: These suburban communities developed as independent towns due to industry. They have a mixture of commercial, industrial and residential activities. They have mix housing type and varied age income and social class. Steel town, in Karachi is its case example. 6.2 Why Suburban Growth Takes Place: There are varieties of reasons for suburban growth such as: Rate of land is low, open space are in abundance, citys congestion increase, fast transport routes developed, & access to automobiles increased. 7. Models & Theories of Urban Growth & Citys Life Cycle: It is a grave reality that city is a growing entity. Over a period of time city grows and develops. As city grows the habitation starts to takes place in fringe areas. As a repercussion changes and transformations occurs both in city center and suburbs. Considering the growth patterns in different cities all over the world the theories and planners tried to analyze them and established their theories & models for urban growth. Some of these theories & models are as under. According to Lewis Mumford, the urban growth or town growth takes place in six stages with respect to their social order. Each town may pass through these six stages, i.e. Eopolis, Polis, Metropolis, Megalopolis, Tyranopolis and Necropolis. Eopolis: The Eopolis indicates the first stage of town as a village community whose economic base is agriculture. Polis: The Polis indicates and association of population with some mechanization and specialization. Metropolis: The metropolis is a city or town which serves as a capital of a state or region. Megalopolis: The megalopolis indicates the first stage of decline in town or city due to mega problems & issues, or the reign of town or city shows the signs of decline and deterioration. Tyranopolis: the Tyranopolis is the town or city which shows drastic deteriorating situation for example the trade depression or military powers may occur with different war lords. Necropolis: the necropolis is the worst stage of town or city. For example the citizens are shifting to rural areas or hinter land or village due to war, disease or economic break down. In that case the town may recover from it after a large internal of time. According to Mr. Griffith Taylor a town or city passes through four stages, i.e. Infantile, Juvenile,

Mature and senile. Infantile: this is the first stage of town in which a city is not yet divided in separate zones. Or the city in which zoning regulations is not being prepared yet. Juvenile: the juvenile stage of town or city indicates that, shops are being separated from the houses or residential area and there are some factories or an industry has been established at a minimal level. Mature: the mature stage of town shows the divisions of residential zone, commercial zone and industrial zone in the city. Or the landuse and zoning regulations in town shows the stage of mature city / town. Senile: Finally the senile stage of town indicates the physical decay in most of the portions of the city. Or the physical, social & economic degradation is evident in the built environment of town or city. Apart from these theories of urban growth and process of decay there are some models of urban growth & its pattern of landuse in the form of different theories. These include concentric zone theory or concentric ring theory, Axial Development theory, Sector theory and multiple nuclei theory. These theories of urban development patterns are quite important in landuse planning. Because in landuse planning process the main focus is on conversion of individual parcels of land from rural to urban uses and the role of public and private sector in that conversion.

These theories are an attempt to understand and explain that how an urban area grows and what landuse changes occurs in it. it describes the basic urban structure of a city & dynamics of urban growth in town or city. Concentric Zone / Ring Theory: The concentric zone theory is based on the pioneering work of Ernest. W. Burgess who have carried out the empirical studies of Chicago and developed the concentric Rings theory. He identified five zones of landuse in the city. The figure developed by him shows the typical process of urban growth by five numbers of concentric circles which emerged & expands form CBD. The fist concentric circle of central business District (CBD) represents the center of activity generally close to the site of original settlement. The concentric circle means that some thing which converges to a focal factor. For example if we think of a smaller commun9ty the house of a land lord will be the focal point or in ancient or medieval time the palace of king & temple was a focal point in city. Like wise in this theory CBD is that focal point of an urban area. It also represents the old town areas or origin of city which has a central position in expansion. The second concentric circle represents the transition zone which consists of mix commercial and industrial land uses. It means the areas around CBD are subject to changes and transformations in which the old residences transform into business and industrial landuse. Such as wholesaling and warehousing activities. The third zone represents the landuse of low income housing in metropolitan area which contains old housing units or housing of

workers of CBD. It is developed due to easy access to job or working area proximity to place of living. The fourth zone represents a middle income housing zone that includes some of the old suburbs. In this zone good residential facilities are evident for high income group where as this zone also comprise exclusive districts for high income people. The fifth and final zone is of newer suburban developments or commuters who use the fastest transport routes. This zone consists of high class residences and the outer limit of this zone has one hour journey to CBD. If one analyze this model of given pattern and growth situation it will be evident that, each zone held to invade the outer adjacent zone with a rippling effect. With decline enlarges intro central zone. The basic concept of this theory is that similar activities will locate at the same distance from the center of an urban area. The landuse in each zone depends upon its ability to pay the price for proximity to city center or CBD. In this growth model each zone would have a homogeneous landuse as the physical growth proceed outward from the center and the area occupied would have similar characteristics. From economic point of view the concentric zone is only possible when the site of growth will be located equidistant from center irrespective of direction. According to this theory the process of urban growth is of radial expansion from city center. Although this model is very simple but it has a certain description value. Axial Development Theory: The axial development theory is a continuation of concentric zone theory because its basic premise is same i.e. accessibility to a single focal point. However in this theory the accessibility is measured in terms of time and physical distance and focus is given to transport facilities in an urban area. This theory explains that as the movement will be concentrated along a particular route therefore development also takes place on this route. Thus urban expansion can be controlled by available transport facilities. It is an extension of each landuse type will develop along major transport route and as a repercussion star shape pattern of landuse will occur in urban built up area. Where as the number of arms of star depends upon the major transport routes in a city.

The limit to this development along main transport routes is set through the area development closer to center with less distance to center. Therefore basically this theory explains about the shape of urban built up areas by introducing some transport routes in addition to peripheral expansion by transport radials. And in this kind of development the pattern of internal landuse will be of irregularly shaped zones. Sector Theory: The sector theory is the refinement of both axial development theory and concentric zone theory. The sector theory was first proposed by Homer Hoyt in 1939. In this theory the focus of attention is a particular landuse growth & development. It suggests the cities grow not in strict concentric zones but rather in sectors similar type of development. This theory explains that the growth takes place along a particular axis of transport route with mainly similar type of landuse. Each sector consist a homogeneous landuse which expands outward in a particular direction away from the CBD. The residential areas might expand along with existing transportation links, topographical features or natural amenities such as Chicagos gold cost and north suburbs clearly show this pattern. Thus the

major attempt of sector theory is to explain the pattern of urban growth from the view point of residential landuse changes. According to sector theory the growth of n urban area is related with extension of residential districts or more appropriately said the movement of high income residential areas enclosed on each side by middle income group, develops at the edge of existing settlements. The growth for high income housing develops along fastest transport routes up to and edge of an urban area. Beyond which there may be pleasant open country. Some times the direction of this growth may be established by real estate developers. It is quite common practiced that people try to live near the similar social and income class which results in separation in the residential landuse. And as the higher income people can afford better housing & access to amenable environment therefore they can live away from their work place. Whereas; the low income people line on those locations which are low cost & affordable to them near their workplace. The limitation & in adequacy of sector theory is that it can not define rate of growth in different parts of the city or the causes of urban growth and those factors that affects the location of employment opportunities. Especially in case of low in come housing development around the new employment opportunities in suburban or fringe area as evident in our local context the sector theory is silent. Multiple Nuclei Theory: The Multiple nuclei theory was developed in 1945 by the Chauncey Harris & Edward Ullman after its initial exploration by Mr. R.D. McKenzie. This theory is quite varied from previous theories & models which explained that down town area or CBD is the only focal pint or nuclei of the city. This theory advocates that down town area or CBD can not be considered as an only nuclei or focal point for growth. This theory explains that in urban area there may be more than one focal point or multiple nuclei that can affect the location of certain land uses with increased intensity. In this theory the landuse patterns are visualized as series of nuclei develops in a city in which each nucleus can have different function. Each center develops as nuclei from the spatial interdependence of certain functions. For example manufacturing and transport uses may for on nucleis. Like wide hotel, offices and transshipment facilities may develop aro8unjd and air port or sea port areas as evident in Chicagos OHare field or KPT area in Karachi. Basically this theory suggests four manor principles of separate nuclei and different districts in it. Principle No 1: Certain activities requires and especial condition of access. For example retailing activity and accessibility had main coordination. Principle No 2: Certain activities get benefited from grouping. For example a particular, single kind of market exists together. Principle No 3: Certain activities are detrimental to each other location. For example some activities require supports services. Principle No 4: Certain activities are unable to afford the market price of most desirable sites. With the expansion of an urban area more specialized nuclei can emerge. In all major urban areas & cities the CBD is located near the inter city transport. The CBD may not be in the center of city but

can be developed at an edge of city or built up areas. It depends on the asymmetrical growth of city or urban area. In an urban area Industry, whole sailing & ware housing develops near inter city transport areas. Where as the heavy industry is located away from the main part of the city or urban areas. As the city size increases the residential districts will show an increasing differentiation. In this way the cultural center and entertainment centers or suburban business districts will take a form of other nuclei in the city. Beyond the built up area, settlements which develops as a repercussion of rail services for commuters and private car use. This theory also explains about the irregular pattern of urban landuse because development occurs from different centers, which means the particular pattern of landuse emerge at each different urban area with no common basic pattern of development. Conclusively; all the theories explained above adds to our knowledge of the cities. Because when the sectors developed in cities and the transit & highways elongated the landuse patterns; eventually a nuclei develop or more appropriately said that transportation and economic development added new dimensions to the landuse of the city. Therefore whenever the landuse patterns of a large old city is evaluated; that has gone through such changes; it may be possible to find all these landuse patterns. It is very rare that contemporary cities show entirely one theory of the landuse change. Finally it is also evident from these theories or models of urban Growth that it only focused on the affects of growth on urban development pattern. Whereas the causes of urban growth is not addressed in these theories; because all theories have an assumption that an urban area will grow in size or physical morphology will change & the growth of city is taken for granted. 7. Objectives of Sound Planning: According to Harold MacLean Lewis; Whatever the plan may be, but it should have reasonable foresight to be adapted to new conditions with little disturbance and destruction in making improvements. The work of planning should be assigned to people who have a vision, technical training and experience. A reasonable plan once decide, should be implemented with its essential features without any demand and opposition and that is sound planning. However the objectives of sound planning are to have flexibility in plans to adopt change. Foe instance if informal development is more than formal development, then it should be regulated. The efforts & investments of people shall not be destroyed so as resources shall not go waste & that is the objective of sound planning. The logic behind regulation of informal sector is the failure of formal sector in provision of services and infrastructure for example, will it be possible for a poor person to have concrete house? Or can they get the services of an engineer or hire an architect who can provide low cost solutions? The answer is definitely no. So if a poor person made his house without standards he must be regulated not bulldozed. Another thing that must be kept in mind that, who made the great cities? Princes; Kings; some Powerful People or an Institution of Government. So what is their objective to make a new city? Mainly their objective is to develop capital cities as a place of their importance at national and international level to get praise for them from generations to come. Now what a great city Islamabad is? The planners of Islamabad wanted to have a capital in cool climate because people work efficiently in cool climate. Now due to decision makers choice of cool climate billion of rupees of a poor country were spent on it. So can we justify such an objective for sound planning?

8. Conclusions: Thus conclusively the current discussion leads us to following realities. i) Urban growth can be spontaneous on its own or planned growth as directed by the authorities. ii) The concept of planning is to provide a vision for future well before the people actually settle in the settlements and planning may also be appropriate enough to facilitate the process of housing the poor in the city. iii) The basic planning component is that incompatible land uses should not be allowed or located together. iv) Circulation, transport, infrastructure and land use management are the basic tools of planning to guide the urban growth and transformation in the city. v) Suburban growth shall be seen as the series of phases through which a particular location passes or it is the development which proceed from an open land to mature urban development. vi) The objectives of sound planning should be to develop a set of simple guidelines, or principles which should be comprehensive and adaptable to changing conditions of the future.

AR-309: ARCHITECTURE AND TOWN PLANNING (B) By: RAVINDAR KUMAR Assistant Professor Department of Architecture and Planning NED University of Engineering and Technology Karachi

LECTURE NO. 03 TOPIC: TRENDS IN URBAN GROWTH Introduction:

In order to understand the topic, trends in urban growth at first it is imperative to ask; what is meant by urban growth? Urban growth is the rate of growth of an urban population.[1] The phrase urban growth also described with its synonym urban sprawl which means; The unplanned, uncontrolled spreading of urban development into areas adjoining the edge of a city.[2] Similarly another concept is of urbanization that needs to be understood while understanding trends in urban growth. Urbanization (also spelled urbanisation) is the physical growth of rural or natural land into urban areas as a result of population in-migration to an existing urban area. While the exact definition and population size of urbanized areas varies among different countries, urbanization is attributed to growth of cities. Urbanization is also defined by the United Nations as movement of people from rural to urban areas with population growth equating to urban migration. The UN projects half the world population will live in urban areas at the end of 2008.[3] In the following the trends in urban growth shall be discussed in details. Global Urban Population in Developed and Developing Countries:[4] The human population has lived a rural lifestyle through most of history. The worlds population, however, is quickly becoming urbanized as people migrate to the cities. In 1950, less than 30% of the worlds population lived in cities. This number grew to 47% in the year 2000 (2.8 billion people), and it is expected to grow to 60% by the year 2025. Developed nations have a higher percentage of urban residents than less developed countries. However, urbanization is occurring rapidly in many less developed countries, and it is expected that most urban growth will occur in less developed countries during the next decades. The definition of an urban area changes from country to country. In general, there are no standards, and each country develops its own set of criteria for distinguishing cities or urban areas. A city is generally defined as a political unit, i.e., a place organized and governed by an administrative body. A way of defining a city or an urban area is by the number of residents. The United Nations defines settlements of over 20,000 as urban, and those with more than 100,000 as cities. The United States defines an urbanized area as a city and surrounding area, with a minimum population of 50,000. A metropolitan area includes both urban areas and rural areas that are socially and economically integrated with a particular city.

Cities with over 5 million inhabitants are known as megacities. There were 41 in the year 2000. This number is expected to grow as the population increases in the next few decades. It is predicted that by the year 2015, 50 megacities will exist, and 23 of these are expected to have over 10 million people. Table below is a list of the worlds 25 largest cities in 1995. The World's 25 Largest Cities, 1995 Population (Millions) Tokyo, Japan 26.8 Sao Paulo, Brazil 16.4 New York, USA 16.3 Mexico City, Mexico 15.6 Bombay, India 15.1 Shanghai, China 15.1 Los Angeles, USA 12.4 Beijing, China 12.4 Calcutta, India 11.7 Seoul, South Korea 11.6 Jakarta, Indonesia 11.5 Buenos Aires, Argentina 11.0 Tianjin, China 10.7 Osaka, Japan 10.6 Lagos, Nigeria 10.3 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 9.9 Delhi, India 9.9 Karachi, Pakistan 9.9 Cairo, Egypt 9.7 Paris, France 9.5 Metropolitan Manila, Philippines 9.3 Moscow, Russia 9.2 Dhaka, Bangladesh 7.8 Istanbul, Turkey 7.8 Lima, Peru 7.2 Source: United Nations, Population Division. World Urbanization Prospects. 1994 Why is the urban population increasing so fast? The rapid growth of urban areas is the result of two factors: natural increase in population (excess of births over deaths), and migration to urban areas. The natural population growth rate has always been less than the population growth rate due to migration therefore we must concentrate understanding the phenomenon of migration in detail. Migration is defined as the long-term relocation of an individual, household or group to a new location outside the community of origin. Today the movement of people from rural to urban areas (internal migration) is most significant. Although smaller than the movement of people within borders, international migration is also increasing. Both internal and international migration contributes to urbanization. Migration is often explained in terms of either push factors

conditions in the place of origin which are perceived by migrants as detrimental to their well-being or economic security, and pull factors the circumstances in new places that attract individuals to move there. Examples of push factors include high unemployment and political persecution; examples of pull factors include job opportunities or moving to a better climate. Typically, a pull factor initiates migration that can be sustained by push and other factors that facilitate or make possible the change. For example, a farmer in rural Sindh whose land has become unproductive because of drought (push factor) may decide to move to Karachi City where he perceives more job opportunities and possibilities for a better lifestyle (pull factor). In general, cities are perceived as places where one could have a better life, because of better opportunities, higher salaries, better services, and better lifestyles. The perceived better conditions attract poor people from rural areas. In order to better illustrate the causes of rural migration, we will consider policies that have led to migration in many developing countries. In order to pay foreign debt and to be more competitive in international markets, national governments have encouraged the export of national resources and agricultural products. Agricultural products (sugar, flowers, coffee, etc.), and primary-sector goods (timber, fish, minerals, etc) become natural resource capital that can be traded to bolster the national economy. In order to produce agricultural products quickly, efficiently, and for a decent price, national governments often look to decrease the number of small producers, and turn agricultural production and resource extraction over to larger enterprises, with larger production facilities, and a lower per-unit cost of production. This trend turns land into a commodity, that can be bought and sold, and it is viewed only in terms of its productive capabilities. Free market economics pursues economic efficiency to deliver goods at the lowest possible price, and its advocates maintain that any government intervention diminishes this efficiency. Consequently, they seek to eliminate farm programs such as farm subsidies, cheap credit policies, etc. intended to help the farmer, and to maintain stable prices. This scenario leaves farmers to shoulder the burden of farming, sometimes with no alternative but to sell their land to a foreign investor or a domesticowned enterprise, and move to the cities, where the farmer hopes to have a better life. Other policies reinforce the above scenario. In this case, in order to boost the production of cheaper goods, governments have maintained artificially low food prices in urban areas. The strategy here is to maintain urban food prices below market levels to reduce the cost of urban labor and urban life. This policy has resulted in inadequate compensation of rural producers for the costs they incur to produce food products and thus have aggravated rural poverty. On the other hand, these policies have also made city life more attractive and pulled them from rural areas. As a result of these policies, an average of 270,000 rural migrants have been arriving in Mexico City annually over the last ten years, transforming it into one of the largest cities in the world. International migration includes labor migration, refugees and undocumented migrants. Similar to rural-to-urban migration, individuals move in search of jobs and a better life. Income disparities among regions, and job opportunities, are key motivating factors. The migration policies of sending and receiving countries also play a key role. The best current estimate from the United Nations Population Fund indicates that more than 100 million people were living outside their countries of birth or citizenship in 1998. There are a number of reasons why this figure is rising, but an important

one is that the native labor pool in the industrialized countries is shrinking, while the developing worlds workforce is rapidly increasing. Today, international migration is at an all-time high. About 2% of the Earths population has moved away from the country of origin. International refugees contribute to the urban migrant population. The United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR) reports that most of the 22 million people who came under its wing in 1997 were fleeing from domestic or international conflict. The Geneva Convention (1951) on Refugees defines refugees as those individuals who migrate because of: .well founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular group, or political opinion Nations honoring the Geneva Convention have an obligation to determine whether, in fact, individuals will truly face persecution at home. Excluded are those who fear famine or are pushed out by natural disasters. The overwhelming majority of refugees come from developing nations, and most of them flee to poor countries. What are the Problems Associated with Rapid Urban Growth?

The urbanization process refers to much more than simple population growth; it involves changes in the economic, social and political structures of a region. Rapid urban growth is responsible for many environmental and social changes in the urban environment and its effects are strongly related to global change issues. The rapid growth of cities strains their capacity to provide services such as energy, education, healthcare, transportation, sanitation and physical security. Because governments have less revenue to spend on the basic upkeep of cities and the provision of services, cities have become areas of massive sprawl, serious environmental problems, and widespread poverty. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, urbanization resulted from and contributed to industrialization. New job opportunities in the cities motivated the mass movement of surplus population away from the countryside. At the same time, migrants provided cheap, plentiful labor for the emerging factories. Today, due to movements such as globalization, the circumstances are similar in developing countries. Here the concentration of investments in cities attracts large numbers of migrants looking for employment, thereby creating a large surplus labor force, which keeps wages low. This situation is attractive to foreign investment companies from developed countries that can produce goods for far less than if the goods were produced where wages are higher. Thus, one might wonder if urban poverty serves a distinct function for the benefit of global capital. One of the major effects of rapid urban growth is urban sprawl"-scattered development that increases traffic, saps local resources and destroys open space. Urban sprawl is responsible for changes in the physical environment, and in the form and spatial organization of cities. Developed and less developed countries of the world differ not only in the percent living in cities, but also in the way in which urbanization is occurring.

In Mexico City (950 square miles), as in many other megacities in the developing world, urban sprawl exists as nearly 40% of city dwellers live in the urban periphery in poverty and environmental degradation. These high density settlements are often highly polluted owing to the lack of urban services, including running water, trash pickup, electricity or paved roads. Nevertheless, cities provide poor people with more opportunities and greater access to resources to transform their situation than rural areas. In the United States, and Pakistan poorly planned urban development is threatening environment, health, and peoples quality of life. Consequences of Urban Growth: Increases traffic and Squatter Settlements Pollutes air, water and other threats to natural environment Worsens the existing degraded built environment Destroys agricultural land, parks, and open spaces Costs cities and counties millions of dollars for new housing, water and sewer lines, new schools, and increased police and fire protection Creates crowded schools in the suburbs and empty, crumbling schools in center of cities Solutions to decrease Urban Growth: Enacting growth boundaries, parks and open space protection Planning and promoting public participation in housing and transportation. Reversing government programs and tax policies that help create sprawl. Revitalizing already developed areas through measures such as attracting new businesses, reducing crime and improving schools; Preventing new development in floodplains, coastal areas and other disaster- prone areas.

AR-309: ARCHITECTURE AND TOWN PLANNING (B) By: RAVINDAR KUMAR Assistant Professor Department of Architecture and Planning NED University of Engineering and Technology Karachi

LECTURE NO. 04 TOPIC: OBJECTIVES OF SOUND PLANNING Introduction: In order to understand the, Objectives of Sound Planning at first it is imperative to comprehend a little bit history of urban planning and the planning attempts made by the initiators of planning in the urban contexts. Then one may also ask the questions like; what kind of objectives they had in mind while developing their cities? Whether they have achieved those objectives or not? Do their defined objectives may be referred as objectives of sound planning or not? What is meant by Sound Planning? And how the Objectives for Sound Planning are formulated? In addition it is also important to identify the urban context for which the planning is to be done so as one may clearly spell out the objectives of sound planning. Thus in this way one may understand the topic objectives of sound planning. In the following all these questions are addressed in some detail. Urban Planning History:[1] Urban, city, and town planning is the integration of the disciplines of land use planning and transport planning, to explore a very wide range of aspects of the built and social environments of urbanized municipalities and communities. Urban planning as an organized profession has existed for less than a century. However, most settlements and cities reflect various degrees of forethought and conscious design in their layout and functioning. The development of technology, particularly the discovery of agriculture, facilitated larger populations than the very small communities, and may have compelled the development of stronger, more coercive governments at the same time. The pre-Classical and Classical ages saw a number of cities laid out according to fixed plans, though many tended to develop organically. Designed cities were characteristic of the totalitarian government. The cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro in the Indus Valley Civilization (in modern-day Pakistan and northwest India) are perhaps the earliest examples of deliberately planned and managed cities. These ancient cities were unique in that they often had drainage systems, seemingly tied to a well-developed ideal of urban sanitation. The Greek Hippodamus (c. 407 BC) is widely considered the father of city planning in the West, for his design of Miletus; Alexander commissioned him to lay out his new city of Alexandria, the grandest example of idealized urban planning of the Mediterranean world, where regularity was aided in large part by its level site near a mouth of the Nile. The ancient Romans used a consolidated

scheme for city planning, developed for military defense and civil convenience. Many European towns still preserve the essence of these schemes. The collapse of Roman civilization saw the end of their urban planning, among many other arts. Urban development in the Middle Ages, characteristically focused on a fortress, a fortified abbey, or a (sometimes abandoned) Roman nucleus, occurred "like the annular rings of a tree" whether in an extended village or the center of a larger city. Since the new center was often on high, defensible ground, the city plan took on an organic character, following the irregularities of elevation contours like the shapes that result from agricultural terracing. A few medieval cities were admired for their wide thoroughfares and other orderly arrangements, but the juridical chaos of medieval cities (where the administration of streets was sometimes hereditary with various noble families), and the characteristic tenacity of medieval Europeans in legal matters, prevented frequent or large-scale urban planning until the Renaissance and the enormous strengthening of all central governments, from city-states to the kings of France, characteristic of that epoch. Florence was an early model of the new urban planning, which rearranged itself into a star-shaped layout adapted from the new star fort, designed to resist cannon fire. This model was widely imitated, reflecting the enormous cultural power of Florence in this age; the Renaissance was hypnotized by one city type which for a century and a half was impressed upon utopian schemes: this is the star-shaped city Radial streets extend outward from a defined center of military, communal or spiritual power. And, all this occurred in the cities, but ordinarily not in the industrial suburbs characteristic of this era which remained disorderly and characterized by crowded conditions and organic growth. In developed countries (Western Europe, North America, Japan and Australasia), planning and architecture can be said to have gone through various stages of general consensus in the last 200 years. Firstly, there was the industrialised city of the 19th century, where control of building was largely held by businesses and the wealthy elite. Around 1900, there began to be a movement for providing citizens, especially factory workers, with healthier environments. The concept of garden cities arose and several model towns were built, such as Letchworth and Welwyn Garden City in UK. However, these were principally small scale in size, typically dealing with only a few thousand residents. It wasn't until the 1920s that modernism began to surface. Based on the ideas of Le Corbusier and utilising new skyscraper building techniques, the modernist city stood for the elimination of disorder, congestion and the small scale, replacing them instead with preplanned and widely spaced freeways and tower blocks set within gardens. There were plans for large scale rebuilding of cities, such as the Plan Voisin (based on Le Corbusier's Ville Contemporaine), which proposed clearing and rebuilding most of central Paris. No large-scale plans were implemented until after World War II however. Throughout the late 1940s and 1950s, housing shortages caused by war destruction led many cities around the world to build substantial amounts of government-subsidized housing blocks. Planners at the time used the opportunity to implement the modernist ideal of towers surrounded by gardens. The most prominent example of an entire modernist city is Brasilia, constructed between 1956 and 1960 in Brazil. By the late 1960s and early 1970s, many planners were coming to realize that the imposition of modernist clean lines and a lack of human scale also tended to sap vitality from the community. This was expressed in high crime and social problems within many of these planned neighbourhoods. Modernism can be said to have ended in the 1970s when the construction of the cheap, uniform tower blocks ended in many countries, such as Britain

and France. Since then many have been demolished and in their way more conventional housing has been built. Rather than attempting to eliminate all disorder, planning now concentrates on individualism and diversity in society and the economy. This is the post-modernist era. Minimallyplanned cities still exist. Houston is an example of a large city (with a metropolitan population of 5.5 million) in a developed country, without a comprehensive zoning ordinance. Houston does, however, have many of the land use restrictions covered by traditional zoning regulations, such as restrictions on development density and parking requirements, even though specific land uses are not regulated. Moreover, private-sector developers in Houston have used subdivision covenants and deed restrictions effectively to create the same kinds of land use restrictions found in most municipal zoning laws. Houston voters have rejected proposals for a comprehensive zoning ordinance three times since 1948. Even without zoning in its traditional sense, metropolitan Houston displays similar land use patterns at the macro scale to regions comparable in age and population that do have zoning, such as Dallas. This suggests that factors outside the regulatory environment, such as the provision of urban infrastructure and methods of financing development, may play as big of a role in urban development as municipal zoning. Sustainable development and sustainability have become important concepts in today's urban planning field, with the recognition that current consumption and living habits may be leading to problems such as the overuse of natural resources, ecosystem destruction, urban heat islands, pollution, growing social inequality and large-scale climate change. Many urban planners have, as a result, begun to advocate for the development of sustainable cities. However, the notion of sustainable development is a fairly recent concept and somewhat controversial. Wheeler, in his 1998 article, suggests a definition for sustainable urban development to be as "development that improves the long-term social and ecological health of cities and towns." He goes on to suggest a framework that might help all to better understand what a 'sustainable' city might look like. These include compact, efficient land use; less automobile use yet with better access; efficient resource use, less pollution and waste; the restoration of natural systems; good housing and living environments; a healthy social ecology; sustainable economics; community participation and involvement; and preservation of local culture and wisdom. The challenge facing today's urban planners lies in the implementation of targeted policies and programs, and the need to modify existing urban and regional institutions to achieve the goals of sustainability.

Aspects of planning: Aesthetics: In developed countries, there has been a backlash against excessive man-made clutter in the visual environment, such as signposts, signs, and hoardings. Other issues that generate strong debate amongst urban designers are tensions between peripheral growths, increased housing density and planned new settlements. There are also unending debates about the benefits of mixing tenures and land uses, versus the benefits of distinguishing geographic zones where different uses predominate. Regardless, all successful urban planning considers urban character, local identity, and respect for heritage, pedestrians, traffic, utilities and natural hazards. Planners are important in managing the

growth of cities, applying tools like zoning to manage the uses of land, and growth management to manage the pace of development. When examined historically, many of the cities now thought to be most beautiful are the result of dense, long lasting systems of prohibitions and guidance about building sizes, uses and features. These allowed substantial freedoms, yet enforce styles, safety, and often materials in practical ways. Many conventional planning techniques are being repackaged using the contemporary term smart growth. There are some cities that have been planned from conception, and while the results often don't turn out quite as planned, evidence of the initial plan often remains. Safety: Historically within the Middle East, Europe and the rest of the Old World, settlements were located on higher ground (for defense) and close to fresh water sources. Cities have often grown onto, coastal and flood plains at risk of floods and storm surges. Urban planners must consider these threats. If the dangers can be localised then the affected regions can be made into parkland or Greenbelt, often with the added benefit of open space provision. Extreme weather, flood, or other emergencies can often be greatly mitigated with secure emergency evacuation routes and emergency operations centers. These are relatively inexpensive and un-intrusive, and many consider them a reasonable precaution for any urban space. Many cities will also have planned, built safety features, such as levees, retaining walls, and shelters. In recent years, practitioners have also been expected to maximize the accessibility of an area to people with different abilities, practicing the notion of "inclusive design," to anticipate criminal behaviour and consequently to "design-out crime" and to consider "traffic calming" or "pedestrianisation" as ways of making urban life more pleasant. City planning tries to control criminality with structures designed from theories such as socioarchitecture or environmental determinism. These theories say that an urban environment can influence individuals' obedience to social rules. The theories often say that psychological pressure develops in more densely developed, unadorned areas. This stress causes some crimes and some use of illegal drugs. The antidote is usually more individual space and better, more beautiful design in place of functionalism. Oscar Newmans defensible space theory cites the modernist housing projects of the 1960s as an example of environmental determinism, where large blocks of flats are surrounded by shared and disassociated public areas, which are hard for residents to identify with. As those on lower incomes cannot hire others to maintain public space such as security guards or grounds keepers, and because no individual feels personally responsible, there was a general deterioration of public space leading to a sense of alienation and social disorder. Jane Jacobs is another notable environmental determinist and is associated with the "eyes on the street" concept. By improving natural surveillance of shared land and facilities of nearby residents by literally increasing the number of people who can see it, and increasing the familiarity of residents, as a collective, residents can more easily detect undesirable or criminal behaviour. The "broken-windows" theory argues that small indicators of neglect, such as broken windows and unkempt lawns, promote a feeling that an area is in a state of decay. Anticipating decay, people likewise fail to maintain their own properties. The theory suggests that abandonment causes crime, rather than crime causing abandonment. Some planning methods might help an elite group to control ordinary citizens. Haussmann's renovation of Paris created a system of wide boulevards which prevented the construction of

barricades in the streets and eased the movement of military troops. In Rome, the Fascists in the 1930s created ex novo many new suburbs in order to concentrate criminals and poorer classes away from the elegant town. Other social theories point out that in Britain and most countries since the 18th century, the transformation of societies from rural agriculture to industry caused a difficult adaptation to urban living. These theories emphasize that many planning policies ignore personal tensions, forcing individuals to live in a condition of perpetual extraneity to their cities. Many people therefore lack the comfort of feeling "at home" when at home. Often these theorists seek a reconsideration of commonly used "standards" that rationalize the outcomes of a free (relatively unregulated) market. Slums The rapid urbanization of the last century has resulted in a significant amount of slum habitation in the major cities of the world, particularly in developing countries. There is significant demand for planning resources and strategies to address the issues that arise from slum development. Many planning theorists and practitioners are calling for increased attention and resources in this area, particularly the Commonwealth Association of Planners. When urban planners give their attention to slums, one also has to pay attention to the racial make-up of that area to ensure that racial steering does not occur. The issue of slum habitation has often been resolved via a simple policy of clearance. However, more creative solutions are beginning to emerge such as Nairobi's "Camp of Fire" program, where established slum-dwellers have promised to build proper houses, schools, and community centers without any government money, in return for land they have been illegally squatting on for 30 years. The "Camp of Fire" program is one of many similar projects initiated by Slum Dwellers International, which has programs in Africa, Asia, and South America. Urban decay Urban decay is a process by which a city, or a part of a city, falls into a state of disrepair and neglect. It is characterized by depopulation, economic restructuring, property abandonment, high unemployment, fragmented families, political disenfranchisement, crime, and desolate urban landscapes. During the 1970s and 1980s, urban decay was often associated with central areas of cities in North America and parts of Europe. During this time period, major changes in global economies, demographics, transportation, and government policies created conditions that fostered urban decay. Many planners spoke of "white flight" during this time. This pattern was different than the pattern of "outlying slums" and "suburban ghettos" found in many cities outside of North America and Western Europe, where central urban areas actually had higher real estate vales. Starting in the 1990s, many of the central urban areas in North America have been experiencing a reversal of the urban decay of previous decades, with rising real estate values, smarter development, demolition of obsolete social housing areas and a wider variety of housing choices. Reconstruction & Renewal: Areas devastated by war or invasion represent a unique challenge to urban planners. Buildings, roads, services and basic infrastructure like power, water and sewerage are often severely compromised and need to be evaluated to determine what can be salvaged for re-incorporation. There is also the problem of the existing population, and what needs they may have. Historic, religious or social centers also need to be preserved and re-integrated into the new city plan. A

prime example of this is the capital city of Kabul, Afghanistan, which, after decades of civil war and occupation, has regions that have literally been reduced to rubble and desolation. Despite this, the indigenous population continues to live in the area, constructing makeshift homes and shops out of whatever can be salvaged. Any reconstruction plan proposed needs to be sensitive to the needs of the community and its existing culture, businesses and needs. Urban Reconstruction Development plans must also work with government agencies as well as private interests to develop workable designs. Transport: Transport within urbanized areas presents unique problems. The density of an urban environment can create significant levels of road traffic, which can impact businesses and increase pollution. Parking space is another concern, requiring the construction of large parking garages in high density areas which could be better used for other development. Good planning uses transit oriented development, which attempts to place higher densities of jobs or residents near high-volume transportation. For example, some cities permit commerce and multi-story apartment buildings only within one block of train stations and multilane boulevards, and accept single-family dwellings and parks farther away. Floor area ratio is often used to measure density. This is the floor area of buildings divided by the land area. Ratios below 1.5 could be considered low density, and plot ratios above five very high density. Most exurbs are below two, while most city centers are well above five. Walk-up apartments with basement garages can easily achieve a density of three. Skyscrapers easily achieve densities of thirty or more. City authorities may try to encourage lower densities to reduce infrastructure costs, though some observers note that low densities may not accommodate enough population to provide adequate demand or funding for that infrastructure. In the UK, recent years have seen a concerted effort to increase the density of residential development in order to better achieve sustainable development. Increasing development density has the advantage of making mass transport systems, district heating and other community facilities (schools, health centers, etc) more viable. However; critics of this approach dub the densification of development as 'town cramming' and claim that it lowers quality of life and restricts market-led choice. Problems can often occur at residential densities between about two and five. These densities can cause traffic jams for automobiles, yet are too low to be commercially served by trains or light rail systems. The conventional solution is to use buses, but these and light rail systems may fail where automobiles and excess road network capacity are both available, achieving less than 1% ridership. The Lewis-Mogridge Position claims that increasing road space is not an effective way of relieving traffic jams as latent or induced demand invariably emerges to restore a socially-tolerable level of congestion. Suburbanization: In some countries, declining satisfaction with the urban environment is held to blame for continuing migration to smaller towns and rural areas (so-called urban exodus). Successful urban planning supported Regional planning can bring benefits to a much larger hinterland or city region and help to reduce both congestion along transport routes and the wastage of energy implied by excessive

commuting. Environmental factors: Environmental protection and conservation are of utmost importance to many planning systems across the world. Not only are the specific effects of development to be mitigated, but attempts are made to minimize the overall effect of development on the local and global environment. This is commonly done through the assessment of Sustainable urban infrastructure. In Europe this process is known as Sustainability Appraisal. In most advanced urban or village planning models, local context is critical. In many, gardening and other outdoor activities assumes a central role in the daily life of citizens. Environmental planners are focusing on smaller systems of resource extraction, energy production and waste disposal. There is even a practice known as Arcology, which seeks to unify the fields of ecology and architecture, using principles of landscape architecture to achieve a harmonious environment for all living things.

On a small scale, the eco-village theory has become popular, as it emphasizes a traditional 100-140 person scale for communities. An urban planner is likely to use a number of quantitative tools to forecast impacts of development on the environmental, including roadway air dispersion models to predict air quality impacts of urban highways and roadway noise models to predict noise pollution effects of urban highways. As early as the 1960s, noise pollution was addressed in the design of urban highways as well as noise barriers. The Phase I Environmental Site Assessment can be an important tool to the urban planner by identifying early in the planning process any geographic areas or parcels which have toxic constraints. Light and Sound The urban canyon effect is a colloquial, non-scientific term referring to street space bordered by very high buildings. This type of environment may shade the sidewalk level from direct sunlight during most daylight hours. While an oft-decried phenomenon, it is rare except in very dense, hyper-tall urban environments, such as those found in Lower and Midtown Manhattan, Chicago's Loop and Kowloon in Hong Kong. In urban planning, sound is usually measured as a source of pollution. Another perspective on urban sounds is developed in Soundscape studies emphasizing that sound aesthetics involves more than noise abatement and decibel measurements. Hedfors coined 'Sonotope' as a useful concept in urban planning to relate typical sounds to a specific place. Due to urban planning, there has been an increase in light and sound pollution that destroys the environment. Urban Planning Process: The traditional planning process focused on top-down processes where the urban planner created the plans. The planner is usually skilled in either surveying/engineering or architecture, bringing to the town planning process ideals based around these disciplines. They typically worked for national or local governments. Changes to the planning process over past decades have witnessed the metamorphosis of the role of the urban planner in the planning process. More citizens calling for democratic planning & development processes have played a huge role in allowing the public to

make important decisions as part of the planning process. Community organizers and social workers are now very involved in planning from the grassroots level. Developers too have played huge roles in influencing the way development occurs, particularly through project-based planning. Many recent developments were results of large and small-scale developers who purchased land, designed the district and constructed the development from scratch. The Melbourne Docklands, for example, was largely an initiative pushed by private developers who sought to redevelop the waterfront into a high-end residential and commercial district. Recent theories of urban planning, espoused, for example by Salingaros see the city as a adaptive system that grows according to process similar to those of plants. They say that urban planning should thus take its cues from such natural processes. Conclusion: Conclusively it is now quite clear that, it is the process of urban planning that a society adopts leads towards determination about objectives of sound planning. The objectives of sound planning in current time and space especially in our local context of Karachi shall be based upon the understanding level of our decision makers at federal, provincial and local level regarding significance of urban planning and welfare of citizens at large. Thus the objective of sound planning is quite clear i.e. to provide the city of Karachi a healthy and socially safe livable environment.

AR-309: ARCHITECTURE AND TOWN PLANNING (B) By: RAVINDAR KUMAR Assistant Professor Department of Architecture and Planning NED University of Engineering and Technology Karachi

LECTURE NO. 05 TOPIC: MODERN PLANNING IN PAKISTAN AND ABROAD Introduction: Before beginning of description about, Modern Planning in Pakistan and Abroad it is important to understand the term Modern and the phrase Modern Planning. The understanding of these two concepts would lead us to make the beginning of this topic. Secondly it would be interesting to develop a historical perspective of planning attempts made abroad in western world and then in Pakistan. Particularly; with reference to Master Planning, development of planning institutions in Pakistan and development pattern of settlements in major cities and towns of Pakistan would clearly spell out the theme of current lecture. Modernity and Modern: Modernity is a term that refers to the modern era. It is distinct from modernism, and, in different contexts, refers to cultural and intellectual movements of the period c. 1630-1940. The term "modern" can refer to many different things. Colloquially, it can refer in a general manner to the 20th century. For historians, the Early Modern Period refers to the period roughly from 1500 to 1800, with the Modern era beginning sometime during the 18th century. In this schema, industrialization during the 19th century marks the first phase of modernity, while the 20th century marks the second. Some schools of thought hold that modernity ended in the late 20th century, replaced by post-modernity, while others would extend modernity to cover the developments denoted by post-modernity and into the present.[1] Modernism and Modern Planning: Modernism describes an array of cultural movements rooted in the changes in Western society in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. The term covers a series of reforming movements in art, architecture, music, literature and the applied arts which emerged during this period. At its most basic level, Modernism could be described as the experimentation and fragmentation of the human experience, characterized by deviations from the norms of society.[2] It wasn't until the 1920s that modernism began to surface. Based on the ideas of Le Corbusier and utilising new skyscraper building techniques, the modernist city stood for the elimination of disorder, congestion and the small scale, replacing them instead with preplanned and widely spaced freeways and tower blocks set within gardens. There were plans for large scale rebuilding of cities, such as the Plan Voisin (based on Le Corbusier's Ville Contemporaine), which proposed clearing and rebuilding most of central Paris. No large-scale

plans were implemented until after World War II however. Throughout the late 1940s and 1950s, housing shortages caused by war destruction led many cities around the world to build substantial amounts of government-subsidized housing blocks. Planners at the time used the opportunity to implement the modernist ideal of towers surrounded by gardens. The most prominent example of an entire modernist city is Brasilia, constructed between 1956 and 1960 in Brazil. By the late 1960s and early 1970s, many planners were coming to realize that the imposition of modernist clean lines and a lack of human scale also tended to sap vitality from the community. This was expressed in high crime and social problems within many of these planned neighbourhoods. Modernism can be said to have ended in the 1970s when the construction of the cheap, uniform tower blocks ended in many countries, such as Britain and France. Since then many have been demolished and in their way more conventional housing has been built. Rather than attempting to eliminate all disorder, planning now concentrates on individualism and diversity in society and the economy. This is the post-modernist era.[3] Modern Planning Abroad: In order to understand the modern planning abroad one may refer to encyclopedia of urban planning by Whittick Arnold and read the contemporary theories and practices in the western world. It narrates that since 16th century the mode of planning cities is divided in seven main categories.

i. The Authoritarian Planning ii. The Utilitarian Planning iii. The Romantic Planning iv. The Utopian Planning v. The Technocratic Utopia vi. The Technocratic Planning vii. The Organic Planning

Following is the detailed description of these planning types.

Authoritarian Planning: It is basically a geometric planning which emerged in 16th century onwards under priestly dictators & absolute monarchs who wanted to create an urban setting which can emphasize their power structure in society. The principles of this kind of planning include a long street, uniform blank front and an open plaza for a monument or obelisk. However, when same principles applied to city as a whole as a ideal geometric plans for political capitals i.e. Washington, Brasilia, Islamabad the plan become truly functional setting only for government. Such design of cities can only be maintained through legal regulations and in long run it must be modified & rebuild. Because these plans are made by ignoring social & economic needs. The major fault in authoritarian planning is not in its geometry but false assumptions of centralized power that ignores the important functions of neighborhoods. Although the authoritarian planning neglects the essential functions of city, however the gift that occurs through geometric scheme is of parks and open spaces; or a main boulevard or

some important roads. The most striking example of authoritarian planning is in Baroque, which is a star like fortification which is the only and ephemeral contribution of geometric planning.

The basic element in geometric planning is a square or rectangular blocks with streets and avenues composed by assembling and extending such blocks. The major advantage of this grid iron plan is open spaces provided as a setting for major public buildings. The disadvantage of this planning is the automatic extension by this method that raise the cost by increasing the number and area for unnecessary streets & pavements whose services crates a heavy burden on municipality, because they have to provide transportation facilities water, sewerage, schools & health facilities for whole area. The Utilitarian Planning: With the continuation geometric planning there emerges the utilitarian planning which are basically the repercussions of geometric extension of the town. It is also termed as commercial utilitarian planning because its major objective is to maximize the returns from sale & rent. Since last three centuries large number of new towns or town extensions developed on this theory that the ideal municipal facilities should be provided on open land where the large population to be housed with maximum use of available space for built structures & minimum space availability for parks, play ground & open public spaces. The other aspect of utilitarian planning is the encouragement of private sector investments in the development. On paper the grid iron plan shows a strict order & harmony of built structures. However the three dimensional building structures when emerged out of these plans it shows a monotonous & confusing pattern with too many similar open spaces, streets & avenues. The utilitarian planning has been carried out on day to day basis by the municipal engineer, the land developer, the transportation expert, the commercial builder and real estate investor with no thought of public welfare or municipal economy. Originally the utilitarian planning is the product of laissez faire economics which assumes that order & purpose would emerge out of unrestricted private competition. The utilitarian planning also concentrate on increasing the mechanical facilities to accommodate expanding population with the sacrifice of other social functions. Therefore utilitarian planning lead to misuse of whole environment, i.e. the sewerage & industrial waste poured into near by water channels which destroy a vital recreational space. The utilitarian planning leads to the profit making process, and the result of utilitarian planning emerges in the form of inefficient urban spaces, congestion, more built up areas then open spaces and lacking of domestic amenities. Considering these repercussions of utilitarian planning it is quite vital that it should be regulated and a coherent pattern should be superimposed upon its random structures. It requires a series of municipal regulations to control the land uses through limitations of heights & density of buildings. Therefore zoning regulations are quite vital to curb the utilitarian planning. Romantic Planning: When the utilitarian planning practice become supreme in cities, there occurred a revolt against it and a new philosophy took shape in the form of a Romantic movement in city planning. The Romantic planning rejects the concepts of life that makes a human being & its environment

subservient to either political power structure or mechanization in the development of a city. Positively the Romantic Movement in planning restored the essential human values excluded from the industrial and autocratic complex. These human values were associated with rural life with more open spaces, clean air sunlight, vegetation & other rural habitat which is favorable for a child to grow in a healthy environment. Simultaneously the romanticism in planning restored the historic continuity to urban forms and institutions which was destroyed for private profit. The Romantic Movement restored the historic heritage through fresh appreciation of natural landscape which was quite different from the formal geometric patterns. In Romantic planning they abandon the repetitive blocks, unbroken street fronts and created for large units and designed such roads that confirm their width & pavements, as per population and traffic density. They followed contours instead of grading the land. The romantic planner reduced the cost of development and was able to afford more open space for gardens. In this way he beats the utilitarian planner at his own financial game. The other innovation in urban design that was derived from romantic planning movement is of a Super Block. It was spontaneously introduced in a Boston area around the middle of 19th century. The super block is not merely a greatly enlarged dimension of usual rectangular block but instead of placing houses only on perimeter it grouped them in cul-de-sacs & clusters. The effect that emerged out of super block is reduction of needless traffic streets, increase in the area of gardens & parks an assurance of greater privacy and quite environment. From historical point of view the Romantic Movement was developed in a theory by Camillo Sitte in his work entitled, the art of building cities. In his book Sitte examined that medieval and renaissance city and proved its aesthetic failure due to more rigid kind of geometric planning, with overemphasis on symmetry, uniformity & centralization. Mr. Sitte; shown that irregularity in placing public movements increase its aesthetics where both aesthetically & socially attractive than large avenues framed by uniform buildings designed to increase the speed of vehicles & machine like precision. Mr. Camillo Sitte contributed the concept of diversified neighborhoods, markets, squares & green open spaces rather than uniform avenues & block as the basic unit of planning. These principles were further elaborated by Mr.: Robert Unwin in his book Town planning in practice in 1909 as well as in his own planning. Utopian Planning: The Utopian planning at first refers to the Thomas Moores classic work of Utopia in which he exhibits the elements of all three types of Authoritarian, utilitarian and romantic planning. However as an expression his work discussed about a centralized political authority & geometric formalism as well as his humane views on city in which he describes a neighborhood unit as a center of domestic and civic life. A part from Thomas Moore there is other Utopian planners who have given their concepts on utopian city or an ideal city both in form and function. Such as Robert Owen given an ideal scheme of New Lanark, savannah, Georgia & Melbourne with a large surrounding green belt. Then there is Mr. Walter Burley Griffin who planned the capital of Australia, Canberra in which he suggested the generous scale of suburban planning to new metropolitan. Then came; the Franck Lloyd Wrights scheme for Broad Acre city where each family gets 13 acres of land within a rigid Grid of lots & roads. The other characteristic of Utopian planning was evident from the work of James silk Buckinghams concept of Victoria and Richardsons ideal town of Hygiene. Thus the concept of ideal town Utopia was carried out to such extreme that it has ultimately became utopia or no place. The most successful example of utopia urban planning was that of Sir Ebenezer Howards project of

Garden city, in which the out line & intention was purely an urban life with its social and economic diversity. In theory the Ebenezer Howard clearly spell out the limitations of authoritarian, utilitarian and utopian planning, however his concepts were basically of an organic planning. His explanatory diagrams were not in any sense a town plan but the later addition of shopping mall & neighborhood unit that developed until 1947 shown a basis for new town design. Before going into details of his ideals of organic planning one must understand the mechanical by-product of utopian theory i.e. the technocratic planning.

Technocratic Utopia: The terms technocratic utopia was first brought into literature by Bowler Litton through his work The Coming Race. The inhabitance of this utopia lived underground & utilizes nuclear energy for both work and destruction. In this kind of utopia all human functions and activities was set up in a large mega structure where every detail of life is subject to absolute autocratic control. The technocratic plan mainly centered on the technological inventions in construction method & materials where as the organization of city will be on a linear pattern along a spinal transportation artery which forms continuous horizontal zones on both sides. Or the creation of simple vertical structure of hundred or two hundred stories high. The most popular and influential form of technocratic ideal was of Le Corbusier in The City of the Future first published in 1924 as urbanism. In his conceptual proposal of Paris Le Corbusier formed a central core of office buildings 60 stories high, widely separated and served by multiple to similar apartment houses. Basically his concept addressed the contemporary urban real estate speculation, autocratic as his city of future. Technocratic Planning: The technocratic planning describes a process which is going on from last one century; where mechanical services are increasing with huge costs for providing water from distant sources, disposal system of sewerage & garbage, paved streets, rapid transportation systems, tunnels, bridges, multilane highways & large parking lots. The aim of technocratic planning & ideas is to make every urban activity, a function of a machine. In theory technocratic planning assumes that all human problems are open to a technological solution and all human needs can be met by invention of a mechanical or electronic device that can stimulate them & satisfy them or divert them to other channels. The technocratic planning suggests the projects for great urban mega structures, underwater, under ground or a mile high tower in the air with maximized totalitarian control. Therefore if the technocratic planning would be widely adopted it would spell out the end of a city and permanently banish the art of town planning. Organic Planning: The concepts of organic planning sprung out from rich knowledge of urban past and better sociological understanding of the nature of cities. These are not considered as a work of art but the focal point in development and expression of a culture. The organic means well organized with a dynamic balance. Therefore organic planning seeks structural answer to every function of city which is expressed in both surface plan & design of buildings with needs & ideals of a community. The organic planning conserves past urban forms & prepares them to accommodate future needs. For example the garden city plan of Ebenezer Howard is the first diagrammatic expression of organic form. The principles of organic planning never been formulated completely. Because they embody

such urban complexity which can not be expressed on a purely two-dimensional plan; whereas even in three dimensional additions of building structures still the 4th dimension of time remains ill accounted. The essential nature of the organic planning can be best revealed through historic cities in which growth and development takes place throughout centuries with the 4th dimension of time i.e. Venice, Rome, New Delhi & Mecca can be the best examples. Successive generations starting city building from one point to another through gradual improvement & addition is the specialty of organic planning in which the need plays an important role in the style of a particular era. Because no single generation, no single mind, no single architect or planner could have forecast and designed the final result of the city design. Finally one must not forget the work of Sir Patrick Geddes who was by profession a biologist but made conscious efforts to develop theory of organic planning.

In his reports on Indian cities he showed how much richer the texture of city became when all its functions like civic, religious, domestic & economic were tactfully embraced & integrated in city design He describes that organic planning requires an intimate knowledge of urban culture, human needs, purposes & means with cooperative participation & critical judgment by the community while new plans for city are under process. If modern technology releases working time for such joint civic enterprises, the organic may replace utilitarian, autocratic and technocratic planning as a new order of today. Modern Planning in Pakistan: The issue of modern planning in Pakistan is a little bit complex because there is no book available on this issue till date that describes modern planning in Pakistan. There are different authors/ researchers of urban planning in Pakistan who have generated different research papers that are not directly related to this topic but contain some relevant data or allied information. In the following the description of such endeavors is outlined in a logical manner so as the reader may understand the complexity of this issue. Master Planning in Pakistan A Historical Perspective[4] Legal Framework: There has been no Town and Country Planning law at national level in Pakistan. In the beginning, the only legislation with provision for the preparation of master plans by local councils was the Municipal Administration Ordinance (MAO) 1960. However, this Ordinance did not say anything about plan sanctioning and implementing authorities. Nor it contained any provisions requiring the revision of the plans as and when needed. The MAO 1960 was replaced by Provincial Local Government Ordinance (PLGO) 1979. It simply carried forward the provisions of MAO 1960 about master planning in almost the same words. Like the MAO 1960, only the urban local councils were required to prepare master plans for their jurisdiction under the PLGO 1979 and it was also not mandatory to do so. Thus rural areas of the country received no planning attention even under this Ordinance. However, it was in 1997 when the rural local councils were also given a non mandatory task to prepare and implement master plans for areas under their jurisdiction. Unfortunately, none of the rural local councils could prepare any master plan due mainly to lack of interest of decision makers, and weak institutional capacity. Recently, the Local Government Ordinance 2001 has replaced the PLGO 1979 as part of the

devolution plan of the current military regime. Under the 2001 Ordinance, a new system of Local Government has been established, creating three tiers of local government administration. Each province has been divided into Districts by eliminating the previous rural-urban divide. Each district comprises a few Tehsils/Towns which are again divided into areas of Union Councils. Staff at each administrative level has been appointed by abolition and merger of different existing institutions functioning at provincial and local levels, for better governance at the local level. Thus the Tehsil Municipal Administrations (TMA) has replaced the urban (e.g. Municipal/Town Committees) and rural (e.g. Zila Councils) local councils. All the TMAs in a district are administratively linked with District Government. However, in case of provincial capitals, a City District Government (CDG) has been established by dividing the city into different Town Municipal Administrations. Under the 2001 Ordinance, all the TMAs are required to prepare a master plan for their respective areas and get it approved from their respective Councils. However, this Ordinance does not provide for spatial planning at the district level.

Provisions for master planning can also be found as one of the function of various development authorities or planning agencies in their respective Acts / Ordinances under which these authorities or agencies were created primarily in large cities. For example, these include Karachi Development (KDA) Authority Order 1957, Lahore Development Authority (LDA) Act 1975, and Quetta Development Authority Ordinance 1978. Until recently these development authorities have been working in parallel with local government institutions often with overlapping jurisdictions and duplication of planning powers. Since the reorganization of local government in 2001, these development authorities have been made part of the District Government but as a separate entity. Preparation and Implementation of Master Plans Recognizing the need to arrest the ugliness and haphazard growth of big cities of Pakistan and to guide the future development in a planned manner, the Government of Pakistan envisaged in the second five year plan (1960-65) the need of preparation of master plans for eleven major cities in the then West Pakistan. Lahore being the provincial metropolis of the biggest province topped the list of selected cities. Hence, the preparation of Master Plan for Greater Lahore marked the beginning of master planning in Pakistan in 1961. The second Master plan was prepared for Karachi during 1970 to 1974.[5] Afterwards a number of master plans have also been produced for various cities of the country including, for instance, Quetta, Peshawar, Rawalpindi, Faisalabad and Multan. A brief review of some of these master plans suggests that these have adopted the most conventional notion of planning process by Patrick Geddes,[6]that is: Conduct a SURVEY, Do an ANALYSIS and then Make a PLAN Most of these plans were prepared with foreign assistance. Besides, a large number of what may be termed as mini master plans have also been prepared under the name of Outline Development Plan (ODP) using local technical and financial resources. For instance, in case of Punjab province, the defunct Housing and Physical Planning Department (Recently reorganized as Punjab Housing and Town Planning Agency (PHATA) at the provincial level) has prepared around 125 ODPs for various towns of the Punjab. Similarly, the Project Management Unit (PMU) of Housing and Physical

Planning Department undertook `Feasibility Studies and Urban Master Planning of Ten Cities of Punjab Project during 1993-94 through a consortium of foreign and local consultants under World Bank funded Third Urban Development Project.[7] More recently, a new master plan for Lahore titled Integrated Master Plan for Lahore 2021 (IMPL) has been approved. Whatever the institutional set up and plan preparation approach have been, the dilemma is that all these types of plans could not be and still are not being fully implemented.[8] Hence, billions of rupees, time and human resources are wasted on this master plan making exercises in the country. And there seems to be no end to it. For instance, various sections of the Provincial Local Government Ordinances promulgated in 2001 provide for preparation of master plans for areas under every Tehsil/Town Municipal Administration (TMA) in all the provinces. This is encouraging and does point towards intention of the Government to manage and guide the growth of urban and rural settlements in a planned manner. But lack of implementation of the earlier plans really poses a challenge for all the stakeholders particularly for the concerned government agencies and the professionals involved in the plan making process to avoid failures of implementation with the new plans. A thorough investigation aimed at determining the root causes of implementation failure and pre-conditions for the successful implementation of master plans is need of the hour and can be helpful for improving master planning in Pakistan in the years to come.

AR-309: ARCHITECTURE AND TOWN PLANNING (B) By: RAVINDAR KUMAR Assistant Professor Department of Architecture and Planning NED University of Engineering and Technology Karachi

LECTURE NO. 06 TOPIC: INFORMATION REQUIRED FOR TOWN PLANNING 1. Introduction: In any town planning exercise a lot of information required and different kinds of databases are prepared. These databases contain the information regarding physical, social and economic conditions of both existing and proposed town. Similarly; town planning maps are made for every component of planning; such as maps for geography, geology, climate, history, society, economy, religion, ethnicity and culture etc. The information is also required for existing land & terrain, natural resources, socioeconomic conditions and as built landuse of the given area for which planning is to be carried out.

Thus the theme Information Required for Town Planning leads us to identify the objectives of town planning and the process of town planning to be employed in any given context; on the basis of which the types of information may be sorted out. In addition the definition of town planning in any context may also lead us to identify the information required for town planning.

2. Information Required for Town Planning in United Kingdom (UK): If one look at the definition of town planning in United Kingdom (UK) it narrates that, Town and Country Planning is the land use planning system by which governments seek to maintain a balance between economic development and environmental quality.[1] Thus; the information required for town planning in UK must be regarding the key words explained in the definition i.e. land use characteristics, economic characteristics and environmental characteristics. Similarly; for each context the information required shall be subject to the nature of town planning to be employed in a given context. In the following the information required for town planning shall be described in some detail especially with reference to definition of Town planning in UK.

3. Information Required for Land Use Planning: As discussed above land use was the first key word in UK for which information is required. Land use is the human modification of natural environment or wilderness into built environment such as fields, pastures, and settlements[2] Thus the information required for land use is the existing condition of land where planning is to be carried out and the changes in the physical three dimensional characteristics of land where natural environment is transformed into built environment. Furthermore another information is required

here is the reasons of the changes in the land use and the actors involved in that change. Thus in this way one may plan for the future of that particular land use that exists there and suggest ways and means to improve the over all land use pattern.

4. Information Required For Economic Development: Economic development is the development of economic wealth of countries or regions for the wellbeing of their inhabitants. It is the process by which a nation improves the economic, political, and social well being of its people.[3] From a policy perspective, economic development can be defined as efforts that seek to improve the economic well-being and quality of life for a community by creating and/or retaining jobs and supporting or growing incomes and the tax base.[4] In this key word of Economic Development the information required shall be regarding inhabits of any context, their political and social conditions, quality of life, income, jobs and taxes.

5. Information Required for Environmental Quality: Environmental quality is a set of properties and characteristics of the environment, either generalized or local, as they impinge on human beings and other organisms.[5] Environmental quality is a general term which can refer to varied characteristics that relate to the natural environment as well as the built environment, such as air and water purity or pollution, noise and the potential effects which such characteristics may have on physical and mental health caused by human activities.[6] In case of the phrase environmental quality the information required include characteristics of environment in given context, existing natural and built environment i.e. air, water, land pollution etc.

6. Conclusion: Collectively if one combines all these three key words of land use planning, economic development and environmental quality as per definition of town planning in UK the information required would be manifold and of numerous types. Similarly; context to context the information required for town planning would be different from one another; whereas, the objectives of town planning may also be said as the major determinant of the information required. Another perspective to look at this issue is with reference to key aspects of town planning which may also be a major determinant for information required. These include physical, geographical, geological, climatic, social, economic, historic, cultural, religious and environmental conditions of any context.

AR-309: ARCHITECTURE AND TOWN PLANNING (B) By RAVINDAR KUMAR Assistant Professor Department of Architecture and Planning NED University of Engineering and Technology Karachi

LECTURE NO. 07 TOPIC: MAPS Introduction: The theme of current lecture is Maps. In the following a detailed description about maps is given for the understanding of students learning town planning. What is a map?[1] A map is a visual representation of an area or a symbolic depiction highlighting relationships between elements of that space such as objects, regions, and themes. Many maps are static twodimensional, geometrically accurate representations of three-dimensional space, while others are dynamic or interactive, even three-dimensional. Although most commonly used to depict geography, maps may represent any space, real or imagined, without regard to context or scale. Map Making or Cartography:[2] Cartography or mapmaking is the study and practice of making representations of the Earth on a flat surface. Cartography combines science, aesthetics, and technical ability to create a balanced and readable representation that is capable of communicating information effectively and quickly. History of Map Making:[3] The earliest known map is a matter of some debate, both because the definition of "map" is not sharp and because some artifacts speculated to be maps might actually be something else. A wall painting which may depict the ancient Anatolian city of atalhyk (previously known as Catal Huyuk or atal Hyk) has been dated to the late 7th millennium BCE.[4]/[5] The ancient Greeks and Romans created maps beginning at latest in the 6th century BC. As early as the 700s, Arab scholars were translating the works of the Greek geographers into Arabic. In ancient China, geographical literature spans back to the 5th century BC. The oldest extant Chinese maps come from the State of Qin, dated back to the 4th century BC during the Warring States era. Early forms of cartography of India included legendary paintings; maps of locations described in Indian epic poetry, for example the Ramayana. Indian cartographic traditions also covered the locations of the Pole star, and other constellations of use. The Arab geographer, Muhammad al-Idrisi, produced his medieval atlas Tabula Rogeriana in 1154. He incorporated the knowledge of Africa, the Indian Ocean and the Far East gathered by Arab merchants and explorers with the information inherited from the classical geographers to create the most accurate map of the world up until his time.

It remained the most accurate world map for the next three centuries.[6] In the Age of Exploration from the 15th century to the 17th century, European cartographers both copied earlier maps (some of which had been passed down for centuries) and drew their own based on explorers' observations and new surveying techniques. The invention of the magnetic compass, telescope and sextant enabled increasing accuracy. In 1492, Martin Behaim, a German cartographer, made the oldest extant globe of the Earth.[7] In 1507, Martin Waldseemller produced a globular world map bearing the first use of the name "America". Due to the sheer physical difficulties inherent in cartography, map-makers frequently lifted material from earlier works without giving credit to the original cartographer. By the 1700s, map-makers started to give credit to the original engraver by printing the phrase "After [the original cartographer]" on the work.[8] In cartography, technology has continually changed in order to meet the demands of new generations of mapmakers and map users. The first maps were manually constructed with brushes and parchment and therefore varied in quality and were limited in distribution. The advent of magnetic devices, such as the compass and much later magnetic storage devices allowed for the creation of far more accurate maps and the ability to store and manipulate them digitally. In the late 20th century and early 21st century advances in electronic technology led to a new revolution in cartography. Specifically, computer hardware devices such as computer screens, plotters, printers, scanners (remote and document) and analytic stereo plotters along with visualization, image processing, spatial analysis and database software, have democratized and greatly expanded the making of maps. Map types:[9] In understanding basic maps, the field of cartography can be divided into two general categories: general cartography and thematic cartography. General cartography involves those maps that are constructed for a general audience and thus contain a variety of features. Thematic cartography involves maps of specific geographic themes oriented toward specific audiences. As the volume of geographic data has exploded over the last century, thematic cartography has become increasingly useful and necessary to interpret spatial, cultural and social data. An orienteering map combines both general and thematic cartography, designed for a very specific user community. A topographic map is primarily concerned with the topographic description of a place, including the use of contour lines showing elevation, Terrain or relief. A topological map is a very general type of map. It often disregards scale and detail in the interest of clarity of communicating specific route or relational information. A topographic map is a detailed and accurate graphic representation of cultural and natural features on the ground. Topographic maps have multiple uses in the present day: any type of geographic planning or large-scale architecture; earth sciences and many other geographic disciplines which use highly detailed maps in its standard requirements. Maps for planning and development of urban areas: Town Planning and allied professions have always been demanding suitable base maps as a prerequisite to any planning.[10] Maps are not new to town planners and engineers. However, preparation and use of large-scale maps, especially for urban areas, is not as good as in developed and other developing countries.

Maps are required by every Department/agency of the Provincial and Federal Governments having stake in development of urban area. Local authorities, public undertakings, service organizations require maps. However, the requirement of maps in terms of contents, quality and accuracy vary from organization to organization. Also, some organizations use maps every day while some use maps occasionally yet some others use maps once in a way. It is important to note that all the agencies aforementioned and others do not need comprehensive map, i.e. all the information in map. In the myriad of agencies involved in planning and development of towns and cities it is the agencies responsible for planning for physical development, which need maps most. Municipal authorities rank second in use of maps - comprehensive maps are required for planning and execution of works by engineering department, maps of buildings/plots for taxation and election purposes. The institutions like urban development authorities, Local authorities - Engineering and Health Departments, Power Transmission and distribution agencies, Agencies for Urban Water Supply and Drainage system, Survey, Settlement and Land Records (City Survey) Department, Agencies for city transport system, Fire Force, Police Department - Traffic & Law and Order and Postal Department requires the maps on daily basis. Whereas; other institutions like Public Works Departments, National Highways Authority, Railways, Housing boards, Education Department, Health Department, Census Department and Election Commission requires the maps occasionally. Similarly the maps are required for different purposes. Full topographic maps at different scales are required by Urban Development Authorities for preparation/ revision of Comprehensive Development Plans, Zonal Plans (Sectoral Plans), Neighbourhood Plans, Sub-division Plans, Town Planning Schemes, etc. in the local planning area.[11] The Scale of Maps:[12] The scale of a map is the ratio of a single unit of distance on the map, to the equivalent distance on the ground.[13] Maps are sometimes referred to by relative descriptions of large scale or small scale. A large scale map displays objects so they appear relatively large. For example, an island displayed on a 1:10,000 map will appear larger than if displayed on a 1:100,000 map. Thus, the former is large scale. Maps with a ratio of 1:50,000 or larger (for example, 1:25,000 would be larger) are considered large scale. Maps with a ratio of 1:50,000 to 1:250,000 are considered medium scale. Any maps with a smaller scale (for example 1:500,000) are considered small scale.[14]

The scale of map to be used for a particular purpose in a project is determined as to what topographical features and what plan elements (details) are required to be shown with a certain degree of clarity on one or more sheets. Thus, to show a concept for circulation system and layout of plots in a sub-division plan (layout), in any urban area, a 1:2,000 scale map may be adequate. But, if details on plot numbers, entrance to plots, plot dimensions, centre line of roads, chamfers, asphalt, alignment of services like water, electricity and telephone, planting of trees, etc. are to be shown, maps at scale 1:1,000 would be needed. If the width of plot and roads is less than 10 m then a 1:500 scale map would be required to show all the afore cited details.

Process in planning - Best Practice: Requirement of maps in terms of content, accuracy, scale, etc. in planning and development of urban areas can be appreciated well when the process involved in planning for physical development and implementation is known. Planning urban areas, especially metropolitan areas and cities, may have three stages, although they can vary:

Outline Development Plan (ODP) now re-christened as Perspective Plan, at macro (city/town) level; Comprehensive Development Plan (CDP) also at macro level. This can also be called Master Plan; Zonal Plans for part of city/town to elaborate the details; and Town Planning Schemes at micro (local) level to implement the plan.

These levels are basically to perceive, conceptualize and see details from city/ town level to part of city/town and local level. These levels naturally require maps at different scales with different content with one or fewer maps to see the area under consideration.

For instance for planning a metro rail system or a bypass for rail or road, entire metropolitan area or city as the case may be has to be on only one or two sheets for all to see the alignment at metropolitan or city level. To fine tune the alignment, to avoid insurmountable obstacles, more and more details will be needed for which maps have to be at larger and larger scales. Only important features are shown on maps at small scale. All the features would be required at detail planning. What features in base map and what elements in plan proposal need to be shown on map user (planners, public and decision makers) determine the scale(s) for maps at a particular level. Preparation of Master Plan: Preparation of Master Plan at Metro/city level is highly complex and needs multi- disciplinary team of experts. However, the experts who steer the work on planning are the physical planners. Before embarking on making projections for demographic aspects to estimate the land required to meet the growth during the plan horizon, several studies are carried out by physical planners apart from other discipline. Most important planning survey is the use of building and parcels of lands, not only in the existing developed area but also in the vicinity, what is called Local Planning Area.

Planning studies: Statutes on Town and Country Planning in all the States require preparation of Existing Land Use of every plot/property. Land uses are classified broadly in to 8 main groups. Not only that, a register showing the land use of every property need to be prepared and maintained along with the existing land use map. Hard copies of maps must be as large as 1:1,000 to mark the land use in field and to prepare fair maps in office; A GIS in deed, but in hard copy form. Another planning survey for physical aspect is structural condition survey. This survey assumes importance in old areas due for redevelopment and/or rejuvenation. Structural conditions of buildings are classified in to 4 or 5 classes: very good, good, moderate, poor and obsolete. This

survey is for structures for which each and every structure must clearly be available on maps to mark the appropriate condition in the field and to prepare fair maps in office. For this purpose also maps must be at least 1:1,000 if not at 1:500. This is yet another GIS earlier to electronic era.

All these maps need to be documented for reference and record, lest they are called for in courts of law. Large-scale maps show limited area on a sheet. They need to be generalized to prepare smaller scale maps: 1:5,000, 1:10,000, 1:20,000 to depict parts of urban area or the whole urban area on one or two sheets. The principle of Part to whole be applied which is similar to preparation of smaller scale maps from survey data at larger scale. Planning studies other than Land Use and Structural Condition are for:

Density of population/house holds; House hold survey for social, economic conditions which is a sample survey; Traffic and transportation survey; Problems in physical condition like congested areas, narrow roads, bottlenecks, bad junctions, low lying areas, pollution from industry, etc.

All these surveys are not aimed at each and every property and maps at small scales, say 1:5,000, 1:10,000 and 1:20,000 may suffice. Analysis of the physical aspect - Land Use and Structural Condition - and socio-economic aspects, problems in physical form, function, need to be made and results shown on small scale maps: 1:5,000, 1:10,000 and 1:20,000. After the land requirement for future growth is established, land availability has to be analyzed for suitability for development. To show the results of the analysis as thematic maps also smaller scale maps, say 1:5,000, 1:10,000 and 1:20,000, area required. Result of each of the study on separate maps (transparencies) at smaller scale (all at same scale) will be compared with one above the other (sounds like GIS in place!) to synthesis the studies and draw inference. The maps showing the results of planning studies at small scales, on one or two sheets, are the basis on which alternative plans at macro level are conceptualized.

Concept plans: Concept plans are free hand sketches on the base of accurate maps, at smaller scale (1:10,000 or 1:20,000 depending on the planning area) on one or two sheets, to show the boundaries of land areas for different uses, arterial and lower order road system, railway system, density of population/ house holds, etc. However, boundaries of proposed land uses and road system will not have any definite geometry.

Master Plan: After a concept or combination of two or three is accepted, Master Plan (CDP) is prepared on accurate map at larger scales, say 1:20,000 or 1:10,000 (for Metros and large cities), and 1:5,000 for others.

Format of maps for Master Plan/Planning Drawings:[15] Town planners, Architects and Engineers convert topographical maps in to working drawings to work on. They use the ISO A Series sheet formats for their drawings. Ammonia prints of drawings on A0 to A3 have to be folded to A4 size to have title block on top to go into files, storage, used in field and sent across by mail. Planning drawings must be in Landscape format. Planning drawings at any scale for any coverage must always be on base of scientifically prepared topographical map. Planning drawings will have legend and title block column at the right hand side of sheet from top to bottom. Column width can be 100 to 175 mm. Title block must be at bottom-right corner. The drawings of Master Plan approved by Government are statutory and need to be preserved for long time. Album form is best to the purpose. Further, drawings must be compact and handy to go in to album without folding. For this purpose, A1 size (841 x 594 mm) is best both in album and handling on desk and in field. All the drawings in the Master Plan may be to A1 size in modular form. Topographical maps at scale 1:5,000 with an 800 x 400 mm format covering 4 x 2 km (8 sq km) fits within A1size with sufficient margin at bottom for full length for legend and title block and fit in a handy album. Preparation of Zonal Plans: The phase of Zonal Plan is between Master Plan and detail plan. Zonal plans are enlargement of Master Plan for part of city or town or for a particular land use zone. Zonal Plan include plan document to supplement the plan (drawing). Zonal plans may show even the minor roads but may not show individual properties which are very small. Maps for Zonal Plan must be at 1:2,000 to show all the details; but neither dimensions nor all properties. Town planners role does not end on preparation and approval of Master Plan and Zonal Plan at small scale to remain as wall maps for adoration. His role includes translating Master Plan/Zonal Plan in to Action Area Plans. Preparation of Area Plan: Area plans are action plans to implement the proposals in Master Plan. It may be for extension of city/town or rejuvenation or redevelopment of old and blighted areas. Master Plan is the basis for Area Planning. Maps for Area Plan start at the scale of Master Plan (1:5,000) to delineate the area for planning. Site plan at scale 1:1,000 will be required with additional survey data - cadastral boundary and topography and service cadastre. Maps may be in modular form. But, to see the concept (Master Plan content) for the whole area on one sheet site plan has to be at smaller scale. The Master Plan may be fine tuned on the accurate site plan.

Draft details plan, keeping the Master Plan concept as it is or with modifications, is prepared on a large scale, say 1:2,000, to show all the details in the plan - plots with numbers, roads, road elements like carriage way, centre line, junction details, plot dimensions, even entrance to plots, etc. Details plans may be in modular form. After the Draft Plan is approved detailed plan is finalized on maps at scale 1:1,000 to show all details and dimensions. Dimensions are also indicated to help setting-out and to prepare engineering designs. But, Plan is not fit for allotment of plots and for development. Physical planners responsibilities do not end after preparation of Master Plan at small scale. Physical planner must co-ordinate development as well not only organizing and overseeing setting-out of his plan on ground but also there after.

Conclusion: Finally it is quite clearly spelled out that the understanding about maps is very significant and a prerequisite for the person involved in any town planning exercise.

AR-309: ARCHITECTURE AND TOWN PLANNING (B) By: RAVINDAR KUMAR Assistant Professor Department of Architecture and Planning NED University of Engineering and Technology Karachi

LECTURE NO. 08 TOPIC: NATURAL RESOURCES INTRODUCTION: The theme of current lecture is Natural Resources. In the following a detailed description about natural resources is given for the understanding of students learning town planning. WHAT IS MEANT BY NATURAL RESOURCES? Natural resources are naturally occurring substances that are considered valuable in their relatively unmodified (natural) form. A commodity is generally considered a natural resource when the primary activities associated with it are extraction and purification, as opposed to creation. Thus, mining, petroleum extraction, fishing, and forestry are generally considered natural-resource industries, while agriculture is not. The term was introduced to a broad audience by E.F. Schumacher in his 1970s book Small Is Beautiful.[1] Afterwards; different authors used this phrase for different purposes and interpreted it in their own manner. For instance in United States natural resources are described as: Land, fish, wildlife, biota, air, water, groundwater, drinking water supplies, and other such resources (including the resources of the exclusive economic zone) belonging to, managed by, held in trust by, appertaining to, or otherwise controlled by, the United States, any state or local government or Indian tribe, or any foreign government.[2] Similarly other defintions are: Assets that are physically consumed or waste away, such as oil, minerals, gravel, and timber can be said as natural resources.[3] A material source of wealth, such as timber, fresh water, or a mineral deposit, that occurs in a natural state and has economic value.[4] Materials found in the natural state, such as water, soil, sunshine, minerals, that are used by humans.[5] Any part of the environment that species depend on for their survival can be termed as natural resources.[6] CLASSIFICATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES: Natural resources are often classified into renewable and non-renewable resources. The renewable resources may be further categorized as unconditionally renewable (e.g., solar, tidal or wind energy)

and conditionally renewable (e.g., fish, forest products). Conditionally renewable resources will last indefinitely if not over-exploited because that part of the resource that is used can be replaced through natural processes.[7] Furthermore; renewable resources are generally living resources such as fish, coffee, and forests etc. which can restock (renew) themselves if they are not over harvested. Renewable resources can be used indefinitely if they are used sustainably or if not over harvested. Once renewable resources are consumed at a rate that exceeds their natural rate of replacement, the standing stock will diminish and eventually run out. The rate of sustainable use of a renewable resource is determined by the replacement rate and amount of standing stock of that particular resource. Non-living renewable natural resources include soil, as well as water, wind, tides and solar radiation.[8] NATURAL RESOURCES AND TOWN PLANNING: In case of town planning the understanding of natural resources is very important. Because; the end product of any town planning exercise is the construction of new built up structures on a virgin land or in other words change of natural environment into built environment as per future needs. The other outcome of town planning is the reconstruction of the existing old built up structures or in other words transforming the built environment to suit the needs of present time. In both cases there emerge major changes and transformations in the physical appearance and character of the existing context. These changes and transformations may occur in the form of large movements of soil (sand and stones) from one place to another to be used as building material. Grubbing of natural vegetation and trees from a virgin land in a given context to be use inside buildings. Thus; these changes and transformations may cause various impacts such as change in ground water pattern, bearing capacity of soils etc. Furthermore; the towns, cities and urban areas attracts large number of population that live and work there and consume lots of natural resources such as oil and gas. Large high rise buildings also exist in urban context that requires a lot of building material and natural resources and also become cause of urban heat islands. Additionally in town planning many mega construction projects are made that require major changes in the ecology of land, terrains, soils, vegetation, rivers, storm water drains, coastal belt etc. This change and transformation may be carefully analyzed through Initial Environmental Examination (IEE), Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), Social Impact Assessment (SIA), Visual Impact Assessment (VIA); Landscape and Visual Impact Assessment (LVSIA) etc. So as the town planning may be sustainable.

Initial Environmental Examination (IEE): IEE is a preliminary attempt to evaluate environmental impacts in order to determine whether a fullscale environmental impact assessment is needed. It is also called as Initial Environmental Investigation (IEI), partial EIA or "Preliminary EIA".[9] Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): A process by which, the consequences of planned development projects are evaluated as an integral part of planning the project. The EIA can be defined as the analysis of biological, physical, social and economic factors to determine the environmental and social consequences of a proposed

development action. The goal of the EIA is to provide policy makers with the best available information in order to minimize economic costs and maximize benefits associated with a proposed development.[10]

Social Impact Assessment (SIA): It is the component of EIA concerned with changes in the structure and functioning of social orderings. In particular the changes that a development would create in: social relationships; community (population, structure, stability etc); peoples quality and way of life; language; ritual; political/economic processes; attitudes/value. Can sometimes include health impacts.[11] "Social impact assessment includes the processes of analysing, monitoring and managing the intended and unintended social consequences, both positive and negative, of planned interventions (policies, programs, plans, projects) and any social change processes invoked by those interventions. Its primary purpose is to bring about a more sustainable and equitable biophysical and human environment."[12]This technique is a form of direct impact analysis used to assess how the costs and benefits of reforms are distributed among different stakeholders and over time. SIA is based on stakeholder analysis, and is particularly useful for disaggregating data on assets (physical, financial) and capabilities (human, organizational) into meaningful social categories. When reasonable national survey data exists, SIA uses a range of qualitative data collection tools (focus groups, semistructured key informant interviews, ethnographic field research, stakeholder workshops to determine impacts, stakeholder preferences and priorities, and constraints on implementation. In the absence of adequate quantitative data, SIA supplements qualitative, sociological impact analysis with purposive surveys that capture direct impacts and behavioral responses to reform, or specific dimensions (e.g. time-use patterns) that affect reform outcomes.[13]

Visual impact assessment:[14] It is an evaluation of the visual impact of resource development proposals on forest landscape. Landscape and Visual Impact Assessment:[15] Landscape and visual impacts are two separate but closely related elements. Landscape refers to the appearance of the land, including its, shape, texture and colours. It also reflects the way these components combine to create specific patterns and pictures that are distinctive to certain areas. Landscape is not just a visual, phenomenon it relies on a number of other features/influences that will have shaped its character. For example topography, geology, ecology, land management and architecture all play a part in the formation of a landscape. TOWN PLANNING IN THE 1900S IN UNITED KINGDOM (UK):[16] The significance of resources in town planning can be further understood through a brief historical background of Town Planning in the 1900s in United Kingdom. At the turn of the century, legislation continued to improve conditions for the industrial work force. This included Town Planning Act 1909, which forbade the building of back-to-back housing, symbolic of the poverty of the industrial cities, and allowed local authorities to prepare schemes of town planning

Housing Act 1919, which gave the Ministry of Health authority to approve the design of houses Housing Act 1930, which required all slum housing to be cleared in designated improvement areas Around this time, the Garden Cities movement was formed under the influence of Sir Ebenezer Howard, a visionary who took public health reform further by planning to build green cities on the principle that: 'by so laying out a Garden City that, as it grows, the free gifts of 'Nature fresh air, sunlight, breathing room and playing room shall be still retained in all needed abundance.' This eventually led to the New Towns movement and the New Towns Act 1946 although, by the time new towns were being built, the rise of the privately owned motor car had made much of Howard's vision unattainable. Pressure on the countryside: With all the new housing, the rise of the motorcar and continued industrial development, the countryside came under increasing pressure. For example, between 1919 and 1939 over four million new homes were built, the majority on green fields, and advertising hoardings sprung up unregulated across the landscape. In response to this threat, the need for planning controls to be extended to cover the countryside as well as towns was recognised and in 1926 the Council for the Preservation of Rural England was formed later renamed the Campaign to Protect Rural England. As pressure was put on the Government to take action, two important acts of Parliament were passed: Town and Country Planning Act 1932, which was the first legislation to accept the desirability of countrywide rural planning

Restriction of Ribbon Development Act 1935, which was designed to prevent the sprawl of towns and cities across the countryside. 'Ribbon development' is linear development of long rows of buildings built along main roads leading out of towns Town and country planning comes of age: The end of the Second World War brought consensus over the need for comprehensive planning to rebuild bombed out towns and cities and to help reorganise industry. The Town and Country Planning Act 1947 introduced the basis of the system that we have today. It introduced two significant changes i.e. Local authorities now had to complete a local plan, setting out detailed policies and specific proposals for the development and use of land in a district. Land use would be controlled and planning permission would be required for development. However some sectors, such as agriculture, were granted significant exemptions from planning controls, called permitted development rights, which still exist today. After the 1947 Act, the system continued to evolve. Important events include 1955: The national Green Belt system is put in place to prevent urban sprawl (the first Green Belts were designated around London before the Second World War 1968: County structure plans are introduced to co-ordinate and guide local plans 1988: Regional planning guidance is introduced to act as a strategic guide for county structure plans

1990: The Town and Country Planning Act 1990. The act divides planning into forward planning and development control. Forward planning is about setting out the authority's strategy for the future through a development plan - and development control is about controlling the development that happens 1991: The Planning and Compensation Act 1991 amends the Town and Country Planning Act and introduces the plan-led system, affirming that planning applications should be decided in line with the development plan Conclusion: Finally it is clearly spelled out that the understanding about natural resources is quite significant in any town planning exercise.

AR-309: ARCHITECTURE AND TOWN PLANNING (B) By RAVINDAR KUMAR Assistant Professor Department of Architecture and Planning NED University of Engineering and Technology Karachi

LECTURE NO. 09 TOPIC: ECONOMIC RESOURCES Introduction: The phrase Economic Resources means the natural, human and capital resources that are used to produce goods and services. It is also called factors of production.[1] In economics, factors of production (or productive inputs) are the resources employed to produce goods and services.[2] They are generally land, labor, and capital; the three groups of resources that are used to make all goods and services.[3] The definition of economic resources as mentioned above clearly spell out that the theme economic resources is directly related to production of goods and services. In relation to production three questions are very important. What to produce? How to produce? For whom to produce? In addition it is also important to understand that why goods and resources are related to town planning and how land labour and capital are the significant elements of town planning? Whereas; it may need a further explanation regarding economics as well as urban economics so as to understand the details about economic resources, and its significance in Town Planning. Lets try to answer all these questions in the following:

Natural, Human and Capital resources: Materials or energy from the environment used for human needs are natural resources.[4] Human resources; is a term with which many organizations describe the combination of traditionally administrative personnel functions with performance, Employee Relations and resource planning.[5] It is the collective capabilities, experiences, potential and commitment of the organizations board, management team, staff, and volunteers.[6] The objective of human resources is to maximize the return on investment from the organization's human capital and minimize financial risk. Capital resources are the things produced and used to produce other goods and services.[7]

Goods and Services: In economics, economic output is divided into physical goods and intangible services. Consumption of goods and services is assumed to produce utility. We satisfy our needs and wants by buying goods and services. Goods are items you can see and touch, such as a book, a pen, a folder etc. Services are

provided for you by other people, such as; doctor, dentist, haircut and eating out at restaurants.[8] Or in other words, things that are produced by a country's economy examples of goods include food; clothing, machines, and new roads, examples of services include those of doctors, teachers, merchants, tourist agents, construction workers, and government officials.[9]

What is Economics? Economics is the social science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. Economics aims to explain how economies work and how economic agents interact. Economic analysis is applied throughout society, in business and finance but also in crime, education, the family, health, law, politics, religion, social institutions, war, science and research. Microeconomics looks at interactions through individual markets, given scarcity and government regulation. The theory considers aggregates of quantity demanded by buyers and quantity supplied by sellers at each possible price per unit. It weaves these together to describe how the market may reach equilibrium as to price and quantity or respond to market changes over time. This is broadly termed demand-and-supply analysis. In microeconomics, production is the conversion of inputs into outputs. It is an economic process that uses resources to create a commodity that is suitable for exchange. Some economists define production broadly as all economic activity other than consumption. Public finance is the field of economics that deals with budgeting the revenues and expenditures of a public sector entity, usually government.[10] Thus; the field of economics mainly determines every policy that a government makes for development or town planning. What is Urban Economics?[11] Urban Economics is broadly the economic study of urban areas. As such, it involves using the tools of economics to analyze urban issues such as crime, education, public transit, housing, and local government finance. More narrowly, it is a branch of microeconomics that studies urban spatial structure and the location of households and firms. Urban economics focuses on these spatial relationships to understand the economic motivations underlying the formation, functioning, and development of cities. Urban economics is rooted in the location theories [12] that began the process of spatial economic analysis. Economics is the study of the allocation of scarce resources, and as all economic phenomena take place within a geographical space, urban economics focuses of the allocation of resources across space in relation to urban areas.[13] Other branches of economics ignore the spatial aspects of decision making but urban economics focuses not only on the location decisions of firms, but also of cities themselves as cities themselves represent centers of economic activity.[14] Many spatial economic topics can be analyzed within either an urban or regional economics framework as some economic phenomena primarily affect localized urban areas while others are felt over much larger regional areas.[15] Urban economics is divided into six related themes:

Market forces in the development of cities, Land use within cities, Urban transportation,

Urban problems and public policy, Housing and public policy, and Local government expenditures and taxes.[16]

Market Forces in the Development of Cities Market forces in the development of cities relates to how the location decision of firms and households causes the development of cities. The nature and behavior of markets depends somewhat on their locations therefore market performance partly depends on geography.[17] If a firm locates in a geographically isolated region, their market performance will be different than a firm located in a concentrated region. The location decisions of both firms and households create cities that differ in size and economic structure. When industries cluster, like in the Silicon Valley in California, they create urban areas with dominant firms and distinct economies. By looking at location decisions of firms and households, the urban economist is able to address why cities develop where they do, why some cities are large and others small, what causes economic growth and decline, and how local governments affect urban growth.[18]Because urban economics is concerned with asking questions about the nature and workings of the economy of a city, models and techniques developed within the field are primarily designed to analyze phenomena that are confined within the limits of a single city.[19]

Land Use within Metropolitan Areas Looking at land use within metropolitan areas, the urban economist seeks to analyze the spatial organization of activities within cities. In attempts to explain observed patterns of land use, the urban economist examines the intra-city location choices of firms and households. Considering the spatial organization of activities within cities, urban economics addresses questions in terms of what determines the price of land and why those prices vary across space, the economic forces that caused the spread of employment from the central core of cities outward, identifying land-use controls, such as zoning, and interpreting how such controls affect the urban economy.[20]

Economic Policy in Urban Areas Economic policy is often implemented at the urban level thus economic policy is often tied to urban policy.[21] Urban problems and public policy tie into urban economics as the theme relates urban problems, such as poverty or crime, to economics by seeking to answer questions with economic guidance. For example, does the tendency for the poor to live close to one another make them even poorer?[22]

Urban Transportation and Urban Economics Urban transportation is a theme of urban economics because it affects land-use patterns as transportation affects the relative accessibility of different sites. Issues that tie urban transportation to urban economics include the deficit that most transit authorities have, and efficiency questions about proposed transportation developments such as light-rail.[23]

Housing and Public Policy Housing and public policy relate to urban economics as housing is a unique type of commodity. Because housing is immobile, when a household chooses a dwelling, it is also choosing a location. Urban economists analyze the location choices of households in conjunction with the market effects of housing policies.[24]

Government Expenditures and Taxes in Urban Economics The final theme of local government expenditures and taxes relates to urban economics as it analyzes the efficiency of the fragmented local governments presiding in metropolitan areas.[25]

Conclusion: Conclusively for any town planning three questions as mentions above are very important. What to produce? How to produce? For whom to produce? The answer to these questions is the key factor to understand the whole dynamics of economic resources in town planning. Because the answer clearly lead us to appropriate use of economic resources.

AR-309: ARCHITECTURE AND TOWN PLANNING (B) By RAVINDAR KUMAR Assistant Professor Department of Architecture and Planning NED University of Engineering and Technology Karachi

LECTURE NO. 10 TOPIC: LEGAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE PROBLEMS

Introduction: In order to comprehend the legal and administrative problems in town planning at first it is important to understand the terms Legal and Administrative. The term legal mean established by or founded upon law or official or accepted rules[1]. Thus; legal problems in town planning must be either related to law or official accepted rules of town planning. Here the question arises that in what context the legal problems may be addressed? Because legal problems in town planning; may vary in each context and urban setting. Similarly the term administrative mean of or relating to or responsible for administration[2]. Therefore; administrative problems in town planning must be related to administration of a town. Now; in order to understand the legal and administrative problems in town planning one must have a thorough understanding about the Law and Administration of a town. On the other hand the knowledge about urban problems may also be the way to learn legal and administrative problems in an urban context. What is a Law? Law is a system of rules, usually enforced through a set of institutions. It shapes politics, economics and society in numerous ways and serves as the foremost social mediator in relations between people. Law governs a wide variety of social activities. All legal systems deal with similar issues and behaviors, but each country categorizes and identifies its legal standards and principals in different ways. A common distinction is that between "public law" (a term related closely to the state, and including constitutional, administrative and criminal law), and "private law" (which covers contract and property). In civil law systems, contract fall under a general law of obligations, while trusts law is dealt with international conventions. Law spreads far beyond the core subjects into virtually every area of life. Three categories are of importance here i.e. Law and society, Law and commerce, Law and regulation. Law and society include Labour law, Civil rights and Human rights law, Immigration and nationality law, Social security law and Family law. Law and commerce include Commercial law, Admiralty law and the Law of the Sea, Company law and Intellectual property law. Law and regulation include Tax law, Banking law, Competition law, Consumer law and Environmental law. Regulation deals with the provision of public services and utilities. Especially since privatisation became popular private companies doing the jobs previously controlled by government; energy, gas telecomm and water are regulated industries.[3]

What is an Administration? The term administration, as used in the context of government, differs according to jurisdiction.[4] In business, administration consists of the performance or management of business operations and thus the making or implementing of major decisions. Administration can be defined as the universal process of organizing people and resources efficiently so as to direct activities toward common goals and objectives.[5] What is Public Administration? Public administration can be broadly described as the development, implementation and study of branches of government policy. The pursuit of the public good by enhancing civil society and social justice is the ultimate goal of the field.[6] What are Urban Problems? [7] Urban problems remain similar worldwide. The United Nations Development Programme announced on 28 July 1997 that unemployment remains the world's number one urban problem, according to a survey of mayors of cities from around the world. The purposes of the survey was to identify issues and severity of urban problems, to identify areas where cities are experiencing some successes, and to establish a baseline for future more systematized surveys to help the United Nations better understand trends, needs and opportunities. More than half of the world's population now lives in cities and towns rather than in rural areas. Urban problems and their solutions, therefore, now on top the world's agenda. The UNDP survey of 14 categories of problems and the percentages of mayors identifying them as "severe" are as follows: 1. Unemployment-----------------------------52.0% 2. Insufficient solid waste disposal -------------42.0% 3. Urban poverty------------------------------41.6% 4. Inadequate housing stock-------------------33.8% 5. Insufficient solid waste collection------------30.9% 6. Inadequate water/sanitation facilities-------28.4% 7. Inadequate public transportation------------26.2% 8. Traffic congestion----------------------------22.3% 9. Poor health services--------------------------21.5% 10. Insufficient civil society participation----------20.9% 11. Inadequate education services----------------18.9%

12. Air pollution----------------------------------17.4% 13. Urban violence/crime/personal safety--------13.5% 14. Discrimination (women. ethnic, poor)---------6.8%

Significantly, 70 percent of the responding mayors who rank unemployment a severe problem also rank urban poverty as severe. All problems stem from poverty. Thus, development programmes should be financed to lessen unemployment and hence to urge people to work a bit harder. The education sector should be highlighted to make people understand problems related to modernisation and everything related to illiteracy. Urban problems stem from rural-to-urban migration. The best way to work with the large number of new comers is to have them share the burden of leadership by taking part in providing services. United States: Although, worldwide, urban violence/crime/personal safety is not ranked high among the survey's 14 categories of problems, crime is ranked severe by mayors in the United States. They say "Our biggest challenge is fighting the crime that has been caused as a result of illegal drug trafficking. Our efforts to strengthen the police department and involve neighborhoods and citizens in addressing their local problems have helped make a real difference in safety levels and decision-making processes. Success in addressing jobs, tax base growth, and road improvement and partnerships, has helped to improve the economic future of community and the quality of life of each resident." On the other hand, Canada's Mayer considers unemployment and air pollution as his city's severe problems and describes "Urban success in the new millennium will hinge on providing cities with the legislative and fiscal capacity to deal with the challenges they are facing. Cities need to forge new partnerships with senior governments to address population growth and employment, the provision of hard infrastructure and social services, and appropriate governance structures." The diversity of major problems identified among North American cities is further illustrated by the mayors of Mexico who rates traffic congestion and inadequate housing as his city's most severe problems, attributable to rural-to-urban migration, whereas insufficient solid waste disposal as that city's most severe problem.

Latin America Illustrative of the prominence of unemployment as a severe problem in Latin America is the response of the mayor of Leon, Nicaragua. According to Leon's mayor, "Currently the municipality is facing a truly economic crisis where more than 23% of the population is experiencing extreme poverty and more than 70% of the economically active population is unemployed -- implying a clear tendency for the deterioration of health and education as well as an increase in illiteracy." Similarly, unemployment is reported to be the most severe problem of Argentina's and Ecuador's cities. Besides unemployment, the most serious problems reported for Cordoba, Argentina are traffic congestion and air pollution.

Europe A few European mayors consider unemployment a severe problem. Traffic congestion is also cited as a serious problem. Few European cities mark urban poverty as a problem. However, Europe's cities appear to be experiencing problems related to modernization and technology. They write: "We are transforming a typical fordist town into a modern, European town. That is a slow and difficult longterm process that needs time and the participation of the whole city system. The risk of such urban transformation is to forget large parts of the population. We do not want that -- we are working to bring together development and solidarity. Relating technological to environmental concerns, Cologne's Mayor writes: "The success in establishing modern technology enterprises (e.g. media, bio- and genetic technology, environmental technologies) shows that there is a possibility for economic progress without interfering with environmental interests, for reconciling economy and ecology." Africa Many African mayors note the interrelatedness of unemployment and poverty, rural-to-urban migration, and the consequent negative impact on services. "The most serious problems in our city are interrelated; urban unemployment causes poverty, and because of such poverty, people are not capable of paying for services such as health and education." Similarly, Mayor of Uganda cites "the collapse of industries" as causing "urban poverty arising from unemployment." Also, the mayor of Zimbabwe laments the "low levels of industrial development leading to unemployment and poverty." Mayor of Nairobi Kenya comments: "Due to population influx into the city, adequate provision of services -- such as housing, schools, medical, water, sewerage, roads, etc. -- is a nightmare." Some African mayors link unemployment to problems related to idle youth. Thus, Mayor of Bobo-Dioulasso writes: "Bobo-Dioulasso was a cleaner town in the past. Young men of Bobo-Dioulasso spend most of their time drinking tea. They don't want to work." Mayor of Banjuk Gambia adds: "Problems of drug use and rural-urban migration among our youth have increased considerably as a result of the persistent drought and unemployment, consequently causing enormous strain on the already stretched resources of the city." The city of Dakar Senegal, is undertaking a program to employ youth to improve the city. Thus, Mayor claims: "In the face of the distressing sight which is sometimes found in the city, Operation 'Be clean and make clean' has enabled the municipality to put to work all the young people, grouped in association to clean up the city of Dakar. Other than the creation of employment, this experience has the benefit of: developing a sense of citizenship, enabling participation in the management of the city, and fighting against exclusion and poverty."

Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East The mayors of both Damascus Syria and Nicosia Cyprus rank inadequate public transportation as their most serious problem. Damascus Mayor cites "all kinds of pollution" as a major problem. Nicosia's mayor adds that "Nicosia remains the only divided city in the world." The mayor of Turkey's fifth largest city, Bursa comments that its most serious problems (housing, infrastructure, employment, etc.) derive from immigration from eastern Anatolia, Bulgaria, former Yugoslavia, and Albania. The mayors of both Rafah and Gaza in Palestine claim that the lack of infrastructure is their most serious problem, especially inadequate water/sanitation facilities and sewage systems. Gaza's

mayor also emphasizes inadequate housing, whereas Rafah's mayor emphasizes not enough paved roads, as other serious problems.

Asia and Pacific The city of Wuhan China has given high priority to solid waste collection and disposal as city's most severe problems. Same is the case of the cities of Baroda and Guntur in India, Nagoya of Japan, Kathmandu of Nepal, and Suva of Fiji. Suva's Mayor explains: "The Fiji land tenure system has made it very difficult for our finding an alternative site for our solid waste disposal." Mayor of Kawasaki Japan cites an "aging society and declining birth rate" as that city's most serious problem. "The sudden arrival of the aging society is a serious problem facing the whole of Japan," he comments. "It is predicted that Kawasaki's population over 65 years will double by the year 2010." Accordingly, "we must concentrate on building facilities providing care for the elderly, and find sources of workers." Likewise, Nagoya's Mayor Lists as City's number one problem as "Preparation of a care system for a rapidly aging society." Mayor of Pusan Korea claims that traffic congestion and clean water are his city's most serious problems. The mayor of Kathmandu Nepal, also cite water supply as their most serious problems and explains: "The demand for drinking water has been increasing due to the increased population and rapid urban growth. At present, the total water supply per day from ground and surface systems in the valley is limited to 60 million litres per day whereas the demand is 114 million litres per day."

KARACHI[8] The Karachi Development Authority has categorized the critical problems of Karachi as: 1. Poor environmental conditions in slums and Katchi Abadis; 2. An abnormal increase in population leading to quick urbanization; 3. Health hazards owing to lack of proper water supply, sewerage, and storm water drainage; 4. Pollution owing to industrial wastes; 5. A defective transport system and consequent vehicle-created air pollution; 6. The destruction of historical heritage and green areas; 7. A haphazard location of some industries; 8. A disparity in densities of different areas in the city; 9. Congestion of roads and the downtown area causing, noise and pollution; 10. A defective refuse collection and disposal system; 11. Pollution in coastal waters causing harm to marine life; and 12. Pollution caused by light and electronics.

Other issues may also be added, such as a disregard for architectural heritage, faceless blocks of commercial and residential buildings, and the conversion of amenity plots into speculative housing. Urban planning and development in Karachi suffer from many problems, some of which are listed below. 1. A lack of evaluation of previous planning attemptsPlanning initiatives often start anew without adequately evaluating possible merits of past plans. 2. The incapability of the planning authorities to execute the planPlanning in Karachi has been under the auspices of Karachi Development Authority (KDA), which does not possess any legal or administrative control on the nineteen other land development agencies of the city. Thus the capacity of Karachi Development Authority to execute the plans has been constrained. 3. The absence of political mandate for the planning processPlanning processes have usually been under the direction of the donors or UN agencies, without enjoying the political mandate necessary for keeping open the possibility of ad hoc adjustments. 4. Technical shortcomings in the planning processAssumptions used in planning have often been drawn from inadequate sample surveys and obsolete physical data. Even today, Karachi does not have a comprehensive mapping base usually required for all kinds of planning and development exercises. Adding to the lack of information is the fact that data gathered by the Defense institutions are not accessible by the public. 5. The planning authority is usually not the financing agency of the exercisethis fact has made it nearly impossible for planning agencies to execute the various components according to the outlined framework. Conclusion: Karachi is in chaos, but it is inhabited not only by the prophets of doom and the merchants of gloom. There are those who care, who haveeven if only in their own small wayachieved results that need appraisal, evaluation, and even propagation. Hope for the future lies in these informal efforts. In this city globally known for continued strife and turmoil, the informal sector has indeed managed to keep it alive and thriving. Even with its ever-increasing population and heterogeneous mix, the city has shown great resilience and strength to not only survive but to actually evolve its own alternate culture. Without informal initiatives, this would have been impossible to achieve.

AR-309: ARCHITECTURE AND TOWN PLANNING (A&TP-B) By: RAVINDAR KUMAR Assistant Professor Department of Architecture and Planning NED University of Engineering and Technology Karachi LECTURE NO: 11 TOPIC: CIVIC SURVEY 1. INTRODUCTION: There are variety of survey & mapping techniques to be learned by a civil engineer. Though; some of these survey and mapping techniques are already known to a civil engineer. However it is necessary to understand how different authors explained these techniques, because the survey & mapping techniques are always subject to refinement during the course of development & planning. Therefore let us look at different authors how they perceived the issue of survey & mapping. 2. DESCRIPTION OF SURVEYS BY JOHN RATCLIFFE: At first let us discuss what Mr. John RatCliffe, defined about survey preparation & techniques of analysis in his book An Introduction to Town & country planning. He says that; In order understand the society, for which planning is to be done, to identify the nexus of needs & problems, to have comprehensive understanding of city elements & their effect upon each other, to formulate policies & choose between them or adjust them in practice; a town planner must be equipped with variety of tools & techniques. Because the planning is based upon knowledge; the knowledge depends upon information & information depends upon survey. Now the survey of many components from the built and natural environment is the main concern in this respect. Here the big question is that, what are those many components for which the survey is required?According to Mr. RatCliffe; at first we survey about physical characteristics, then utilities, then population, then employment, then housing, then shopping, then education, then leisure & recreation, then movement & management, & finally for evaluation. In this way he defined eleven types of surveys. Now the big question is that, what are the available sources of information to carry out these surveys? Ideally the first hand information should be collected by specifically designed survey forms related to specific problems in a precise time. However due to ever existing constraints of time & money this is not always possible. So what do we do in such situation? In that case the researchers, the student concerned with thesis or project work are usually compelled to depend on existing sources of information. The existing sources of information are mostly,published statistics by the government institutions. There are also other information database such as individual researches & surveyscarried out by some non governmental institutions. Now the information sources are various, such as each state department & ministry has the facts & figures. Then there is census of population, housing statistics. The department of trade & industry will have census of distribution & census of production.

Then there are different library sources, currently there is internet. Then there are professional journals & researches, business & economic reviews. Then there are different resource centers available such as Urban Resource Center (URC) in Karachi. Finally there are some international institutions which keep the records and statistics of major countries and their urban centers. These includeUnited Nations Development Programme (UNDP), World Band for Development, Asian Development Bank & other United Nation institutions. 2. DESCRIPTION OF SURVEYS, BY G.K. HIRASKAR: Mr. G K Hiraskar defined in his book Town planning that; Survey means collection of data & information through site visit & personal observations. Similarly there is a principle developed by Sir Patrick Geddes (one of the pioneer of modern town planning) thatalways survey before plan. The survey leads us to information or knowledge which is used by all planners to prepare a mind map of the region before drawing a plan of town. The collected data & information through survey is analyzed & presented in the form maps, charts, tables & models. At present there emerged digital maps, aerial photography & computerized models of surveys which have enhanced the understanding of planners with accurate information of the site. However there are certain ground realities which can only be understood through personal site visit by the planners. This survey of site before planning is also known asdiagnosis before the treatment or diagnosis approach of planners that lead them to make correct decisions about the city. Types of Survey: Mr. G. K. Hiraskar also classified surveys in four broad types. i) Towner city survey ii) Regional survey iii) National survey iv) Civic survey Town Surveys: These surveys are conducted to prepare a base map for the Town planning scheme. Basically these surveys are of three types; i.e. i) Physical survey ii) Social survey and iii) Economic survey Physical survey: These are conducted in two ways i.e. through land survey and aerial survey. In physical survey four types of information or data are collected. i) Natural Features survey i.e. location in respect to existing towns & region, topography & soil conditions, climatology etc. ii) Land Use survey i.e. use of land for residential, commercial, or social purposes, public & semi public spaces, open spaces, transportation networks, agriculture, water elements, vacant lands & other uses. iii) Building Conditions survey i.e. buildings are in very good, good, poor, or in bad condition? iv) Communications survey i.e. highways, roads and its network & railway junctions and its network, availability of parking facilities in the city, origin & destination (O&D) survey, accidents survey; and

future trends of traffic surveys etc. Social survey: These are of three kinds, i.e. I) Population II) Housing and III) Community Facilities i) Population: Trends in population growth for last 50 years, present population characteristics, future population growth by considering survival, urban Migration & development of new industries. Demographic survey i.e. classification of population & town density. ii) Housing: Housing stock, per annum need, current housing conditions, accommodation density, building height, material use & tenancy status, rented or owned. iii) Community facilities: Education, health & recreation Economic survey: Occupational conditions, survey of industries, survey of commerce, financial position of local authorities, utility services. Regional survey: The larger scale surveys carried out in different town & villages to obtain general information about their physical, economic & social conditions is termed as regional survey. These regional investigations are carried out to develop whole region in a coherent manner. These include regional transport, highways & regional water supply system. National survey: This survey is conducted at national level which includes different regions. This survey is conducted to obtain information about, natural resources, potential for locating industries, fixing railways alignment, hydroelectric works etc. Civic survey or Socio-Economic survey: This is local level small scale survey conducted for redevelopment scheme, slum improvement scheme and master plan development. The socio-economic survey is the foundation stone of planning structure. Because it is the detailed house to house survey which helps a town planner to diagnose the core problems & issues to develop its remedies through planning. There are eleven types of aspect covered in socio-economic survey. i) Physical Features: ii) Communication: iii) Traffic Problems: iv) Open Spaces: v) Industrial Survey: vi) Housing Survey: vii) Population: viii) Health Conditions: ix) Landscape Survey: x) Land-cultivation: xi) Public Services:

The socioeconomic survey is the key survey and foundation stone of Town Planning, in which a Town is divided into union councils or wards & blocks, and then each block further subdivided into streets and each street has number of houses. This survey is conducted through a survey Performa or questionnaire. The sample Performa for socioeconomic survey is as follows: THE SAMPLE PERFORMA FOR SOCIOECONOMIC SURVEY i) Surveyors name: ____________ ii) Supervisors name:___________ iii) Ward number: _____________ iv) Block number: _____________ v) Street number: ____________ vi) Unit number: _____________ vii) Date of survey: ___________ There are five issues addressed in a socio-economic survey: i) Housing condition: House Number: _____________ Address: __________________ House Conditions: Poor _________ Good _________ Very Good _____ Number of Floors: ___________ Age of house: _______________ Plot area: __________________ Tenancy Status: Rented ______ Owned ______ Rent per month ________ ii) Family Structure: Total family members: __ Male __ Female __ Literacy of Male & Female: _____________ Marital status: ______________________ School going children __________

College going children __________ Age groups: 5 & below____ 5-10 _______ 10-25 ______ 25-50 ______ 50 & above ___ iii) Economic characteristics: Total number of Earning Members _____ Occupations _______________ Monthly Income_____________ Expenditure ________________ Savings ___________________ Mode of Transport ___________ iv) Community Facilities: Nurseries ______ Primary Schools _______ Secondary Schools _______ College ______ Shopping Center _________ Park and Open Space _________ Club Theaters _________ Religious Building _________ Post Office _________ Police Station _________ Dispensary ___________ Clinic ___________ Hospital _________

Any Other _________ (In each category find out the Distance from Residence) v) Utility Services:

Water Supply _____ Electricity _____ Gas _____ Telephone _____ Water Closet ______ (In each category find out the type of connection as Legal, Illegal, Private, Public etc) Remarks: ____________________ ___________________________

AR-309: ARCHITECTURE AND TOWN PLANNING (A&TP-B) By: RAVINDAR KUMAR Assistant Professor Department of Architecture and Planning NED University of Engineering and Technology Karachi LECTURE NO: 12 TOPIC: URBAN ECOLOGY INTRODUCTION: The theme of current lecture is urban ecology. The phrase urban ecology is composed of two entirely different terms i.e. urban and ecology. The one way to understand this theme is to look at both the terms individually and then try to establish a relationship between them. Whereas; the other way to comprehend this phrase is to define it with an earlier established definition and identify its application in town planning. In the following a detailed description of this theme is given. WHAT IS URBAN? The term urban means town or a city; whereas; A city is an agglomerate social organism containing a population of at least 20,000 (UN definition), in a relative density that packages a critical population mass necessary for spawning a variety of value systems, lifestyles, and power constellations. Cities are particularly receptive to, and instrumental in, creating innovation and change. With this capacity for change is introduced various kinds of dysfunctional effects, including cultural, sociological, economic, psychological, and spiritual.[1] WHAT IS ECOLOGY? The term ecology means balance in nature; it is the study of ecosystems. Ecology is derived from the GREEK word "eko" used for household and understanding logos meaning an understanding of the "household of life."[2] Ecology is a synthetic & systemic study of an organism or a species and its surroundings: the basic unit of study is an ecological system or the interdependent populations in any place as they impact the ecosystems which they occupy, use, or visit.[3] In both history & natural history, ecology is the study of how organisms depend on one another and their surroundings.[4] URBAN + ECOLOGY: If the terms urban and ecology combined together it would mean a town or city where living organisms, species of flora and fauna, communities of human beings, and survive together with interdependency and individualism within their surroundings. In other words the urban context where all kinds of people, plants, birds, and beasts exist together must live in harmony because they are interdependent and their survival with one another in cohesiveness can be termed as urban ecology.

WHAT IS URBAN ECOLOGY? Urban Ecology is the study of the relationships between organisms, including humans, and the particular opportunities for, and challenges to, their survival presented by cities.[5] Urban Ecology is the study of biodiversity in areas that are densely populated by humans.[6] Urban Ecology is the subfield of ecology which deals with theinteraction of plants, animals and humans with each other and with their environment in urban or urbanizing settings.[7] SIGNIFICANCE OF URBAN ECOLOGY:[8] Analysis of urban settings in the context of ecosystem ecology(looking at the cycling of matter and the flow of energy through the ecosystem) hopes to result in healthier, better managed communities. Studying the factors which allow wild plants and animals to survive (and sometimes thrive) in built environments can also create more livable spaces. Urban ecology also involves the study of the effects of urban development patterns on ecological conditions. Emphasis is also placed on planning communities with environmentally sustainable methods via design and building materials in order to promote a healthy and biodiverse urban ecosystem. Interactions between non-living factors, such as sunlight or water, and biological factors, such as plants and microbes, take place in all environments, including cities. By concentrating humans and the resources they consume, metropolitan areas alter soil drainage, water flow, and light availability. Urban ecologists think of how architecture, such as sidewalks and rooftops, impacts the way rainwater is received and transported and the way garbage dumps and sewage plants centralize waste products. Some species of animals have been able to survive or thrive in a non-natural urban setting. These include rats, Feral Pigeons, and cockroaches. INSTITUTIONS FOR URBAN ECOLOGY: The afforementioned description clearly spell out what urban ecology means and how it is related to urban context? There are various institutions related to urban ecology that is working at their local context across the globe. These institutions had developed their own urban models and projects to deal with their urban ecology. Furthermore; they also developed different methodologies of work and instruments to deal with growing problems in their urban ecology. As in our local context of Karachi we (Third Year Civil Engineering Students) have started an attempt for making our city a sustainable one through research; similarly internationally there are various institutions who have initiated their own local attempts for an urban ecology.

AR-309: ARCHITECTURE AND TOWN PLANNING (A&TP-B) By: RAVINDAR KUMAR Assistant Professor Department of Architecture and Planning NED University of Engineering and Technology Karachi LECTURE NO: 13 TOPIC: NEED AND SCOPE OF COMPREHENSIVE PLAN INTRODUCTION: It is a grave reality that planning is a process. Throughout the evolution of mankind different tools develops for the planning of cities & towns. These tools may be physical, social, economic or technical. The comprehensive plan is basically a tool for growth and development guidance of the city. Town planning broadened in the late 1960s beyond a purely physical orientation. In its modern form, town planning is an ongoing process that concerns not only on physical design but also social, economic, and political policy issues. As a fabric of human organization, a city is a complex weave. On one level it consists of the arrangement of neighbourhoods, industry, and commerce according to aesthetic and functional standards and the provision of public services for them. On another, perhaps more important, level it also comprises:

The background, education, work, and aspirations of its residents; The general functioning of the economic system to which they belong, as well as their positions in and rewards from that system; and Their ability to make or influence the policy decisions that affect their daily lives. Viewed from this perspective, town planning requires more than a narrow specialist who can develop and implement a physical plan. More general skills and activities are also needed. They include:

The collection and analysis of data about the city and its population; Research into the need for and availability of social services; The development, evaluation, coordination, and administration of programmes and timetables to supply these services; Programmes for economic and housing development and redevelopmentnot only planning, but also packaging, financing, and carrying out the development, establishing public and private partnerships, and so forth; and Effective use of political activity and citizen participation to influence the character of and give support to development programmes.

THE COMPREHENSIVE PLAN The basic town-planning document is a comprehensive plan that is adopted and maintained with regular revisions. The plan receives its day-to-day expression in a series of legal documentstown planning controls, subdivision regulations, and building and housing codesthat establish standards of land use and quality of construction. THE NEED AND SCOPE OF COMPREHENSIVE PLAN: The need and scope of comprehensive plan varies context to context. However; in generic terms it serves many purposes:

It brings together the analyses of the social, economic, and physical characteristics (such as the distribution of population, industry, businesses, open spaces, and publicly built facilities) that led to the plan; It examines special problems and opportunities within the city and establishes community-development objectives; It coordinates land development with transport, water supply, schools, and other facilities; It proposes ways to accomplish these coordinated objectives over time; It relates the plan to its impact on public revenues and expenditures; and It proposes regulations, policies, and programmes to implement the plan. Thus; the comprehensive plan is the guide to making daily development decisions in terms of their long-range consequences. In this respect town planning controls, subdivision regulations, and building and housing codes are the actual terms of reference for a comprehensive plan.

TOWN PLANNING CONTROLS: Land is allocated and private activities are coordinated with public facilities by means of zoning ordinances and subdivision regulations. A planning regulation or zoning ordinance governs how the land may be used and the size, type, and number of structures that may be built on the land. All land within a city is divided into districts, or zones. In these districts certain land uses are allowed by right, and general restrictions on building height, bulk, and use are specified. The regulations carry out the land allocations recommended in the comprehensive plan. Specific locations are given for different types of residences, industries, and businesses. Specific numbers are given for allowable heights of buildings, coverage of a lot, and density. Allowable land uses are specified for each area, including special conditions such as required off-street parking. Most regulations are termed matter-ofright; if the specified requirements are met a permit will be given. Other regulations provide general standards with considerable flexibility in the mixture of building uses or the building design. These require more extensive review before approval.

SUBDIVISION REGULATIONS: The conversion of raw land (construction on previously undeveloped land) is controlled by subdivision regulations and by site-plan review. These ordinances establish standards of land development by regulating such features as roadway width, drainage requirements, traffic circulation, and lot sizes. Subdivision regulations and site-plan review guide orderly development, protect prospective and current residents from poorly designed buildings or business districts, and ensure that most of the costs of land conversion are borne by those who will benefit from the development, that is, by the developer and the future residents. BUILDING AND HOUSING CODES: Building and housing codes govern the quality and safety of construction of new buildings, as well as subsequent maintenance. In most instances, the codes specify the materials to be used, their minimum quality, and the building components necessary in a structure that is suitable for human occupancy.

SOCIAL, ECONOMIC, AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY: Although the physical appearance and functioning of the city are the traditional focus of town planning, the city's population and economic resources are an important concern. Thus, contemporary town planning continues to focus on physical design, but also addresses the many long-range social and economic decisions that must be made. A city has social needs and economic capital. The city government acts as a purchasing agent for many services needed by residents and businessesfor example, education, water supply, police and fire protection, and recreation. The quality, character, and efficiency of these services require planning to fit needs and desires with funding, with technological change, and with objectives for physical development. Town planning, moreover, should be concerned with providing decent housing (and minimal economic aid) to residents who cannot afford this basic amenity. When local housing is deficient and economic resources permit its upgrading, the town planning department may survey housing conditions and coordinate funding to finance its development and rehabilitation. The city's economic development and redevelopment also fall within the scope of town planning. Economic development plans make use of a mixture of incentives, technical assistance, and marketing to create jobs, establish new industry and business, help existing enterprises to flourish, rehabilitate what is salvageable, and redevelop what cannot be saved. Economic development, however, must go beyond the enterprise and the facility to reach the workers. In a rapidly evolving technological environment with frequent global shifts in trade relations, skilled workers need new skills and unskilled people need some skills. Job training is a necessary part of development strategy, especially for the city's poor and unemployed citizens. Capital improvement programming is the budgeting tool used by planners to schedule the construction and financing of public works. Capital projectssuch as road improvements, street lighting, public parking facilities, and purchase of land for open spacesmust be sorted out and assigned priorities. A programme prepared each year sets the priorities for the next five to six years on projects needed to implement the comprehensive plan and replace the worn out infrastructure.

In rapidly growing regions, town planners are constantly faced with public facilities that have become inadequate for future development. In declining areas, economic redevelopment is of prime concern. Before any new capital improvements are scheduled, the condition and viability of the neighbourhood must be assessed and strategies for remedy must be adopted. Some declining neighbourhoods require vigorous public development; others should be left to available private development. The urban-renewal movement of the 1940s was insensitive to the cyclical ebbs and flows of city neighbourhoods. From the 1940s through the 1960s it was believed that if an economic function such as business or industry failed, all that was needed was to crop out the decay and clear the land for reuse. In many instances the redevelopment never appeared. The multiple forces that affect neighbourhood changes were ignored or improperly analysed. Town planners now understand that regional, interregional, national, and international economic forces affect a city. They also realize that the effectiveness of plans to bring about a city's continued economic viability depends on the correct analysis and interpretation of these forces. These are the lessons of the shifts in suburban, non-metropolitan, and interregional economic patterns that took place in the 1960s and 1970s. Town planners today are becoming ever more involved with environmental concerns. Environmental planning coordinates development to meet objectives for clean air and water; removal of toxic and other wastes; recycling of resources; energy conservation; protection of wetlands, beaches, hillsides, farmlands, forests, and floodplains; and preservation of wildlife, natural reserves, and rivers. Historic preservation strives to keep important buildings and places as part of the permanent environment and uses them to finance the maintenance costs. Although town planners may report to mayors, city managers, or other officials, their true clients are the people and businesses of the city. Their plans must reflect the interests and priorities of these two groups, and the programmes that are implemented must, at the same time, help the city survive and maintain the quality of life that these groups desire. Political astuteness is required in order to ensure that neighbourhood programmes and priorities will be properly perceived by local and state officials and will stand a chance for implementation. THE FUTURE OF CITIES AND TOWN PLANNING Town planning in the last decades of the 20th century is becoming increasingly involved in setting or executing policy about public services and with delivering these services. Since it is apparent that resources are limited and that global events affect the future of each community, town planning must be done within a framework of national and international planning for mutually sustainable development. The capital infrastructures of many older cities need replacement. Public schools and city hospitals are a shadow of formerly dominant city institutions. For half a century the public was mesmerized by the outer reaches of metropolitan areas. The force of this attraction has been so strong that when travel distances to jobs in the city centre became excessive, companies moved and took the jobs to the suburbs. In the late 20th century, however, the newest generation of adultsyounger than most

city residents, more mobile, frequently childless, and enjoying greater freedom in their living relationshipshas become enamoured of city life. Cities are responding by directing public services and capital improvements towards upgrading the quality of life in those areas that have unique attractions for this new population. In this setting, different groups of city residents have become more sophisticated in pursuing their special interests. They are better informed, understand laws and procedures have greater political skills, and are more militant and persistent. They have learned that planning brings order to change and, thus, they want to influence the planning. In turn, town planners are attempting to balance the demands of competing interests into a dynamic community consensus sufficient to allow decisions to be made. Also, reaction against central planning and in favour of private development in the 1980s and 1990s has led to ambitious experiments in the curtailment of planning controls, sometimesas in London's Docklands redevelopmentwith mixed results. CONCLUSION: In the future, town planning will continue to work under conditions of scarce urban economic resources and will constantly be faced with competing prioritiesof neighbourhoods, interest groups, businesses, and residents.

AR-309: ARCHITECTURE AND TOWN PLANNING (A&TP-B) By: RAVINDAR KUMAR Assistant Professor Department of Architecture and Planning NED University of Engineering and Technology Karachi LECTURE NO: 14 15 TOPIC: PHASES OF PLANNING & PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING 1. INTRODUCTION: It is a grave reality that planning is a process of continuous efforts to address increasing number of problems over the period of time. A planner desires to address these problems with a vision for the future. This vision of a planner required a flexibility of ideas which could incorporate the changing needs of the society. However to begin from the beginning there involved some preconceived principles of panning which could help him in decision making and development of a hierarchy or phases though which planning is carried out in an appropriate manner. 2. PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING: A planner can be defined as An artist of rationality with reference to human activity. It means whatever a planner decides must be reasonable & logical.

Thus the basic principle of planning is the logic and local explanation of all the actions taken & decisions made. Secondly the process of planning the human environment requires an ability to analyze and comprehend existing situation in the contact of physical, Social, Economic & Political realities. Therefore second basic principle of planning is the analysis & interpretation of current scenario with the acquired skills & intellect to plan for future. Thirdly by definition the concept of planning can be defined as Pre thinking & pre arranging things before an event takes place so as a good result can be achieved. Thus the principles of planning vary with each context and author who defines principles of planning.

According to G.K. Hiraskar, the main principles of planning may be summarized in three words i.e. Health, convenience and beauty. From Health he meant promotion & creation of healthy environment for both rich & poor to live work or relax. This will be possible when use of land may be made appropriate or the division of land for various uses & zones may be made appropriate. From convenience he meant, fulfillment of various needs of the community such as, Social, Economic, Cultural, Public (Utilities). From beauty he meant, to pressure the individuality of town and aesthetics in the design of all physical elements in the city. Similarly, Abir Bandy Opadhyay defines that principles of planning may vary with each definition of planning established by an author. Every new book of planning offers at least one new variation in

the definition of planning. Thus the principles of planning are fluid in nature & vary as per time & space and people who established them logically & rationally. In current time, The planners established the principles of planning from four major directions i.e. through quantitative techniques, aesthetic considerations, political behavioral imperatives and social welfare concerns. In each context the principles of planning differs & show its own rational. The quantitative techniques means, physical design at city scale and at many other scales by use of mathematical models, electronic days processing, systems analysis & more scientific under pining to formulate public policy. Aesthetic consideration means the principles of design applied to the physical open spaces, buildings & activities or more appropriately it can be descried that, aesthetic principles of planning includes.

i) Design by government of an entire city. ii) Control of key facades of the city like the major arteries & boulevard. iii) Design of publicly owned properties like public buildings parks & highways. iv) Rebuilding of deteriorated areas through measure like urban renewal, beautification & acquisition of open space.

Political / Behavioral imperatives means that planners are not aloof from policies and are attached with local government and planning commissions ^ they seek to implant their plans. Thus the principles of planning from this view point establish a link of Power Structure of community, professionals and public institutions to implant public proposals. Thus citizen participation is the basic principle of planning to develop workable program for physical development in any context. The social welfare concerns means establishing such principles of planning in which not only the physical improvement occurs but it should also address the issue of social inequality, economic inequality, poverty, discrimination, lack of education and physical deterioration of urban poor and low-income group. Conclusively if one summarize the principles of planning it would be evident that, different rational gives impetus to planning principles and it is problem specific, time specific location specific, community specific, institutions specific and based on the decision markers & sate holders of the society for which planning is to be carried out. 3. PHASES OF PLANNING: The phases of planning can also be defined as the planning process. The planning process requires a logical sequence of interrelated facts on which an argument or scheme is formulated, tested & proved. In 1947 Town & Country Planning Act of UK defines an approach of planning which was based on three logical steps or phases i.e. Survey, Analysis and Plan . It results in a static, inflexible once & for all time Master plan with provision of five yearly review. However its process was incapable of incorporating changing events. The basic reason behind which was the process of beginning till end. Where as planning is such discipline of knowledge which is never ending due to changing circumstances and dynamic contexts which required planning processes to be continuative in nature.

 It should not present a final definite panacea, however it should be able to for see, guide & influence the change. Planning is concerned about future. Therefore planning process must take, a long term perspective of short term occurrences and it should have an adaptability to review, modify and apply. The aim of planning is not specify the nature size & conditions to come in future but rather planning needs to establish a procedure or frame work which can manipulate the future events in desired direction. To achieve this objective it is necessary to clarify the major aims of the project or in other words, what are the desire social, economic political and physical directions. These aims & objective of plans will provide a standard through which the performance of a plan can be judged & alternative plans can be developed. As the planning process need a continuity, adaptability and revision therefore planning decisions shall be flexible ad requires a cyclic process. This cyclic process can be demonstrated by some interrelated steps which can be termed as planning process or phases of planning. 4. SEVEN STEPS OF PLANNING PROCESS: There are various opinions regarding the nature and number of steps involved in planning process. However, according to John RatCliffe there are seven steps of planning process or the planning process can be outlined in seven phases. PHASE 1: The first phase of planning process is surveying & mapping of the context & its appraisal. It means to identify the individuals, organizations, institutions, stake holders and activities of any context in which planning might function to redress any imbalance & anomaly of that context. PHASE 2: The second phase of planning process is to formulate broad based community goals, which reflects over all demands and desires of the community at large. Or to test the political temperature and the criteria through which the plan shall be assessed. For example, to provide better standard of housing throughout the local authority area or to ensure that adequate open spaces shall be provided to the community at the walking distance. Form these broad goals tactical decisions can be made. PHASE 3: The third phase of planning process is the identification of objective which is more precise to achieve community goals. For example to achieve better standard of housing one requires a policy of rehabilitation or redevelopment or combination of both. This can be dome through public or private sector development or through joint venture. The establishment of community goals & objectives requires an extensive consultative process & public private partnership to develop priorities of the society i.e. to develop more schools or install new sewerage system. PHASE 4: The phase fourth of planning process is to develop possible alternatives, which means the established goals & objective shall be examined and complied and course of action shall be developed. There are might be more than one course of actions which are constrained by financial,

legal social and political ground realities. In this phase of planning all the components of solution to each objective which can fulfill a goal may be analyzed & tested. In this way the potential policies are formulated and alternative strategies are established. PHASE 5: The phase five of planning process is evaluation of all the course of actions with a comparative analysis & measurement. In this phase some strategies will be eliminated immediately due to physical, social, economic or political reasons. Where as other strategies may require detailed analysis such as cost benefit analysis, financial appraisal and goal achievement matrix or SWOT analysis. This evaluation will assess & test the performance of each strategy or policy with respect to each objective & goal of plan. PHASE 6: The sixth phase of planning process is implementation of chosen plan. This implementation phase has two major effects. One is the positive action on behalf of planning authority and other is stimulation of private sector enterprise through public sector efforts. In this phase a large amount of control and regulation over development takes place where private sector is supported and informal sector is restricted. PHASE 7: Seventh phase of planning process is the Monitoring & review. Because once the plan is operational it is an abject need to scrutinize the plan with continuous surveillance regarding its working & impacts it generates. In this monitoring stage; the performance of policies is judged through its effectiveness and efficiency. However it may also address the changing circumstance and the adjustments in the plan accordingly. For example in original plan it was indicated that in first five years population growth shall be 100000 and the physical expansion shall take place accordingly. However after 2 years the growth of population has increase many fold than it requires adjustments to provide all the developments proportionately. Thus a careful and continuous monitoring becomes a regular feature of planning process and there shall be given permission in plan for additional planning. Especially it become a major issue in planning process that a change in political power occurs at local or national level which changes the whole scenario of the plan, because the over all goals & objective may have changed. Thus such kind of ever changing factors makes the planning process an endless cycle with dynamic and ever changing situations. 5. CONCLUSION: Conclusively the planning process can be summarized in a series of phases and steps such as:

Preliminary Study (Contextual Appraisal). Formulation of Goals (Public Participation / Views of People). Identification of Objectives (Public Demand & Details of Policy & Plan). Preparation of Alternative Strategies (Various Courses of Actions). Evaluation (Strategy for enforcement by Considering the Physical, Social, Economic & Political Realities). Implementation (Public Private Partnerships, Regulation and Control over Development). Monitoring & Review (Redefining Goals & Objectives with Changing Socio-Political Situations).

 Apart from aforementioned process it must be remembered that planning is no more a traditional landuse planning or physical planning. The old paradigm has been shifted now and become more concerned with Physical, Social, Economic & Political ground realties. Especially a Sustainability dimension is further added in the planning process. Therefore no planning process is ultimate and no plan is final because no matter how much sophisticated techniques are applied in any planning process it will always be an issue of debate dialogue & discussion on goals & objectives of plan which are fluid in nature. Furthermore; one has to analyze the local context and the manner in which planning of city is carried out in the past because in some contexts the planning is not considered as a process of improving the city but merely an attempt to have personal gains for decision makers in terms of physical, social, economic and political prosperity. Thus; a planner needs to be clever enough to foresee, predict, interpret and address the changes and transformations that took place in his / her context and appropriately accommodate the changing scenario to implement his / her visions into reality. REFERENCES: 1. Seeley. J., What is Planning: Definition & Strategy, Journal of the American Institute of Planners, May 1964. 2. G.K. Hiraskar is the author of the book, Fundamentals of Town Planning, 1993, Published by Dhanpat Rai & Sons, 1682, Nai Sarak, Delhi 110006, India. 3. Abir Bandy Opadhyay is the author of Book, Text Book of Town Planning, January 2000, Published by Arunbha Sen, Books and Allied (P) Ltd. 8/1 Chintamoni Das Lane, Calcutta 700009 India. 4. William I. Goodman & Eric. C. Freund, Principles & Practice of Urban Planning, 1968; Published by the International City Managers Association, 1140 Connecticut Avenue, N. W. Washington D.C. 20036, USA. 5. John RatCliffe, An Introduction to Town & Country Planning, 1947, Published by Hutchinson & Co (Publishers) Ltd. 3 Fitzroy Square, London WI, United Kingdom.

AR-309: ARCHITECTURE AND TOWN PLANNING (A&TP-B) By RAVINDAR KUMAR Assistant Professor Department of Architecture and Planning NED University of Engineering and Technology Karachi LECTURE NO: 16, 17, 18, and 19 TOPIC: COMMUNICATION (ROADS, RAILWAYS, AIRPORTS AND HARBORS) INTRODUCTION: Cities are the engines of our civilization, where specialized services are available for our living, working and recreation. It is a grave reality that no city can be termed as a good city which does not possess efficient communication system. Without good communication system even the concept of city can not be comprehended. It is such integral part of city which shapes the city dynamics & makes its morphology. Communication is the basis of the existence of city. It is the means of communication which defines the significance of any city. According to John Rat Cliffe[1], The greater the degree of specialization, development & growth in society, the greater the degree of dependence among urban activities, the greater the extent of movement between them; this movement and communication in city thus determines the location of activities and the use of land. Keeping this statement in mind it is quite significant for a physical land use planner to understand the means of communication within a city and location of activities accordingly or more appropriately it can be said that efficient communication is the key to direct landuse patterns in the city. Therefore the understanding of communication systems is a prerequisite for a good planner. The second major perspective on communication is that, Perhaps the greatest single factor upon which the success of human organizations depends is the ability to communicate. The revolution brought about by the development of communication means has had profound affects upon human society.[2] Because communication increased the centralization in business and government; they have stretched the vision of the communities and amalgamated culture, arts and techniques and regional communications facilities with all other national endeavors. The national, regional and local authorities always stress upon city planners to provide the components of communication in urban plans because by its very nature the means of communication makes the nervous system of the city. Thus the aforementioned perspectives on communication lead us to variety of issues and the depth that possessed within the term communication itself. The term communication, may refer to transportation, whether, road network, railways, airways or water ways. Communication may also refer to telephone, radio, telegraph, television, internet, mobiles & fax. The term communication can also be defined with respect to news papers, magazines, Journals, reports, books, professional papers and bulletin. However, the focus in current discussion is to evaluate communication as a whole in the urban planning context and a special stress is given to communication with respect to transportation.

COMMUNICATION WITH REFERENCE TO TRANSPORTATION: For an appropriate and rapid growth and development of a city a good network of roads, railways, airways & waterways quite essential. As the parks, gardens & open spaces are the lungs of the city. Similarly roads & railways are the arteries of the city & Airways & waterways bring the blood circulation or the trade & commerce to the city. The layout of roads & railway within a city is determined by zones within a city, where as types of roads determines the shape & size of hosing plots. Thus the roads & streets plan can be considered as the foundation of a town plan. RETROSPECT OF COMMUNICATION & TRANSPORT: Similarly Airways, Waterways & Railways provides the reason for existence to the city. In early times, the transport was on head-loaded and animal loaded such as horses, bullocks, camels, mules & elephants etc. Then emerged the animal driven vehicles like bullock carts & Tongas in which the speed & carrying capacity was limited. Then with the invention of stream engine local trains came into being & there occurs mass transportation of goods & passengers. Then with electricity trains started running on roads & then emerged automobile industry & become the popular means of transportation due to high speed & flexibility. Then cities become crowded with these automobiles & all the open lands in cities are utilized for Railways, Tube Railways & Rapid Transit system. In all these development road system was always been the major aspect of transport system and in developed countries auto mobile population now reached up to half of the human population. Where as the space requirements of these automobiles become more than human beings themselves, & roads have failed to fit in with the requirements of vehicles. Thus the transportation problems are quite evident in each growing city. ROADS & ROAD NETWORK: The principle element of communication & transportation is Road.

FUNCTION & NECESSITY: Roads has four basic functions i.e. Movement of People & Goods, Access to Residential Places, Provision of Air & Light to Building & Provision of Services & Utilities both over head & underground.[3] CLASSIFICATION IN GENERAL: The classification of roads occurs on four variables i.e. type of construction gives us names like, Earth, Murum Roads, Mettle Roads, Asphalt Roads and Concrete Roads. The jurisdictions give us names like Local Road, District Roads, State Highways, & National High Ways. Shape geometry defines roads like, rectangular road, ring road, diagonal road, radial road & circular road. The function of road gives us names like, residential road, commercial road or avenue, promenade (along sea side or natural feature) boulevard and park ways. CLASSIFICATION IN URBAN CONTEXT: Apart from these classifications the urban roads are classified specifically in four categories as per their significance. These include, arterial roads, secondary or sub-arterial roads, local roads & other roads. Arterial roads are those which connect the town with state highway or national highway. They pass through the city and made for fast moving traffic with heavy load of passengers & goods. They

are especially planned straight by avoiding sharp curves with not less than 25-30 meters width. Secondary or sub arterial roads are known as major roads of city connecting major parts of the city. They are especially designed for comparatively slow moving traffic and act as link between arterial roads & local roads. The local roads are known as minor roads to provide access to buildings. They are not linked. They are not lined with arterial roads & processes no through traffic. They are especially designed as per contours of land with minimum 7-10 meters width. The other urban roads are bypass roads, outer & inner ring roads, express ways & free ways. The bypass roads are those which are made to avoid congested city areas, to increase the speed of vehicles with smooth flow & to save time & fuel. They are also known as loop-roads. The outer & inner ring roads are in the form of ring within & surrounding town to divert through traffic from city & act as bypass & reduce the traffic congestion from town. The express ways mainly function as arterial roads within mega cities to accommodate growth of traffic. They are especially designed with easy gradients & smooth curves to carry speedy & safe traffic & do not form a part of regular street system. They are comparable next to railway in cost and capacity of traffic. Free ways are special routes to carry fast moving traffic. They are specifically designed with high standard of alignment, clear visibility, wide carriage way, easy gradient & smooth curves; the free ways function as arterial roads passing around city with controlled access. METROPOLITAN RAILWAYS: Another major element of communication and transport is Railways & Rail Network. It is an evident fact that, railways gave impetus to industrial revolution, where as metropolitan railway was been a significant element of city today. It is a grave reality that, urban rail transport has played an important role and will continue to play a vital part in creating & sustaining the cities of today & tomorrow DEFINITION & MEANING: The term Metropolitan Railways covers a great variety of facilities; Primarily it includes rapid transit facilities of railway which includes self contained right of way and stations located below & above ground level. The metropolitan railways are primarily designed to handle relatively heavy volumes of inner urban and suburban traffic over medium distance. Its major advantage is of higher speed (Commercial Speed) if compared with other public transport on congested roads of city. Its only disadvantage is the longer walks to and form stations. TYPES & CLASSIFICATION: The metropolitan railways can be divided in various types, system & classifications. i.e. subways, underground, Metro, Metropolitano, U. Bahn, Tunnel Bahn & S. B. Hahn Systems.[4] These types & classification of metropolitan railways are based on speed facilities & mode of transport in each context. For instance the faster urban railways are related to main line suburban railways such as S. Bahn, Reseau Express Regional etc. Such as underground street cars, pre-metro, U-strassen bahn etc. in addition to there are some non typical modes of urban railway such as funicular and these are also known as inner-urban rapid transit facilities. MODERN DEVELOPMENTS: After this brief background of metropolitan railways it is necessary to understand the modern development in the metropolitan railways. Basically there are four types of development occurred in

metropolitan railways i.e. S. Bahn System, underground street cars, Non typical modes & subways. S. BAHN SYSTEMS: S. Bahn is a German term which is originally derived from the from the metropolitan railways system in Berlin. The original terminology of S. Bahn, emerged from StadtRingund Vorvobahnen[5] which means, city, circle and suburban railways. However, it would be inconvenient to pronounce the term in totality therefore S. Bahn emerged as a generic term. It denotes those railways that are associated with the suburban sections of the main lines. The S. Bahn systems mainly developed to promote the growth of conurbations or suburban growth. They are used to support the suburban commuter traffic along the radial lines to the central areas. Secondly these are developed to segregate the suburban and long distance railway services. With this system the commuters become able to reach their in town destination without any change. The S. Bahn Systems are also termed as cross links & inner urban transport due to their similarly of function with spaced stations & higher commercial speed. The S. Bahn systems developed in various mega cities of the world such as there are two links in Berlin and Hamburg, the junction lines in Brussels, S Bane in Copenhagen, Schnell bahn in Vienna, Blue trains in Glasgow, new S. Bahn in Munich & Frankfurt. Similarly there are advanced S. Bahn System are built Ruhr region of Germany i.e. in Stuttgart, Manchester, Liver Pool & Melbourne. UNDERGROUND STREET CARS: The concept of underground street can mainly developed in Boston, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Oslo and Vienna. Basically underground street cars are developed to distinguish between subways and conventional street cars along the surface roads on the basis of speed & capacity scales. The underground street cars are promoted for in-town tunnel sections operations with or without signaling systems. These are also termed as short capacity. Though there is a great decline in underground street cars all over the world, however in Germany & Belgium these are mainly developed with an intension to serve as an intermediate stage to a full-fledged subway. Furthermore the concept of underground street cars can be understood with the notion that these are the low capacity underground railways which are intended to achieve sped and to save energy & resources. NON TYPICAL MODES OF METROPOLITAN RAILWAY: In few cases urban transport demands for non typical modes of Metropolitan Railway due to some geographical or topographical reasons; from these non typical modes of metropolitan railway the prominent examples are of Schwebebahn above the river of Wuppertal, the funicular railways in Haifa & Istanbul and the rack railways LausanneQuehy etc[6]. Mainly the list of non typical modes of Railways shall continue in the future due to revived modes of rail transport, however at present the mono-rails of various types & hover trains are few more examples of non typical modes of metropolitan railway. METROPOLITAN SUBWAYS: The metropolitan railways have always been termed as fringe mode of transport. From these fringe modes there is a great majority of subways or rapid transit railways. As the cities began to spread & the streets & road became increasingly congested the need arose for faster & unencumbered in town railways which were primarily designed to cope with heavy volumes of inner-urban traffic to heavily build up areas of city center. These rapid transit railways or sub ways

were built booth above & below the ground. In many cases these in town subways or elevated railway lines were later extended to suburban areas. Initially these rapid-transit facilities were confined to only metropolitan cities, however later on it was also developed in smaller size cities due to three basic reasons. i.e. growth of traffic congestion in streets & roads, due to geographical and topographical reasons & due to concentration of commuter traffic on few corridors of city. The cities of Stockholm & Helsinki are the examples of such smaller cities where threes subways developed. Currently it is world wide recognized that, rapid transit facilities are most efficient means of moving great number of people safely & quickly through congested urban areas. Secondly the rapid transit facilities are not only of direct benefit to the passengers using them but it is also significant for community at large. Because it helps to alleviate street congestion, promote mobility of labor and revitalize the central business districts which are endangered with congestion & pollution. As the construction and operation of rapidtransit facilities is a mega project of mega activity; therefore increasingly it is regarded as the task of public authorities. Because the capital cost of such projects is quite huge & one can not insist on its commercial viability. However in recent years large corporate institutions & international funding agencies like World Bank are also interested in such project. Therefore there established such concepts like BOOT (Built, Own, Operate & Transfer) or BOT (Built, Operate & Transfer) through which such projects are made in even developing countries. RETROSPECT OF SUBWAY DEVELOPMENT IN THE WORLD: The first subways developed in 1863 in London which was stream operated. However after the advent of electrification soon the subway become universal mode of traction. With the passage of time there occurred technical & progressive improvement in subways. Such as Tunneling method greatly improved all kinds of tunnels i.e. deep level, open & covered, rock tunneling etc. Similarly rolling stock & performance improved with some innovations like rubber-tried traction, signaling & telecommunication. Through modern electronics highly sophisticated automatic train operation & fare collection process came into being. The track capacities also varied to great extent. For instance the track capacity reached up to 40 trains per hour however; for greater reliability & lower maximum facilities around thirty to thirty six trains per hour are often preferred. There train capacity also improved greatly with design and number of cars with crush load capacity of 1500 passengers per train or more during a full peak. Similarly the commercial speed depends on station spacing, rolling stock and performance which range from 15 to 25 miles per hour or 22 to 40 kilometer per hour. In March 1973 rapid transit facilities of subway type metropolitan railway were in operation in thirty eight cities of the world. In addition to that, new rapid transit lies of subway type were under construction or in advance state of planning in 28 cities. Similarly at least twenty other cities have plans for rapid transit facilities.[7] It also includes the city of Karachi Pakistan. Following are some interesting facts regarding subways development in the world. Among existing subway systems, London has greatest route length over 250 miles or 400 kilometers. Moscow had largest number of passengers approximately 1500 millions per annum. New York has greatest number of stations nearly 500, vehicles over 7000 and staff of 27000. AIRWAYS & AIR TRANSPORT: Since 1952 world air passenger traffic has been increasing at the rate of 14.5 percent annually where as air freight traffic is increasing by 17.5 percent annually.[8] It is a grave reality that growth of air transport effects the development of regional & national economics and promotes International trade. The travel & tourism industries are also a major influence on national economics

and constitute the most valuable parameter of international trade. TYPES OF AIR TRAFFIC: Basically there are two major types of air traffic. i.e. air carrier traffic and general aviation. The details of which is as follows: AIR CARRIER TRAFFIC: These types of air traffic usually related to public sector of air transport industry which offer air services as regular scheduled services or as non-scheduled or on charter basis services for the carriage of both international & domestic passengers & freight traffic. GENERAL AVIATION: This type of air traffic covers all the other civil aviation which serves the specific private users, such as Business & Personal travel, agricultural spraying, aerial survey or self piloted recreational flying. AIR TRAFFIC GROWTH: One of the significant elements of air ways & air transport is growth of air traffic which causes both positive and negative impacts. For instance the advantage of air traffic growth is reduction in cost of air travel; which cause progressive improvements in air craft performance in terms of increase in pay load, speed and range. Where as the disadvantages of air traffic growth & increasing size and performance of the air craft are growing problems of airport congestion, loss of amenity and congestion of ground transportation between airports in major urban centers. Furthermore the planning implications of the size and location of major airports affects the size, location and traffic pattern of urban and regional transportation facilities. Additionally, a major airport is often a major feature in the local economy and becomes a strong determinant of local land use pattern & distribution of population and employment. FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS IN AIRWAYS & AIR TRANSPORT: It is an evident fact that, continued growth in air traffic and airport congestion creates an interest for the development of Short take off and landing (STOL) and Vertical take off and landing (VTOL) air craft for wide spread use of air carriers. The commercial STOL and VTOL air craft would be smaller than the conventional short haul air crafts and would operate on inner city routes or forum special air ports which are more centrally located within a city. This it would reduce the travel time from city center to a major air port. The adoption of STOL and VTOL serve better if new short landing strips, air corridors and approach paths are developed separate from those used by conventional air craft. Currently the operating & development cost of STOL and VTOL is high than conventional air traveling. However in future, the further improvements in technology shall help to remove this difference and their may be tough competition. It is quite evident that the size of air craft shall increase in future for medium and long haul services. Whereas; it is uncertain that what would be the impact of super sonic passenger services. AIRPORTS & ITS DEVELOPMENT: The basic premise of an efficient air ways transport is air port & its development. Without understanding the air port & its development the concept of air ways & air transport can not be comprehended. Basically these are three major aspects of regarding air port & its development. i.e.

Function, Location and Facilities and Airport. FUNCTIONS OF AN AIRPORT: The primary function of an airport is to provide safe & efficient means of interchange between air transportation and ground transportation. Secondly the airport is the center from which control is exercised over air traffic on defined air routes and on approaches to air ports. The airports differ in terms of size, nature of traffic handled and the types of air traffic control. In USA the federal aviation authority (FAA) developed a classification of urban areas with respect to air traffic hub or the number of passenger handled at the airport[9]. LOCATION OF AN AIRPORT: The total land area required for an airport is based on three major determinants.

a) Nature and Scale of traffic handled and its rate of growth. b) Physical and climatic characteristics of site. c) Performance characteristics of current & future air crafts i.e. number, length and configuration of run ways required. Similarly, for the acceptable location of airports there are three significant operational factors.

a) Air traffic control requirements i.e. minimal interference to and from traffic control operations of neighboring airports. b) Height obstructions and other navigational hazards, i.e. tall buildings, smoke and birds. c) Prevalent weather conditions including wind distribution and incidence of flog and snow. Apart from these operational factors there are also some significant planning & social factors which affects the location of an airport. For instance:

a) The location of airport requires a balance between danger & noise disturbance. b) Provision of good accessibility from the center of population it serves. c) Travel time and costs of surface transport to the airport. d) Connection to rapid transit system, highways and public private transport etc. PLANNING & DESIGN OF AIRPORT FACILITIES: From the view point of planning & designing of an airport facility one of the important goal is to arrange free flow of passengers and goods. There shall be a balance of capacity throughout in all facilities in airport; so as the risk of congestion may be minimized; because the congestion may affect the operating efficiency of entire airport complex. There are two types of functional areas within an airport i.e. Operational Areas or Air Side Areas and Terminal Areas or Land Side Areas. AIR SIDE AREAS: These include such facilities as runways, taxiways and aircrafts holding areas. In the design & performance of these facilities special care is given to system of air traffic control which determines

the operational capacity of an airport, and the servicing and maintenance areas or the operational buildings of the airport. LAND SIDE AREAS: Primarily these include such buildings & facilities which provide a means of inter change for both passengers and goods or between ground transport and air transport. The design concepts for land side areas evolved from simple low capacity terminal buildings to high capacity layouts which are popularly termed as Finger Terminals. The current design concept is to decentralize certain functions such as, ticketing, baggage handling & passenger waiting & sorting areas into a separate smaller units or satellites. Secondly it is the main design criteria to provide the passenger terminals with a convenient and efficient access to both public & private land transport to adequate parking facilities by avoiding long walking distances within terminals. Thirdly now it is mandatory that, there shall be efficient baggage handling & smooth processing of passengers through governmental controls i.e. Customers, Immigration & Health. Finally a flexible layout that can accommodate rapid technological change & expression is a pre-requisite of contemporary airport design. ROLE OF A CIVIL ENGINEER IN AIRPORT DESIGN: According to Professor A. K. Bhatti[10] who describes in his book, Town Planning for the Third World, that, A Civil Engineer has nothing to do any thing about the design & manufacture of an aircraft nor about its navigation as such; However, he is expected to do all about its landing and the accommodation of all the activities which are to be carried out with respect to the passenger and the cargo service. He has to design structurally very strong & durable pavement for very heavy wheel-loads of the aircraft. The present day airport design therefore involves various aspects of civil engineering. i.e. pavements, roads leading to airport, storm water drainage, water supply, building, hangers and a number of installations. Thus a civil engineer is responsible for basic infrastructure for an airport and his responsibility is quite high with respect to security of passengers. WATER WAYS, SEA PORTS, HARBORS & DOCKS: It is a grave reality that, the economic planning of any region is profoundly based on the availability of commercial docks and harbors in the area because at micro scale it affects the Land use of an urban area & at macro scale location of major urban centers depends upon it. NEED OF PORTS & HARBOR: The Sea Ports are mainly required to boost any economy essentially for import & export of goods and due to increase in trade & commerce. Especially there is an abject need of deep water berths & dry are steadily increasing in size and dead weight of minimum 45000 tons. Apart from that there is a greater demand of docks & seaports due to oil cargo which cause phenomenal expansion of ports all over the western world. RETROSPECT OF PORTS & HARBOR: The earlier largest port of the world is developed at Rotterdam, for such vessels mentioned above; however after the Second World War harbors & seaports were rebuilt to accommodate the larger ships of at least 100000 tons dead weight. It is necessary to mentioned here, that after the construction of under water oil pipe lines the need for such larger ports reduced to greater extent throughout the world. However; whenever such pipelines are in evident the demand for larger ports

increases. IMPACTS OF PORT & HARBOR: The major impact of large seaports emerges at the dockyard area in the city; because it creates congestion & change in landuse to evident need for large storage space and in land or up country transport facilities. EFFICIENCY OF PORT & HARBOR: The in land transport system contributes greatly to port efficiency because it is necessary to make earlier arrangements for delivery of exports & collection of impact from the docks as efficient as possible. Another major issue regarding sea ports and docks is the shift of goods transport from railways to roadways. It requires quite profound adjustments. A planner must make constant surveillance of the reversal of these trends and the landuse potentials around the port so as the surrounding sites can be utilized for taking best economic advantage. DEFINITIONS OF PORT & HARBOR: Furthermore, according to, Akhter. K. Bhatti[11], Harbor is an area of the sea so protected naturally or artificially, as to afford shelter and refuge to the vessels during storms. Thus it signifies the security provided by harbor to vessels. A harbor can also be termed as a place where vessels could be built, launched or repaired and where ships could lie at an anchor with safety & security during loading & un-loading operation of cargo & people. PORT & HARBOR CLASSIFICATION: According to Encyclopedia Britannica, a harbor is a partly enclosed protected water area to provide safe and suitable accommodation for vessels seeking refuge, supplies, refueling, repairs or the transfer of cargo. Whereas; port is a terminus or an intermediate station in the sea-route port more appropriately it can be said that, when terminal facilities are added to a harbor it can be termed as port. The classification of harbors & ports can be made on three basic determinants, i.e. Nature, Function & Location. NATURAL CLASSIFICATION: The natural classification of harbor is of three types. i.e. Natural Harbor, Semi-natural Harbor & Artificial Harbor. NATURAL HARBOR: It is the harbor which is protecting from storms and waves through natural land contours & rocky out crops or Islands. The basic issue in natural harbor design is the formation of its entrance in such a manner to ensure calm in the harbor. The harbors of New York, London, Sydney & Bombay can be cited as natural harbors. SEMI-NATURAL HARBOR: It is the harbor which is protected on sides by head land i.e. Cape, Peninsula, Cliff, Bluff etc. The Semi-Natural Harbor may be in the form of Ply month or pocket in which the design issue is to protect only the entrance of harbor for navigation.

ARTIFICIAL HARBOR: It is the man made harbor, which is protected from storms and waves through break water (i.e. which breaks the speed limit of waves). The artificial harbor can be created or design through dredging and for protection or break water a rubble mound or vertical wall is made. FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION: The functional classification of harbor is again of three types, i.e. Commercial Harbor, Military Harbor and Harbor of Refuge. COMMERCIAL HARBOR: From economic point of view the commercial harbor is most significant of all harbor types because its main function is to accommodate mercantile marine, for loading / unloading of cargo and for transaction of trade. The commercial harbors have special requirements of docks, quays, transit sheds, ware housing, overhauling machinery and means of communication such as roads & railways. The commercial harbors are mainly developed long sea cots, mouth of rivers, inside estuaries and inside or along banks of rivers & canals. Most of the time commercial harbors are either the part of a bigger harbor complex or make independently as units of single commodity terminals such as oil terminal, coal port, ore port or fishery harbor for fishing trawlers. Some of the significant examples of these specialized unit purpose commercial harbors are Karachi Port, Bin Qasim, Gwadar Port, Sydney Port, San Francisco, London, & New York Harbors. MILITARY HARBOR: The military harbor is also known as naval Bas. The main purpose of military harbor is obviously to accommodate, Naval Crafts & to serve as a supply depot. The significant examples of Military Harbor are Hawaii and Pearl Harbor. In case of Karachi & Bombay the harbors are essentially a commercial complex with oil terminals, general cargo births and a naval base which is the unique examples. HARBOR OF REFUGE: Such harbors which provide shelter & security to vessels in case of sudden storms are known as harbors of Refuge. These harbors are developed & located along dangerous coast with easily accessible stations. There are three basic requirements of harbors of refuge i.e. ready accessibility, sea & commodious anchorage and facilities for obtaining supplies & to execute minor repairs. The size of refuge harbor is based on maximum number of ships to be accommodated and the size of largest vessels likely to visit the harbor. The harbor of refuge also used as naval bases during war times & equipped with adequate means of defense. The popular examples of Refuge harbors are, Sand Bay Harbor, on eastern coast of USA and outer harbor of Madras and Vishakhapatnam which are both refuge & commercial harbors. LOCATION CLASSIFICATION: From location view point harbors can be classified in four basic types. It includes sea or ocean harbor, river & estuary harbor, canal harbor and Lake Harbor. HARBOR REQUIREMENTS & MAIN FEATURES: There are six basic requirements of harbors and ten basic features. The harbor requirements includes, easy access, adequate accommodation, safe anchorage, repair facilities, supplies facilities

and other requirements as Jetties, Breaths, Transit Sheds, Ware Housing, Cranes, Hotels, Banks, Post Office, Roads & Railways. The main feature of harbor are, appropriate entrance, approach channels both inner & outer, turning basin, Shelter Basin, Break waters, Wharves and Quays, Jetties & Piers, Lock & Located Basin, Dry Docks and Slipway and Ancillaries, including locating moorings, anchor, lights, transit shed ware housing, fire protection towers etc. PLANNING & DESIGN OF HARBORS: There are four major factors or determinants of harbor provision in a city. These include need, economic justification, expected volume of commerce and inland communication availability. The need of harbor primarily emerges due to military reasons. i.e. Naval Base or Air Base. Secondly the growth of town may reach to such extent when foreign trade & commerce become an abject need of city. Thirdly if the city, start producing certain products or commodity which requires to be exported then port develops. For instance port Bin Qasim in Karachi developed due to steel mill in the city. The economic justification is evaluated on the basis of income and social benefits above the capital cost & operating cost of harbor. The expected volume of commerce required extensive studies & surveys of city & its hinter lands produce. The inland communication availability is judged by existing roads, rail, air and inland waterway transportation system. For the decision regarding location of harbor various types of data is collected. It includes, site investigation, hydrographic charts, which consists information about depth of water, character of bottom and range of tides. The other data includes winds movement, temperature and rainfall, aerial contour mapping, etc. The final site selection is based on maximum natural protection from wind & waves, water depth to accommodate large ships, appropriate sea bed which could ship anchors with less capital, maintenance and dredging cost. After selection of site next step is to develop port layout & cost estimates. Though there is no specific rule to make the layout of the harbor; however the planner must consider the littoral drift, protection from storm water, wharves & jetties, and erosion and siltation process.

CONCLUSION: On the basis of aforementioned discussions following conclusions are drawn. The term communication addresses a wide range of phenomenon; however for a Civil Engineer it is necessary to understand it from the view point of transportation & especially in an urban context. With respect to transportation in urban context communication deals with, road ways & road network, metropolitan rail ways, air ways & air transport, and finally water ways, sea ports, harbors, and docks. All communication modes in an urban context have its own dynamics and details. For instance the primary element in urban context is the roads and their classification. Secondly the metropolitan rail ways has become an especially domain of communication in urban context. It includes, S. Bahn Systems, Underground Street Cars, Non Typical Modes of Metropolitan Railway and Subways. Thirdly it is quite necessary that in urban context how the system of airways, air transport and air ports works. In these respect types of air traffic its growth and future development of air ways & air transport is very significant. Especially the air port & its development in an urban context is quite vital issue to be understood. It includes, function, location planning & design of airport facilities and role of a civil engineer in it. Finally with respect to cities of large size which are located along sea or ocean, rivers & estuaries, canals & lakes the major element of communication is Harbor, Sea port and Waterways. In this regard a civil engineer must understand the dynamics of

harbors which includes its need, impact, types, classification, planning, design & construction of harbors.

REFERENCES: [1] John Rat Cliff is the author of book An Introduction to Town & Country Planning, 1974, Published by Hutchinson & Co. (Publishers) Ltd, 3 Fitzroy Square London WI, United Kingdom. [2] For details please see, Arnold Whittick, Encyclopedia of Urban Planning Published b McGrawHill Book Company, 1974, USA. [3] For details please see, G.K. Hiraskar, Fundamentals of Town Planning, 1993, Published by; Dhanpat Rai & Sons, Nai Sarak, Delhi 11006 India. [4] For Details please see, Metropolitan Railways, by Erwin Rock well, Encyclopedia of Urban Planning by, Arnold Whittick, 1974, Published by McGraw-Hill book Company, New York, USA. [5] Ibid No. 4 [6] Ibid No: 4. [7] Ibid No: 4. [8] For details please see, David Briggs, Air Transport, Encyclopedia of Urban Planning by Arnold Whittick, Published by Mc Grew-Hill Book Company, New York USA. [9] Ibid No: 8. [10] Professor Akhtar K. Bhatti, was Professor of Civil Engineering at Mehran University of Engineering & Technology Jamshoro Sindh Pakistan, & Author of the book, Town Planning for the Third World, 1993, Published by Feroz sons (Pvt) Ltd, Karachi Pakistan. [11] Professor Akhtar. K. Bhatti, was Professor of Civil Engineering at Mehran University of Engineering & Technology Jamshoro Sindh Pakistan, & Author of the book, Town Planning for the Third World, 1993, Published by Feroz Sons (Pvt) Ltd, Karachi Pakistan.

AR-309: ARCHITECTURE AND TOWN PLANNING (A&TP-B) By: RAVINDAR KUMAR Assistant Professor Department of Architecture and Planning NED University of Engineering and Technology Karachi

LECTURE NO: 20 TOPIC: STREET TRAFFIC AND DESIGN INTRODUCTION: If one read the topic Street Traffic and Design at a glance the initial thought that comes to mind and would be interpreted as it is the theme that spells out about the design of traffic in a street. Whereas; if the topic is carefully read again it can be further interpreted as to understand about the definition, types, purpose, functions and activities of a street within a built environment, and design of pedestrian and vehicular traffic in it. In the following this second thought and interpretation is further explained in detail. It include; definitions of street, role of street in built environment, circulation within streets, vehicular traffic in streets, parking for vehicles in streets, pedestrian traffic and vehicular amenities in streets, interaction in streets, identity of streets, streets as distinct from other spaces, and finally the nomenclature of streets. In this way it is believed that the students would have a clear perspective about street traffic and design in Town Planning. DEFINITIONS OF STREET: A Street is a public thoroughfare in the built environment. It is a public parcel of land adjoining buildings in an urban context, on which people may freely assemble, interact, and move about. A Street can be as simple as a level patch of dirt, but is more often paved with a hard, durable surface such as concrete, cobblestone or brick. Portions may also be smoothed with asphalt, embedded with rails, or otherwise prepared to accommodate non-pedestrian traffic. Originally the word "street" simply meant a paved road (Latin: "via strata"). The word "street" is still sometimes used colloquially as a synonym for "road", but city residents and urban planners draw a crucial modern distinction: a road's main function is transportation, while streets facilitate public interaction. Examples of streets include pedestrian streets, alleys, and city-centre streets too crowded for road vehicles to pass. Conversely, highways and motorways are types of roads, but few would refer to them as streets. ROLE OF STREET IN THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT: The street is a public easement, one of the few shared between all sorts of people. As a component of the built environment as ancient as human habitation, the street sustains a range of activities vital to civilization. Its roles are as numerous and diverse as its ever-changing cast of characters. Streets can be loosely categorized as main streets and side streets. Main streets are usually broad with a relatively high level of activity. Commerce and public interaction are more visible on main streets, and vehicles may use them for longer-distance travel. Side streets are quieter, often residential in use and character, and may be used for vehicular parking.

CIRCULATION WITHIN STREETS: Circulation, or less broadly, transportation, is perhaps a street's most visible use, and certainly among the most important. The unrestricted movement of people and goods within a city is essential to its commerce and vitality, and streets provide the physical space for this activity. In the interest of order and efficiency, an effort may be made to segregate different types of traffic. This is usually done by carving a road through the middle for motorists, reserving sidewalks on either side for pedestrians; other arrangements allow for streetcars, trolleys, and even wastewater and rainfall runoff ditches (common in Japan and India). In the mid-20th century, as the automobile threatened to overwhelm city streets with pollution and ghastly accidents, many urban theorists came to see this segregation as not only helpful but necessary in order to maintain mobility. Le Corbusier, for one, perceived an ever-stricter segregation of traffic as an essential affirmation of social order a desirable, and ultimately inevitable, expression of modernity. To this end, proposals were advanced to build "vertical streets" where road vehicles, pedestrians, and trains would each occupy their own levels. Such an arrangement, it was said, would allow for even denser development in the future. These plans were never implemented comprehensively, a fact which today's urban theorists regard as fortunate for vitality and diversity. Rather, vertical segregation is applied on a piecemeal basis, as in sewers, utility poles, depressed highways, elevated railways, common utility ducts, the extensive complex of underground malls surrounding Tokyo Station and the temachi subway station, the elevated pedestrian skyway networks of Minneapolis and Calgary, the underground cities of Atlanta and Montreal, and the multilevel streets in Chicago. Transportation is often misunderstood to be the defining characteristic, or even the sole purpose, of a street. This has not been the case since the word "street" came to be limited to urban situations, and even in the automobile age, is still demonstrably false. A Street may be temporarily blocked to all through traffic in order to secure the space for other uses, such as a street fair, a flea market, children at play, filming a movie, or construction work. Many streets are bracketed by bollards or Jersey barriers so as to keep out vehicles. These measures are often taken in a city's busiest areas, the "destination" districts, when the volume of activity outgrows the capacity of private passenger vehicles to support it. A feature universal to all streets is a human-scale design that gives its users the space and security to feel engaged in their surroundings, whatever through traffic may pass. VEHICULAR TRAFFIC IN STREETS: Despite this, the operator of a motor vehicle may (incompletely) regard a street as merely a thoroughfare for vehicular travel or parking. As far as concerns the driver, a street can be one-way or two-way: vehicles on one-way streets may travel in only one direction, while those on two-way streets may travel both ways. One way streets typically have signs reading "ONE WAY" and an arrow showing the direction of allowed travel. Most two-way streets are wide enough for at least two lanes of traffic. Which lane is for which direction of traffic depends on what country the street is located in. On broader two-way streets, there is often a center line marked down the middle of the street separating those lanes on which vehicular traffic goes in one direction from other lanes in which traffic goes in the opposite direction. Occasionally, there may be a median strip separating lanes of opposing traffic. If there is more than one lane going in one direction on a main street, these

lanes may be separated by intermittent lane lines marked on the street pavement. Side streets often do not have center lines or lane lines.

PARKING FOR VEHICLES IN STREETS: Many streets, especially side streets in residential areas, have an extra lane's width on either or both sides for parallel parking. Most minor side streets allowing free parallel parking do not have pavement markings designating the parking lane. Main streets more often have parking lanes marked. Some streets are too busy or narrow for parking on the side. Sometimes parking on the sides of streets is allowed only at certain times. Curbside signs often state regulations about parking. Some streets, particularly in business areas, may have parking meters into which coins must be paid to allow parking in the adjacent space for a limited time. Other parking meters work on a credit card and ticket basis or pay and display. Parking lane markings on the pavement may designate the meter corresponding to a parking space. Some wide streets with light traffic allow angle parking. PEDESTRIAN TRAFFIC AND VEHICULAR AMENITIES IN STREETS: Where vehicular traffic is allowed on a street, traffic and parking regulatory signs are often placed near the sides. Bordering the driving/parking sides of many urban streets, there are curbs. Usually, there are strips of land beyond the driving/parking parts of the streets owned by the government entity owning the streets. Sidewalks are often located on these public land strips beyond the curbs on one or usually both sides of the street. There may be an unpaved strip of land between the vehicle-drivable part of the street and the sidewalk on either side of the street, which can be called the parkway or tree lawn. Grass and trees are often grown there for landscaping the sides of the street. Alternatively, there may be openings in wider sidewalks in which trees grow. Streets are often lighted at night with streetlights, which are typically located far overhead on tall poles. Beyond these public strips of land are bordered the front of lots commonly owned by private parties. Practically all public streets in Western countries and the majority elsewhere (though not in Japan; see Japanese addressing system) are given a street name or at least a number to identify them and any addresses located along the streets. Alleys typically do not have names. The length of a lot of land along a street is referred to as the frontage of the lot. INTERACTION IN STREETS: A Street may assume the role of a town square for its regulars. Jane Jacobs, an economist and prominent urbanist, wrote extensively on the ways that interaction among the people who live and work on a particular street"eyes on the street"can reduce crime, encourage the exchange of ideas, and generally make the world a better place. IDENTITY OF STREETS: A Street can often serve as the catalyst for the neighborhood's prosperity, culture and solidarity. New Orleans Bourbon Street is famous not only for its active nightlife but also for its role as the center of the citys French Quarter. Similarly, the Bowery has at various times been New York City's main highway, theater district, red-light district, skid row, restaurant supply district, and the center of the nation's underground punk scene. Madison Avenue and Fleet Street are so strongly identified with their respective most famous types of commerce, that their names are sometimes applied to

firms located elsewhere. Other streets mark divisions between neighborhoods of a city. For example, Yonge Street divides Toronto into east and west sides, and East Capitol Street divides Washington, D.C. into north and south. Streets also tend to aggregate establishments of similar nature and character.

East 9th Street in Manhattan, for example, offers a cluster of Japanese restaurants, clothing stores, and cultural venues. In Washington, D.C., 17th Street and P Street are well-known as epicenters of the city's (relatively small) gay culture. Many cities have a Radio Row or Restaurant Row. This phenomenon is the subject of urban location theory in economics. Similarly in Karachi there are various streets with an identity such as recent food streets developed at Burns road and boating basin area. Other examples may include Bottle Gali, Resham Gali of Hyderabad and Larkana etc. STREETS AS DISTINCT FROM OTHER SPACES: A road, like a street, is often paved and used for travel. However, a street is characterized by the degree and quality of street life it facilitates, whereas a road serves primarily as a through passage for road vehicles or (less frequently) pedestrians. Buskers, beggars, boulevardiers, patrons of sidewalk cafs, peoplewatchers, streetwalkers, and a diversity of other characters are habitual users of a street; the same people would not typically be found on a road. In rural and suburban environments where street life is rare, the terms "street" and "road" are frequently considered interchangeable. Still, even here, what is called a "street" is usually a smaller thoroughfare, such as a road within a housing development feeding directly into individual driveways. In the last half of the 20th century these streets often abandoned the tradition of a rigid, rectangular grid, and instead were designed to discourage through traffic. This and other traffic calming methods provided quiet for families and play space for children. Adolescent suburbanites find, in attenuated form, the amenities of street life in shopping malls where vehicles are forbidden. If a road connects places, then a street connects people. One may "hit the road" to see the wonders of the worldJack Kerouac famously chronicled one such journeybut the latest bling will "hit the streets" before it ever appears on a road. It is "on the street" where one hears an interesting rumor, where one bumps into an old acquaintance, where one acquires smarts. One seldom sees a "road" vendor except of fresh produce, or a "road" performer. You'll never find yourself on a long "street" to nowhere or under assault by a violent "road" gang; hence politicians seldom view with alarm the prevalence of "crime in the roads". The street, not the road is home to the homeless unless they are hoboes, and even Kerouac's hero finally returned to find his friends on a New York street. A town square or plaza is a little more likes a street, but a town square is rarely paved with asphalt and may not make any concessions for through traffic at all. NOMENCLATURE OF STREETS: There is a haphazard relationship, at best, between a thoroughfare's function and its name. For example, London's Abbey Road serves all the vital functions of a street, despite its name, and locals are more apt to refer to the "street" outside than the "road". A desolate road in rural Montana, on the other hand, may bear a sign proclaiming it "Davidson Street", but this does not make it a "street" except in the original sense of a paved road. In the United Kingdom many towns will refer to their main thoroughfare as the High Street (in the United States it would be called the Main Street however, occasionally "Main Street" in a city or town is a street other than the de facto main

thoroughfare), and many of the ways leading off it will be named "Road" despite the urban setting. Thus the town's so-called "Roads" will actually be more street-like than a road. Some streets may even be seen as highways. Hurontario Street in Mississauga, Ontario, Canada, is commonly referred to as "Highway 10" even though such a highway designation no longer officially exists. This is probably due to the fact that the street is a modern suburban arterial that was urbanized after decades of having the status and function a true highway, so people continued to use the number because of force of habit. In some other English-speaking countries, such as New Zealand and Australia, cities are often divided by a main "Road," with "Streets" leading from this "Road", or are divided by thoroughfares known as "Streets" or "Roads" with no apparent differentiation between the two. In Auckland, for example, the main shopping precinct is around Queen Street and Karangahape Road. Streets have existed for as long as humans have lived in permanent settlements. However, modern civilization in much of the New World developed around transportation provided by motor vehicles. In some parts of the English-speaking world, such as North America, many think of the street as a thoroughfare for vehicular traffic first and foremost. In this view, pedestrian traffic is incidental to the street's purpose; a street consists of a thoroughfare running through the middle (in essence, a road), and may or may not have sidewalks along the sides. In an even narrower sense, some may think of a street as only the vehicle-driven and parking part of the thoroughfare. Thus, sidewalks and tree lawns would not be thought of as part of the street. A mother may tell her toddlers "Don't go out into the street, so you don't get hit by a car." Among urban residents of the English-speaking world, the word appears to carry its original connotations (i.e. the facilitation of traffic as a prime purpose, and "street life" as an incidental benefit). For instance, a New York Times writer lets casually slip the observation that automobileladen Houston Street is "a street that can hardly be called 'street' anymore, transformed years ago into an eight-lane raceway that alternately resembles a NASCAR event and a parking lot." Published in the paper's Metro section, the article evidently presumes an audience with an innate grasp of the modern urban role of the street. To the readers of the Metro section, vehicular traffic does not reinforce, but rather detracts from, the essential "street-ness" of a street. At least one map has been made to illustrate the geography of naming conventions for thoroughfares; street, avenue, boulevard, circle, and other suffixes are contrasted against one another. CONCLUSION: Conclusively it is believed that by reading all above description of streets and its characteristics and use the readers would have pretty clear idea or background knowledge for street traffic and design in any town planning exercise.

AR-309: ARCHITECTURE AND TOWN PLANNING (A&TP-B) By: RAVINDAR KUMAR Assistant Professor Department of Architecture and Planning NED University of Engineering and Technology Karachi LECTURE NO: 21 TOPIC: URBAN ZONING & LAND USE CONTROL INTRODUCTION TO URBAN ZONING[1]? Zoning is a device of land use regulation used by local governments in most developed countries[2]. The word is derived from the practice of designating permitted uses of land based on mapped zones which separate one set of land uses from another. Zoning may be use-based (regulating the uses to which land may be put), or it may regulate building height, lot coverage, and similar characteristics, or some combination of these. According to G. K. Hiraskar the zoning is defined as process of making sections or division of city areas in different zones, to control the incompatible land uses, & prevent the misuse of land & buildings heights and densities of population at the initial stages. According to Mr. Trevor Whitley who describes zoning in the Encyclopedia of Urban Planning; the zoning is the division of community into zones/districts as per present & potential use of properties for controlling & directing their landuse and development of the city. According to W.PAUL Farmer and Julie A. Gibb, the Zoning is the division of land according to building Design & use. This definition is explained in the book Introduction to Urban Planning by Anthony. J. Catanese & James. C. Snyder. Definition they describe that, comprehensive zoning is the division of total municipal land in to districts in which restrictions are imposed on the use of land. The zoning regulations are drafted & developed by the legislative authority and enforced by the municipal action. The legislative authority permits the municipality to apply constant and consistent pressure upon landowners to develop & use their land through the guidance of community plan and the public interest. OBJECTIVES OF ZONING: There are three major objectives of zoning i.e. conserving the value of its properties, assuring orderly community growth and safeguarding general public welfare. One of the major objectives of zoning legislation is to Establish regulations which provides locations for all essential uses of land & buildings and to ensure that each use is located at most appropriate place. PURPOSE OF ZONING: The main concern of zoning is with, the use of land & buildings, their height & volumes, proportions with the open spaces and density of population in each particular zone. The zoning is also used as an instrument for the implementation of plan on development of privately owned land & buildings

rather than public land, buildings & facilities. The zoning attempts to group together the most compatible landuses. SCOPE OF ZONING: Theoretically, the primary purpose of zoning is to segregate uses that are thought to be incompatible. In practice, zoning is used to prevent new development from interfereing with existing residents or businesses and to preserve the "character" of a community. Zoning is commonly controlled by local governments such as counties or municipalities, though the nature of the zoning regime may be determined or limited by state or national planning authorities or through enabling legislation. In Australia, land under the control of the Commonwealth (federal) government is not subject to state planning controls. The United States and other federal countries are similar. Zoning and urban planning in France and Germany are regulated by national or federal codes. In the case of Germany this code includes contents of zoning plans as well as the legal procedure. Zoning may include regulation of the kinds of activities which will be acceptable on particular lots (such as open space, residential, agricultural, commercial or industrial), the densities at which those activities can be performed (from low-density housing such as single family homes to high-density such as high-rise apartment buildings), the height of buildings, the amount of space structures may occupy, the location of a building on the lot (setbacks), the proportions of the types of space on a lot, such as how much landscaped space, impervious surface, traffic lanes, and parking must be provided. In Germany, zoning usually includes building design, very specific green space and compensation regulations. The details of how individual planning systems incorporate zoning into their regulatory regimes, varies though the intention is always similar. For example, in the state of Victoria, Australia, land use zones are combined with a system of planning scheme overlays to account for the multiplicity of factors that impact on desirable urban outcomes in any location. Most zoning systems have a procedure for granting variances (exceptions to the zoning rules), usually because of some perceived hardship caused by the particular nature of the property in question. Basically, urban zones fall into one of five major categories: residential, mixed residential-commercial, commercial, industrial and special (e. g. power plants, sports complexes, airports, shopping malls etc.). Each category can have a number of sub-categories. In Germany, e. g., each category has a designated limit for noise emissions (not part of the building code, but federal emissions code). In the United States or Canada, for example, residential zones can have the following sub-categories: R-1: Residential occupancies containing sleeping units where the occupants are primarily transient in nature, including: Boarding houses, Hotels, Motels R-2: Residential occupancies containing sleeping units or more than two dwelling units where the occupants are primarily permanent in nature, including: Apartment houses, Boarding houses, Convents, Dormitories R-3: Residential occupancies where the occupants are primarily permanent in nature and not classified as Group R-1, R-2, R-4 or I, including: Buildings that do not contain more than two dwelling units, Adult care facilities for five or fewer persons for less than 24 hours. R-4: Residential occupancies shall include buildings arranged for occupancy as residential care/assisted living facilities including more than five but not more than 16 occupants.

WHAT IS THE IMPORTANCE AND NEED OF ZONING? The zoning is important aspect of town planning because without zoning regulation, incompatible land uses occurs which causes problems of health & hygiene, environmental pollutions congestion public safety & security etc. For example, industrial zone is mostly away from residential zone so as the residential areas should be secured from dangerous gases and smoke pollution, the business & commercial zone is also made away from residential zone so as the residential areas should be free from noise & road traffic. Simultaneously the population is also distributed in different zones differently so as the population should not be concentrated in one zone & situation of congestion or comity problems emerges i.e. utilities pressure etc. in addition the building heights are also controlled by zoning so as high-rise should not develop with low height housing because the highrise cutoff the sun shine, & breeze which makes the life of residents uncomfortable i.e. in Chicago, New York, Bombay etc building cast long shadow. The zoning is important because it secures the orderly growth of town; promote heath & safety, increase utility, beauty and efficiency of town. Infect it is the very soul of successful Town Planning. LANDUSE CONTROL:[3] Land use is the human modification of natural environment or wilderness into built environment such as fields, pastures, and settlements. The major effect of land use on land cover since 1750 has been deforestation of temperate regions. More recent significant effects of land use include urban sprawl, soil erosion, soil degradation, salinization, and desertification. Land-use change together with use of fossil fuels, are the major anthropogenic sources of carbon dioxide, a dominant greenhouse gas. It has also been defined as "the total of arrangements, activities, and inputs that people undertake in a certain land cover type" (FAO, 1997a; FAO/UNEP, 1999). MUNICIPAL LAND USE: Each designation, known as a parcels zoning, comes with a list of approved uses that can legally operate on the zoned parcel. These are found in a governments ordinances or zoning regulations. LAND USE AND THE ENVIRONMENT: Land use and land management practices have a major impact on natural resources including water, soil, nutrients, plants and animals. Land use information can be used to develop solutions for natural resource management issues such as salinity and water quality. For instance, water bodies in a region that has been deforested or having erosion will have different water quality than those in areas that are forested. According to a report by the United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organisation, land degradation has been exacerbated where there has been an absence of any land use planning, or of its orderly execution, or the existence of financial or legal incentives that have led to the wrong land use decisions, or one-sided central planning leading to over-utilization of the land resources - for instance for immediate production at all costs.

As a consequence the result has often been misery for large segments of the local population and destruction of valuable ecosystems. Such narrow approaches should be replaced by a technique for the planning and management of land resources that is integrated and holistic and where land users are central. This will ensure the long-term quality of the land for human use, the prevention or

resolution of social conflicts related to land use, and the conservation of ecosystems of high biodiversity value. HISTORY OF ZONING: As far as the history of zoning is concerned, the origin /start & use of zoning took place in late 19th century. The first modern zoning ordinance was developed in New York City in 1916. However legally it was enforced n 1962 when us Supreme Court considered the legality of comprehensive zoning controls. They made a landmark decision in a case where the court discussed the need for and imposed pattern of landaus & concept of a comprehensive or Euclidean zoning. By the year 1930, several hundred localities has followed suit and had established their own zoning ordinances throughout USA. ORIGINS AND HISTORY OF ZONING IN UNITED STATES: Special laws and regulations were long made, restricting the places where particular businesses should be carried on. In the 1860s a specific State statute prohibited all commercial activities along Eastern Parkway (Brooklyn), setting a trend for future decades. In 1916, New York City[4] adopted the first zoning regulations to apply city-wide as a reaction to construction of The Equitable Building (which still stands at 120 Broadway). The building towered over the neighboring residences, completely covering all available land area within the property boundary, blocking windows of neighboring buildings and diminishing the availability of sunshine for the people in the affected area. These laws, written by a commission headed by Edward Bassett and signed by Mayor John Purroy Mitchell, became the blueprint for zoning in the rest of the country, partly because Bassett headed the group of planning lawyers which wrote; The Standard State Zoning Enabling Act that was accepted almost without change by most states. The effect of these zoning regulations on the shape of skyscrapers was famously illustrated by architect and illustrator Hugh Ferriss. The constitutionality of zoning ordinances was upheld in 1926. The zoning ordinance of Euclid, Ohio was challenged in court by a local land owner on the basis that restricting use of property violated the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. Though initially ruled unconstitutional by lower courts, the zoning ordinance was upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court. In doing so, the Court accepted the arguments of zoning defenders that it met two essential needs. First, zoning extended and improved on nuisance law in that it provided advance notice that certain types of uses were incompatible with other uses in a particular district. The second argument was that zoning was a necessary municipal-planning instrument. By the late 1920s most of the nation had developed a set of zoning regulations that met the needs of the locality. New York City went on to develop ever more complex set of zoning regulations, including floor-area ratio regulations, air rights and others according to the density-specific needs of the neighborhoods.

Among large populated cities in the United States, Houston is unique in having no zoning ordinances. Houston voters have rejected efforts to implement zoning in 1948, 1962 and 1993. However, land use is still very much regulated in Houston: up until 1999, single-family homes (which include 98% of all housing stock) had to occupy 5,000 square feet (460 m2) of land. Apartment buildings currently must have 1.33 parking spaces per bedroom. Some have argued that this sort of regulation has

similar effects as zoning, and therefore can be regarded as a sort of roundabout zoning. ZONING TYPES IN THE UNITED STATES: Zoning codes have evolved over the years as urban planning theory has changed, legal constraints have fluctuated, and political priorities have shifted. The various approaches to zoning can be divided into four broad categories: Euclidean, Performance, Incentive, and Design-based. EUCLIDEAN Named for the type of zoning code adopted in the town of Euclid, Ohio, and approved in a landmark decision of the U.S. Supreme Court, Euclidean zoning codes are by far the most prevalent in the United States, used extensively in small towns and large cities alike. STANDARD EUCLIDEAN Also known as "Building Block" zoning, Euclidean zoning is characterized by the segregation of land uses into specified geographic districts and dimensional standards stipulating limitations on the magnitude of development activity that is allowed to take place on lots within each type of district. Typical types of land-use districts in Euclidean zoning are: residential (single-family), residential (multi-family), commercial, and industrial. Uses within each district are usually heavily prescribed to exclude other types of uses (residential districts typically disallow commercial or industrial uses). Some "accessory" or "conditional" uses may be allowed in order to accommodate the needs of the primary uses. Dimensional standards apply to any structures built on lots within each zoning district, and typically take the form of setbacks, height limits, minimum lot sizes, lot coverage limits, and other limitations on the "building envelope". Euclidean zoning is utilized by some municipalities because of its relative effectiveness, ease of implementation (one set of explicit, prescriptive rules), long-established legal precedent, and familiarity to planners and design professionals. However, Euclidean zoning has received heavy criticism for its lack of flexibility and institutionalization of nowoutdated planning theory. EUCLIDEAN II Euclidean II Zoning uses traditional Euclidean zoning classifications (industrial, commercial, multifamily, residential, etc.) but places them in a hierarchical order "nesting" one zoning class within another similar to the concept of Planned Unit Developments (PUD) mixed uses, but now for all zoning districts; in effect, adding a third dimension to flatland Euclidean zoning. For example, multifamily is not only permitted in "higher order" multi-family zoning districts, but also permitted in high order commercial and industrial zoning districts as well. Protection of land values is maintained by stratifying the zoning districts into levels according to their location in the urban society (neighborhood, community, municipality, and region). Euclidean II zoning also incorporates transportation and utilities as new zoning districts in its matrix dividing zoning into three categories: Public, Semi-Public and Private. In addition, all Euclidean II Zoning permitted activities and definitions are tied directly to the state's building code, Municode and the North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) assuring statewide uniformity. Euclidean II zoning fosters the concepts of mixed use, new urbanism and "highest and best use"; and, simplifies all zoning classifications into a single and uniform set of activities. It is relatively easy to transition from most existing zoning classification systems to the Euclidean II Zoning system.

PERFORMANCE Also known as "effects-based planning" performance zoning uses performance-based or goaloriented criteria to establish review parameters for proposed development projects in any area of a municipality. Performance zoning often utilizes a "points-based" system whereby a property developer can apply credits toward meeting established zoning goals through selecting from a 'menu' of compliance options (some examples include: mitigation of environmental impacts, providing public amenities, building affordable housing units, etc.). Additional discretionary criteria may also be established as part of the review process. The appeal of performance zoning lies in its high level of flexibility, rationality, transparency and accountability. Performance zoning can avoid the sometimes arbitrary nature of the Euclidian approach, and better accommodates market principles and private property rights with environmental protection. However, performance zoning can be extremely difficult to implement and can require a high level of discretionary activity on the part of the supervising authority leading to the potential for disenfranchisement among negatively affected stakeholders. INCENTIVE First implemented in Chicago and New York City, incentive zoning is intended to provide a rewardbased system to encourage development that meets established urban development goals. Typically, a base level of prescriptive limitations on development will be established and an extensive list of incentive criteria will be established for developers to adopt or not at their discretion. A reward scale connected to the incentive criteria provides an enticement for developers to incorporate the desired development criteria into their projects. Common examples include FAR (floor-area-ratio) bonuses for affordable housing provided on-site, and height limit bonuses for the inclusion of public amenities on-site. Incentive zoning allows for a high degree of flexibility, but can be complex to administer. The more a proposed development takes advantage of incentive criteria, the more closely it has to be reviewed on a discretionary basis. The initial creation of the incentive structure in order to best serve planning priorities can also be challenging and often requires extensive ongoing revision to maintain balance between incentive magnitude and value given to developers. FORM-BASED Form-based codes offer considerably more flexibility in building uses than do Euclidean codes. Form based zoning regulates not the type of land use, but the form that that land use may take. For instance, form based zoning in a dense area may insist on low setbacks, high density, and pedestrian accessibility among other things. As another example, in a largely suburban single family residential area, uses such as offices, retail, or even light industrial could be permitted so long as they conformed (setback, building size, lot coverage, height, and other factors) to other existing development in the area. Form-based zoning relies on rules applied to development sites according to both prescriptive and potentially discretionary criteria. These criteria are typically dependent on lot size, location, proximity, and other various site- and use-specific characteristics.

Form based zoning also may specify desirable design features, however when form-based codes do not contain appropriate illustrations and diagrams, they have been criticized as being difficult to

interpret. One example of a recently adopted code with design-based features is the Land Development Code adopted by Louisville, Kentucky in 2003. This zoning code creates "form districts" for Louisville Metro. Each form district intends to recognize that some areas of the city are more sub-urban in nature, while others are more urban. Building setbacks, heights, and design features vary according to the form district. As an example, in a "traditional neighborhood" form district, a maximum setback might be 15 feet (4.6 m) from the property line, while in a suburban "neighborhood" there may be no maximum setback. Since the concept of form based codes is relatively new, this type of zoning may be more challenging to enact. ZONING ORDINANCES IN UNITED KINGDOM: The zoning ordinances subdivide the city or town in Districts, each district then authorized with some specified uses, with building heights, bulk/volume, & set back requirements. In British planning no regulatory provision in made for zoning ordinance. They dont have any general rules of zoning for potential application. However in the absence of any rules the local planning authority studies each zoning application on its merits with respect development plan. Development control or planning control is the element of the United Kingdom's system of town and country planning through which local government regulates land use and new building. It relies on the "plan-led system" whereby development plans are formed and the public consulted. Subsequent development requires planning permission, which will be granted or refused with reference to the development plan as a material consideration. There are 421 Local Planning Authorities (LPAs) in the United Kingdom. Generally they are the local borough or district council or a unitary authority. Development involving mining, minerals or waste disposal matters is dealt with by county councils in non-metropolitan areas. Within national parks, it is the National Park Authority that determines planning applications. ZONING IN AUSTRALIA: Statutory planning otherwise known as town planning, development control or development management, refers to the part of the planning process that is concerned with the regulation and management of changes to land use and development.[5] LAND USE CONTROL REGULATION IN JAPAN[6]: In Japan, the zoning system is considered as the most important element in urban planning. Urban city planning area is divided into two areas: urban promotion area (UPA) and urban control area (UCA). UPA is the area in which the local government is to promote urbanization, and the rest are areas in which urbanization is controlled as UCA. There are a number of areas where zoning is not carried out, depending on the location. The development of such area requires permission from the government. In the UCA, development is basically prohibited, except for special cases such as agriculture and forestry. Japan has twelve different types of zones for commercial, industrial, and residential uses. Basically, Japan has regulations on the types of facilities that can be built in specific areas or specific zones. There are also regulations on floor ratio and building to land ratio. CITY PLANNING AREA City planning area is designated in the area to be planned and developed as a comprehensive unit. Approximately 100,000 Km2 or one quarter of the nations land (380,000 Km2) is designated as city planning area, which includes about 2,000 cities, towns, and villages. Some 114 million people or

92% of the total population live in the designated city planning area. URBANIZED AREA AND URBAN CONTROLLED AREA City Planning Area is divided into the two areas: 1) Urbanized Area, which includes existing urbanized areas and areas to be developed within next ten years; and 2) Urban Controlled Area, where urbanization is restricted. The urbanized and urban controlled areas are designated within the city planning area, which include three major metropolitan areas and the cities with a population of more than 100,000 persons. The urbanized areas amount to approximately 1.4 million ha in total, which occupies about 4% of the nations land area. Approximately 82 million people or 66% of the nations population live in the urbanized areas. DEVELOPMENT PERMISSION Any development with change of building/land form or use is required to obtain development permission. Technical standard of development permission is regulated in the City Planning Law. Under the Law, most of development actions are generally prohibited in urban controlled areas, with some exceptions. Demarcation of urbanized and urban controlled areas is occasionally reviewed. LAND USE ZONING ORDINANCE Land use zoning is designated on the basis of existing land use pattern and its future orientation. The zoning is classified into the three major categories: residential, commercial and industrial uses. There are twelve types of land use zoning. The type of building allowed to be developed is regulated by the zoning ordinance. The floor area ratio and building coverage ratio are also designated by the zoning ordinance. Land use zoning is designated in urbanized area, not in urban controlled area. ZONING CLASSIFICATION: The zoning is classified in three categories i.e. Use Zoning, Height Zoning and Density Zoning. USE ZONING: In use zoning city is divided into different sections/zones for various specific purposes. The use zoning is classified in six broad categories or sections i.e. Residential Zone, Institutional Zone, Industrial Zone, Civic Zone, Institutional Zone and Recreational Zone. RESIDENTIAL ZONE: It is the zone for housing of large number of people. The buildings developed in this zone are, detached single family houses, semidetached houses or duplexes, group housing, chawl, low, medium and high-rise flats or apartments and residential sky scrapers. This zone covers the area 40 to 50% of total away from business or Industrial zones. It needs privacy & use of green belt parks & fast communication facilities. COMMERCIAL ZONE: This covers area of 2% to 5%, having market, warehousing, storage spaces, go-downs, business offices, banks & residential spaces for employees. They should be located near traffic, transport & roadside.

INDUSTRIAL ZONE: This covers area of % to 20%. This is most important zone after residential zone. This is located leeward of the town so that dangerous gases should not affect town population. This zone further divided in four categories i.e. Minor Industries, Light Industries, Medium Industries and Heavy Industries. MINOR INDUSTRIES: These are small industries, such as, bakeries, dairies & laundries these can be located near residential zone for the benefit of people. LIGHT INDUSTRIES: These are small factories such as glass, porcelain or Ice which only use electric power not solid fuel its not much real nuisance, so they can be located at the periphery of town. MEDIUM INDUSTRIES: These are large factories or industrial units such as cotton mills, oil mills, sugar mills which produce noisy environment & residential & commercial zone. HEAVY INDUSTRIES: These are large manufacturing industries or large heavy duty industrial units such as cement factory, steel factories and fertilizer plants that produce fumes & gases. Therefore these should be located in outskirts away forms town in leeward position. CIVIC ZONE: This zone covers area of 2% to 3%. It contains all public building i.e. town hall, courts, libraries, post office museum, auditoriums, banks etc. & housing for employees working there. These should be located at strategy locations where public access should be easier. INSTITUTIONAL ZONE: This is again located in a quite zone, having an area of 1% to 2%. It contains schools, college, university, & other research institutes etc. RECREATIONAL ZONE: This zone is located / planned with natural elements. This covers 15% to 20%. This provides healthy environment. It includes parks, play grounds, auditoriums, cinemas, theaters etc. HEIGHT ZONING: As discussed earlier, the height zoning is quite important for the purpose of good livable environment with appropriate sun light & Air movement. Simultaneously the control over height & volume of the buildings is also necessary for prevention from social evils and aesthetic beauty of the town that includes the cohesiveness among small & large buildings & to satisfy air / ground traffic rules. Because high-rises need specific considerations regarding movement of aero planes and to avoid narrow streets & traffic congestion. Now there are various methods to control building volume & heights. Such as road widths / Air plane rules, bulk method rules etc.

ACCORDING TO MR. G. K. HIRASKAR: The first major method to control building heights is through road widths / Air plain rule. Generally it should be 45o to 63.5o from the center of road to roof top edge of the building. The other major method to control Building heights is bulk volume method in which building volume is controlled by making it equal to the volume of prism; where plinth area is considered as base & height equal to width of road. => 1/3 x AREA x HEIGHT The third important method which is currently applied in most developed & underdeveloped countries are floor space index or (FSI). In this method the total floor area of building is controlled by relating it with the open space in the total plot area. In the building bye laws of KDA (in Karachi) it is termed as FAR or Floor Area Ratio. The thumb rule in this regard is that As much as the plot area as less is the covered area and as less is the plot area as much as the covered area. It means that the covered area is inversely proportionate to plot area. If one read the KDA Building bye laws it will be evident that; for different plot size or at different locations different floor area ratios are applied. DENSITY ZONING: The density zoning is mainly related to population density, Gross density & net density; where the population density is population / unit area or acres of land, gross density is average density of population / unit area of residential zone including open spaces, schools, shops & institutions; Net density is average density / unit area of housing & roads. The objective of density zoning is to control the overcrowding & concentration of population in some particular Area. In density zoning a town planner fix certain standards of gross & net densities for various areas which prohibit the collection of population in any particular zone. Now this control of population is achieved in three ways. i) Fixing minimum size of plot for each house. ii) Specifying nos. of houses per unit area. iii) Fixing the ratio of total plot area v/s total buildup area. ZONING POWERS: The zoning power is mainly lying with local development authority, which enforces rules & regulations of zoning & makes changes in it from time to time. The zoning powers are mainly made at a liberal scale & they are not so rigid considering the benefits for the people living in a locality. For instance the existing industries which are not harmful for the health of people they are allowed as Non-confirming use even if they are undesirable. However these industries are not allowed to expand in any case. In addition the policy will be to remove this industry by passage of time subject to provision of facilities in any industrial zone as an

alternative. Some times it is necessary to have school, library, community hall, & shopping units in a residential zone. For which special permission is obtained form the local authority. However those factories / industries which produce noise & bad odors or smoke are strictly prohibited. Therefore conclusively the zoning powers are divided in three categories. i) Uses permitted under Non-conforming Types. ii) Uses which are permitted under special approval by local authority. iii) Uses which are strictly prohibited. Finally the competent zoning authority should enforce zoning powers from time to time otherwise chaos will result in city which is evident in cities now a day. Zoning power is an effective tool available with a town planner to make his town-planning scheme successful.

AR-309: ARCHITECTURE AND TOWN PLANNING (A&TP-B) By RAVINDAR KUMAR Assistant Professor Department of Architecture and Planning NED University of Engineering and Technology Karachi LECTURE NO: 22 TOPIC: PARKS AND RECREATION FACILITIES INTRODUCTION: The theme of current lecture on is Parks and Recreational facilities. In order to understand this theme it is important to know about the terms; park and recreation. The term park means a piece of open land for recreational use in an urban area or it is a large area of land preserved in its natural state as public property; then there are laws that protect the wildlife in this park.[1] The term recreation means activities which are relaxing to humans or provide diversions from their normal routine.[2] In town planning provision of parks and recreational facilities is a part of an overall urban planning scheme whether a new city is made or improved an existing one. However the provision of parks and recreational facilities is not an easy task and before understanding the process of its provision it is also significant to have clear understanding of both the concepts of Parks and Recreation. In the following these are described in details. WHAT IS A PARK?[3] A park is a protected area, in its natural or semi-natural state or planted, and set aside for human recreation and enjoyment. It may consist of, rocks, soil, water, flora and fauna and grass areas. Wilderness parks are intact and undeveloped areas used mainly by wild species. Many parks are legally protected by law. Protected wilderness zones are required for some wild species to survive. Some protected parks focus mainly on the survival of a few threatened species, such as gorillas or chimpanzees. The term Park is also used for many other meanings for instance the term park is also used in reference to industrial areas, often termed as industrial parks. Some technology research areas are also called research parks. Small environmental areas, often part of urban renewal plans, are called pocket parks. The word park may also be used in community names, such as Oak Park or College Park. Sometimes the active recreational aspect may be expressed in the extreme of naming as an amusement park, usually privately owned. A car park is an area of land or a building in which cars are parked. An amusement park, or theme park is a generic term for a collection of rides and other entertainment attractions assembled for the purpose of entertainment. Thus; the term park has various uses and meanings however the parks can be divided mainly in two categories i.e. Government owned or operated parks and private parks. GOVERNMENT-OWNED OR OPERATED PARKS: There are three main types of Government owned or operated parks i.e. National Park, Sub National Parks and Urban Parks.

NATIONAL PARK: A national park is a reserve of land, usually, but not always declared and owned by a national government, protected from most human development and pollution. National parks are protected areas as established by International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). The largest national park in the world is the Northeast Greenland National Park, which was established in 1974. In the United States the concept of preserving landscapes for the pleasure of the people was established on June 30, 1864, when President Abraham Lincoln signed the bill creating the Yosemite Grant. A policy of preservation, rather than co-usage as in the National Forests, where grazing, farming and logging are licensed, was implemented four decades later during the presidential administration of Teddy Roosevelt, and Yosemite became a national park. Tourism and, later, recreation were the intended purposes of the lands Roosevelt set aside in the system. John Muir was instrumental in this effort. These parks were termed national parks and today are looked after by the U.S. National Park Service. U.S. state governments have also set aside land to preserve for the enjoyment of the public. There are also national parks in many other countries. SUB-NATIONAL PARKS: In Federal systems, many parks are managed by the local levels of government, rather than by the central government. In the United States these are called state parks and in Canada provincial or territorial parks, except in Quebec where they are known as National Parks. URBAN PARKS: A park is an area of open space provided for recreational use, usually owned and maintained by a local government. Parks commonly resemble savannas or open woodlands, the types of landscape that human beings find most relaxing. Grass is typically kept short to discourage insect pests and to allow for the enjoyment of picnics and sporting activities. Trees are chosen for their beauty and to provide shade. The world's first public park is claimed to be Peel Park, Salford, England opened on 22 August 1846.[4] Park can be divided into active and passive recreation. Active recreation is that which require intensive development and often involves cooperative or team activity, including playgrounds, ball fields and skate parks. Passive recreation is that which emphasizes the open-space aspect of a park and which involves a low level of development, including picnic areas and trails. Organized football matches take place in parks. Many smaller neighborhood parks are receiving increased attention and valuation as significant community assets and places of refuge in heavily populated urban areas. Neighborhood groups around the world are joining together to support local parks that have suffered from urban decay and government neglect. A linear park is a park that has a much greater length than width. A typical example of a linear park is a section of a former railway that has been converted into a park (i.e. the tracks removed, vegetation allowed to grow back). Parks are sometimes made out of oddly shaped areas of land, much like the vacant lots that often become city neighborhood parks. An urban park,[5] also known as a municipal park or a public park or open space (United Kingdom), is a park in cities and other incorporated places to offer recreation and green space to residents of and visitors to the municipality. The design, operation and maintenance is usually done by government, typically on the city level, but may occasionally be contracted out to a private sector

company. The oldest Urban Park in the world, Phillips Park, is located in the English city of Manchester. Common features of municipal parks include playgrounds, hiking, running and mixed use trails or paths, bridle paths, sports field and courts, public restrooms, boat ramps and/or picnic facilities depending on the budget and natural features available. In The Politics of Park Design: A History of Urban Parks in America, (Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1982), Professor Galen Cranz identifies four phases of park design in the U.S. In the late 19th century, large tracts of land on the outskirts of cities were purchased by city governments to create "pleasure grounds": semi-open, charmingly landscaped areas whose primary purpose was to allow city residents, especially the workers, to relax in nature. As time passed and the urban area grew around the parks, land in these parks was used for other purposes, such as zoos, golf courses and museums. These parks continue to draw visitors from around the region and are considered regional parks because they require a higher level of management than smaller local parks. According to the Trust for Public Land, the three most visited municipal parks in the United States are Central Park in New York, Lincoln Park in Chicago, and Balboa Park in San Diego, respectively. In the early 1900s, according to Cranz, U.S. cities built neighborhood parks with swimming pools, playgrounds and civic buildings, with the intention of Americanizing the immigrant residents. In the 1950s, when money became available after World War II, new parks continued to focus on both outdoor and indoor recreation with services such as sports leagues using their ball fields and gymnasia. These smaller parks were built in residential neighborhoods, and tried to serve all residents with programs for seniors, adults, teens and children. Green space was of secondary importance. As urban land prices climbed, new urban parks in the 1960s and after have been mainly pocket parks. These small parks provide greenery, a place to sit outdoors, and often a play area for children. All four types of park continue to exist in urban areas. Because of the large amount of open space and natural habitat in the former pleasure grounds, they now serve as important wildlife refuges, and often provide the only opportunity for urban residents to hike or picnic in a semi-wild area. However, these parks can be targeted by city managers or politicians as sources of free land for other uses; Partly for this reason, some of these large parks have "friends of X park" advisory boards that help protect and maintain their semi-wild nature. The largest area of public parks in any city in North America is the North Saskatchewan River valley parks system in Edmonton. PRIVATE PARKS: Private parks are owned by individuals or businesses and are used at the discretion of the owner. There are a few types of private parks, and some which once were privately maintained and used have now been made open to the public. The most prominent of them may be Hunting Parks. Hunting parks originally referred to an area maintained as open space where residences, industry and farming were not allowed, often originally so that nobility might have a place to hunt such as medieval deer parks. These were known for instance, as deer parks (deer being originally a term meaning any wild animal). Many country houses in Great Britain and Ireland still have parks of this sort, which since the 18th century have often been landscaped for aesthetic effect. They are usually a mixture of open grassland with scattered trees and sections of woodland, and are often enclosed by a high wall. The area immediately around the house is the garden.

In some cases this will also feature sweeping lawns and scattered trees; the basic difference between a country house's park and its garden is that the park is grazed by animals, but they are excluded from the garden. In some countries, especially the United Kingdom, the concept of the country park was popular in the 1970s, and many such parks were established with government support during that time. Country parks are often located near to urban populations, and provide recreational facilities typical of the countryside rather than the town. WHAT IS RECREATION?[6] Recreation is one (not the only) kind of stress management. Recreation or fun is the expenditure of time in a manner designed for therapeutic refreshment of one's body or mind. While leisure is more likely a form of entertainment or rest, recreation is active for the participant but in a refreshing and diverting manner. As people in the world's wealthier regions lead increasingly sedentary life styles, the need for recreation has increased. The rise of so called active vacations exemplifies this. A few individuals view recreation as largely non-productive, even trivial. Excessive recreation is not considered healthy, and may be labeled as escapism. However, research has shown that recreation contributes to satisfaction, and that the stress management aspects of it contribute to quality of life, health and wellness, happiness, and that the use of recreation as a diversion may have clinical applications to individuals with chronic pain and other health impairments. TYPES OF RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES: There are various types of recreational activities such as art, computer games, cycling, dancing, Drawing, Eating and drinking, Hobbies, Hunting and fishing, Kite flying Music, Martial arts, Partying, Pet ownership, Reading a book, Recreational drug use, Sexuality and Dating, Sledding, Shopping, Singing, Sports and exercise, Travel and tourism Texting, Using the internet, Video games, Visiting an amusement park, Watching movies, Yoga, Painting. In recent years, more exciting forms of recreation have received more attention, such as skiing, snowboarding, bungee jumping, sky diving, hang gliding, paintball, rock climbing, backpacking, canyoning, caving, BASE jumping, adventure tourism and motor sport. PROVISION OF PARKS AND RECREATIONAL FACILITIES IN TOWN PLANNING:[7] One of the most critical components in maintaining and enhancing a community's quality of life is its system of parks, recreation, and open space. The careful location of parks and open space areas and preservation of the Town's natural resources as a complement to existing development can be a useful tool in guiding the Town's development into a logical, orderly and environmentally sensitive pattern. In addition to recreational and aesthetic benefits, open spaces provide a framework for various land uses. Properly located, they become boundaries and buffers between conflicting uses of land and a nucleus for building neighborhood areas. Natural features can be preserved as valuable scenic and environmental attributes of the Town.

A park system and recreational program can also go a long way toward resolving the age-old problem of a community offering nothing for young people to do. In order to provide parks and recreational facilities at first an inventory of existing Town parks and opens space areas is made. For instance in Karachi one of the first things that can be pointed out is that there are a fairly large number of parks and the people overwhelmingly use these parks. These two findings suggest that

while Karachi has a lot of acreage for parks, much of it is undeveloped and/or underutilized. This represents an opportunity to proactively improve the availability of Parks and Recreation facilities/programs. Recommended improvements as desirable by the citizens of Karachi included such things as a playground, bathrooms, water fountain, and picnic facilities. These are all amenities which are quite necessary that features the public desires, but that these amenities somehow fall short of their expectations. Perhaps there needs to be more of a particular amenity or perhaps another is simply in need of modernization and/or repair. The Visioning process identified the need for Karachi is to develop a park system in each town and union council. One impediment to this goal is the ownership of the parks and open spaces in Karachi. There are a number of Town Parks, quasi-public parks and facilities, and, being the mega city and home to the largest population base, there are numerous issues such as encroachment, unavailability of due care to existing open spaces and parks. There are also private or semi-private recreational spaces like the golf courses, clubs and gyms etc. A park system would consider all of these lands and evaluate them as a whole as to their effectiveness in meeting the recreational needs of the residents of Karachi and environs. A second factor inhibiting the effective development of a coordinated park system is the way in which these spaces and facilities are managed. There is a Director General Parks in Karachi Municipal Corporation with not much additional staff and part time assistance or community backing which is the key factor in regular maintenance and management of existing parks and recreational facilities. One step toward providing more direction and more active participation in planning, acquiring, and improving Karachi's parks was taken recently by the City District Government Karachi (CDGK) in the form of road improvements and construction of signal free corridors in the city. However, there is still much work to be done as this organization of city is still struggling with determining its role and how it relates to the Karachi Master Plan 2020, in whom Law vests the authority to make "proposals for the most appropriate and desirable patterns for the general location, character, and extent of parks and recreation areas for specified times as far into the future as is reasonable. Nevertheless, having a group dedicated to examining and making recommendations on park issues shall be a positive step towards the development of a coordinated Town-wide Park system. FUTURE PARKS: One area, in which it is crucial for the CDGK to work hard, is the planning for future park sites. There must be a visioning committee to make several recommendations in this area. There must be a detailed map of Karachi with its complete boundaries, maps of towns and maps of union councils where parks are graphically depicted. These maps shall be publicly available for the citizens of Karachi as the locations reserved for parks so as they may create a check and balance system and cry for parks and recreational facilities if required. The following recommendations for future parks are highlighted for the reference. GOAL: To provide a coordinated system of parks that meet the recreational needs of all of Karachi's residents.

OBJECTIVES: Create/preserve public access and recreational opportunities in every town and union council. Increase funding for the operation of a Parks and Recreational Facilities. Develop more of the parks which already exist in Karachi. Identify a site or sites for regional parks in future for annexation areas of Karachi. Develop Karachi's parks as a coordinated system in order to insure that all areas of City are equitably served with parks and that a variety of recreational opportunities are provided. Work with all town and union council administration to coordinate Town and Union Council Park Planning and eliminate unnecessary duplication of services. Examine and refine, if necessary, the policy of requiring usable park/open space during development review and approval. Provide for the contribution of fees in lieu of parks in subdivisions where such land is not available or is not needed due to the lack of appropriate lands or the proximity of other suitable parks or open spaces. IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGIES: The CDGK and all the towns should increase funding to Parks and Recreational facilities of approximately 2% of the budget. Town staff should rely upon the mapped recommendations contained in the Master Plan 2020 for future park lands during the development review process in order to obtain necessary lands for future larger-scale parks. The Planning and Zoning Commission shall be made and it should work with the D.G Parks to determine which of Karachi's existing parks should be improved and what types of improvements are needed therein as well as to develop a plan for future park sites. The CDGK should meet and coordinate planning efforts with Towns up until Union Council level in order to enhance/increase recreational opportunities available to city residents and in return to provide Karachi's fair share of Parks and Recreational Facilities. All the towns should utilize monies collected as fees-in-lieu of providing parks and open space for the acquisition of new parks and the improvement and/or maintenance of existing undeveloped or underdeveloped parks.

AR-309: ARCHITECTURE AND TOWN PLANNING (A&TP-B) By RAVINDAR KUMAR Assistant Professor Department of Architecture and Planning NED University of Engineering and Technology Karachi LECTURE NO: 23 TOPIC: LOCATION OF PUBLIC AND SEMI-PUBLIC BUILDINGS, CIVIC CENTERS, COMMERCIAL CENTERS, LOCAL SHOPPING CENTERS, PUBLIC SCHOOLS INTRODUCTION: In order to understand the theme of current lecture i.e. location of public and semi-public buildings, civic centers, commercial centers, local shopping centers and public schools; it is imperative to identify the meaning and interpretation of location, location theory, building, building types, and public property as mentioned above. Whereas; it is also important to clearly spell out, the activity generated via these building types. Afterwards; it will be eminent that where these building types and their activities shall be located within an urban context. In the following all these issues are discussed in details. WHAT IS MEANT BY LOCATION? Location in geography is one of the five geographic themes and a specific position or point in physical space that be exact and relative. In geography, location is a position or point in physical space that something occupies on Earths' surface. An absolute location is the exact spot where something is on the earth. An example would be the longitude and latitude of a place. An absolute location is the coordinates on a grid that leads to an exact spot somewhere on earth. Absolute location can also be the exact spot where something is within a city, such as saying that the Department of Architecture and Planning NED University is at intersection of Burns road and Kachehry road. Relative location is where something is in relation to something else. For example: By the NIPA, two miles from NED University main campus. LOCATION THEORY: In town planning location theory is quite significant theme especially in the context of urban economics. The reason for its significance is quite evident when a town planner place or decide about a particular building type at some particular location in an urban context. Because; location theory is concerned with the geographic location of an economic activity; it has become an integral part of economic geography, regional science, and spatial economics. Location theory addresses the questions of what economic activities are located where and why. Location theory rests like microeconomic theory generally on the assumption that agents act in their own self interest. Thus firms choose locations that maximize their profits and individuals choose locations that maximize their utility. LOCATION OF PUBLIC AND SEMI-PUBLIC BUILDINGS: A public space refers to an area or place that is open and accessible to all citizens, regardless of

gender, race, ethnicity, age or socio-economic level. The example of public space is the place for commons (or Ghareeb Awam). For example, no fees or paid tickets are required for entry, nor are the entrants discriminated based on background. Non-government-owned private sector malls are examples of 'private space' with the appearance of being 'public space' because; poor people avoid or hesitate in entering into such malls. The term 'Public Space' is also often misconstrued to mean other things such as 'gathering place' which is an element of the larger concept. Most streets, including the pavement are considered public space, as are town squares or parks. Government buildings, such as public libraries and many other similar buildings are also public space. However, not all state-owned buildings fall under such a definition. Some parks, malls, waiting rooms, etc, are closed at night. As this does not exclude any specific group, it is generally not considered a restriction on public use. Entry to public parks can be restricted based upon a user's residence. In the United States, one's presence in a public space may give him or her certain rights not otherwise vested. In a public space, known as a public forum, the government cannot usually limit one's speech beyond what is reasonable (that is, screaming epithets at passers-by can be stopped; proselytizing one's religion probably cannot). In a private spacethat is, non-publicforum, the government can control one's speech to a much greater degree; for instance, protesting one's objection to medicare reform will not be tolerated in the Pentagon. This is not to say that the government can control what you say in your own home or to others; it can only control government property in this way. In some cases, privately-owned property can be considered a public forum. England, too, has a tradition of public spaces permitting public speech, at Speakers' Corner, for example. In general, there is no expectation of privacy in a public space. Eating and drinking in an outside public place during Ramadan in an Islamic country is sometimes not appreciated. Public spaces are attractive for budget tourists and homeless people, especially those that are relatively comfortable, e.g. a shopping center that provides shelter and, in a cold climate, is heated (or cooled in a hot climate). Whilst it is generally considered that everyone has a right to access and use public space, as opposed to private space which may have restrictions, there has been some academic interest in how public spaces are managed to exclude certain groups - specifically homeless people and young people. Measures are taken to make the public space less attractive to them, including the removal or design of benches to restrict their use for sleeping and resting, restricting access to certain times, locking indoor/enclosed areas. Police forces are sometimes involved in moving 'unwanted' members of the public from public spaces. In fact, by not being provided suitable access, disabled people are implicitly excluded from some spaces. Further, beginning roughly in the 1960s, the wholesale privatization of public space (especially in urban centers) has become a fact of western society, and has faced criticism from citizen groups such as the Open Spaces Society. Private-public partnerships have taken significant control of public parks and playgrounds through conservancy groups set up to manage what is considered unmanageable by public agencies.

Corporate sponsorship of public leisure areas is ubiquitous, giving open space to the public in exchange for higher air rights. This facilitates the construction of taller buildings with private parks; accessible only to those deemed fit. In one of the newer incarnations of the private-public

partnership, the business improvement district (BID), private organizations are allowed to tax local businesses and retail establishments so that they might provide special private services such as policing and increased surveillance, trash removal, or street renovation, all of which once fell under the control of public funds and thus public interests. Clearly these services are necessary; the methods by which they are provided can be debated but not their ultimate utility. Additionally, public areas facilitate public interaction, and their existence can scarcely be questioned in democratic states; we may debate how they are provided, but to question their utility would seem to question our basic rights. Privatization of public amenities should not go unnoticed, whether in this form or the tacit co-opting of sights and sounds known as advertising. A broader meaning of public space or place includes also places where everybody can come if they pay, like a caf, train, movie theater or brothel. A shop is an example of what is intermediate between the two meanings: everybody can enter and look around without obligation to buy, but activities unrelated to the purpose of the shop are not unlimitedly permitted. The halls and streets (including skyways) in a shopping center may be declared a public place and may be open when the shops are closed. Similarly for halls, railway platforms and waiting rooms of public transport; sometimes a travelling ticket is required. A public library is also more or less a public place. A rest stop or truck stop is a public space. For these semi-public spaces stricter rules may apply than outside, e.g. regarding dress code, trading, begging, advertising, propaganda, riding rollerskates, skateboards, a Segway, etc. Typical differences between a public space and a private space are illustrated by comparing sitting on a public bench and sitting on a seat in a sidewalk cafe: In the first case, usage costs nothing, in the second it requires a purchase to be made. In the first case, there is no time limitation (though loitering laws might apply), while in the second, money has to be spent at certain intervals. In the first case, one is allowed to consume brought-along food and drink (alcohol consumption laws may restrict this), in the second case, this is usually prohibited. In the first case, only general laws apply in terms of dress (such as prohibition of public nudity) and other aspects of public decency, in the second, stricter rules (such as a prohibition of being shirtless) may apply. Thus the location of public and semi public buildings in the city can be at any suitable place where accessibility of all citizens and availability of public and private transport can be ensured. LOCATION OF CIVIC CENTERS: A civic center or civic centre is a prominent land area within a community that is constructed to be its focal point or center. It usually contains one or more dominant public buildings, which may also include a government building. Recently, the term "civic center" has been used in reference to an entire central business district of a community or a major shopping center in the middle of a community. In this type of civic center, special attention is paid to the way public structures are grouped and landscaped. In some American cities, a multi-purpose arena is named "Civic Center", for example Columbus Civic Center. Such "Civic Centers" combine venues for sporting events, theaters, concerts and similar events. In most cases civic centers in the UK are a focus for local government offices and public service buildings.

With reforms of local government in London in 1965 and across England in anticipation of the implementation of the Redcliffe-Maud Report in 1974, a number of local authorities commissioned

new civic centers sometimes funded by disposing of their 19th Century Town Hall buildings. In case of Karachi the civic center is a building located in the center of the city and contains activities such as municipal institutions, development authority, utility institutions, banks, airline offices, city district government offices to serve the people of Karachi. Thus civic centers must be centrally located in city where they are accessible from all parts of the city at equidistance if possible. LOCATION OF COMMERCIAL CENTERS: Commercial Centers (also called Downtowns, Central Business Districts, and Urban Villages) contain a concentration of business, civic and cultural activities, creating conditions that facilitate interaction and exchange. This increases overall Accessibility. Vibrant commercial centers have the following attributes: DENSITY AND CLUSTERING: Commercial centers should be medium to high density; with multistory buildings. Densities of 50 employees or more per gross acre are desirable. As much as possible the ground floor of buildings should have activities and services that involve frequent public interaction (such as retail, professional services, civic offices, etc.), with office or residential activities above, which creates an attractive street environment while accommodating dense employment.

DIVERSITY: Centers contain a diverse mix of office and retail space, banks and law offices, public institutions (such as city hall, courthouses, and other government offices), entertainment and arts activities, and other suitable industries. Increasingly, commercial centers also have residential buildings, either within or nearby.

LOCAL AND REGIONAL IMPORTANCE: Commercial Centers should contain a significant portion of total regional employment and business activity.

WALKABILITY: Most Commercial Centers are less than 250 acres in size so all destinations are within about 10-minute walk, with good sidewalks and pathways, pedestrian shortcuts, attractive Streetscapes, pedestrian scale and orientation, relatively narrow streets (4 lanes or less is desirable), relatively slow vehicle traffic (30 miles-per-hour or less is desirable), Universal Design, and a high degree of pedestrian Security. Some have Pedways, which are indoor walking networks that connect buildings and transportation terminals.

TRANSPORTATION DIVERSITY: The area should be accessible by walking, cycling, taxi, automobile, and public transit.

PARKING MANAGEMENT: In order to avoid the need to devote a large portion of land to parking, Commercial Centers require that parking be managed for efficiency (Manfille and Shoup, 2004) It is often appropriate to use structured or underground parking, and to limit the total amount of parking in a commercial center.

 TRANSIT ORIENTED DEVELOPMENT: This refers to districts designed with features that facilitate transit accessibility, with maximum developing within convenient walking distance of Attractive Transit Stations.

There are many types of Commercial Centers, ranging from Downtowns (also called Central Business Districts or CBDs), which are the primary Commercial Center serving a region, to Secondary Business Districts and Village Centers. A large Central Business District can contain thousands of businesses with tens of thousands of employees, while a local village center may be considered successful if it has a dozen businesses with two or three hundred employees. Some have a particular base or specialty, such as a cluster of medical facilities, a wholesale district, a tourist district, or an adjacent university campus, but such centers include a diverse range of businesses providing support services. Business activities tend to be more efficient in a Commercial Center that contains related industries, because clustering allows convenient interaction between staff, and convenient access to the services they use. A typical business district contains offices for finance, insurance, real estate, law and research companies, government agencies, plus various support services such as stationary retailers, janitorial services and computer supplies. This allows more specialization, for example, lawyers that specialize in a particular subject, translators who support trade and cultural activities with a particular region, and suppliers of specialty equipment for a particular industry. Commercial Centers also contain conference centers, hotels and other types of meeting facilities. As a result, people working in such areas can meet with several colleagues each day (a banker, a lawyer, a translator) with minimal time spent traveling. This high degree of accessibility that occurs when related industries are clustered together tends to increase economic productivity, called Economies of Agglomeration. Strong Commercial Centers are an important component of Smart Growth and New Urbanism. Many central business districts and nearby neighborhoods are experiencing new residential development in the form of high- and medium-density condominiums and apartments, townhouses, and small-lot single-family homes. Urban living is particularly popular among young adults and retirees. Market surveys indicate that about a third of home buyers would prefer to live in mixed-use new urbanist community if available (Hirschhorn, 2001). Some central business districts are still losing business and population, but there are numerous indications that, with proper support, downtowns can be successful and provide numerous economic, social and environmental benefits. Transportation planning decisions have significant impacts on the success of Commercial Centers. Walking, Public Transit and Parking Management are particularly important, and Commute Trip Reduction programs tend to be particularly effective. Public Bike Systems increase the convenience of cycling in downtown areas. People who work, shop and live in a Commercial Center can satisfy many of their daily needs without using an automobile. For example, employees who work in the area will find a diverse range of cafes and restaurants for refreshments and meals, shops that sell daily items (such as groceries, books and stationary goods) and more specialized items (such as gifts, clothing and hardware). Similarly, a

vibrant Commercial Center contains medical and dental services, gyms for exercise, daycare facilities, and other types of services. It is therefore beneficial to locate affordable housing near Commercial Districts, so non-drivers have convenient access to such services, called Location Efficient Development. Commercial Centers are an alternative to more Automobile Dependent commercial land use patterns, such as suburban strips (activities are scattered along major arterials, which requires a car trip between each destination), and private malls or campuses (which have a high degree of internal walkability, but are generally surrounded by large parking facilities, are widely dispersed, and contain a limited range of activities, and so tend to require numerous automobile trips). Residents living in or near Commercial Centers tend to own fewer cars than residents of more dispersed, isolated areas (Land Use Impacts on Transportation). People who work in major centers tend to commute by transit significantly more than those who work in more dispersed locations, and they tend to drive less for errands (Ewing, Pendall and Chen, 2002). While; about 90% of the suburban employees drive to work, but this declines to about 50% among downtown employees (even less in cities with major transit systems). Franks and Pivo (1995) found that automobile commuting declines significantly when workplace densities reach 50 75 employees per gross acre, since this tends to support transit and ridesharing commutes, and improved access to local services, such as nearby coffee shops and stores. Because activities and people are concentrated, road and parking Congestion tend to be relatively intense in major Commercial Centers, but because people use alternative modes and travel shorter distances, particularly for businesses meetings, per capita traffic congestion costs tends to be lower. Commute trips may be somewhat longer if employment is concentrated in a central business district. For this reason, many urban planners believe that the most efficient urban land use pattern is to have a Central Business District that contains the highest level business activities main offices and smaller Commercial Centers with retail and back offices scattered around the city among residential areas. A commercial building is a type of building that is used for commercial use. These can include office buildings, warehouses, or retail (i.e. convenience stores, 'big box' stores, shopping malls, etc.). In urban locations, a commercial building often combines functions, such as an office on levels 2-10, with retail on floor 1. All municipalities / cities / regions maintain strict regulations on commercial type zoning, and have the authority to designate any zoned area as such. A business must be located inside of an area zoned at least partially for commerce to operate a business in (and out of) a commercial building. LOCATION OF LOCAL SHOPPING CENTERS: A shopping mall or shopping centre is a building or set of buildings which contain retail units, with interconnecting walkways enabling visitors to easily walk from unit to unit. Strip malls have developed since the 1920s, corresponding to the rise of suburban living in the United States after World War II. In the United Kingdom, these are called retail parks, out-of-town shopping centers, or precincts. In most of the world the term shopping centre is used, especially in Europe and Australasia; however shopping mall is also used, predominantly in North America. Shopping precinct and shopping arcade are also used. In North America, the term shopping mall is usually applied to

enclosed retail structures (and may be abbreviated to simply mall) while shopping centre usually refers to open-air retail complexes.

Malls in Ireland, pronounced "maills", are very small shopping centres placed in the centre of town. They average about twenty years in age, with a mix of local shops and chain stores. These malls do not have shops found in the high street or modern shopping centres. Shopping centres in the United Kingdom can be referred to as "shopping centres", "shopping precincts", or "town centres". A strip mall (also called a shopping plaza or mini-mall) is an open area shopping center where the stores are arranged in a row, with a sidewalk in front. Strip malls are typically developed as a unit and have large parking lots in front. They face major traffic arterials and tend to be self-contained with few pedestrian connections to surrounding neighborhoods. Strip malls vary widely in architecture. Older strip malls tend to have plain architecture with the stores arranged in a straight row; in some cases there are vacant stores. Newer strip malls are often built with elaborate architecture to blend in with the neighborhood and to attract the upscale consumer. In some cases, strip malls are broken up into smaller buildings to establish a more appropriate sense of scale and to create architectural articulation. A current trend with the purpose of screening the parking lot from the street and nearby residences is locating the buildings with little to no setback from the street. Some stores may allow for entrances from both the street sidewalk and the parking lot. Due to land use issues, strip malls in the United Kingdom are typically found on the edges of cities on Greenfield land sites, and are known as "out of town shopping centres". Those in more urban areas (often Brownfield land redeveloped sites) are more typically known as retail parks. LOCATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS: The term public school has two distinct (and virtually opposite) meanings depending on the location of usage. In the United States, Australia and Canada: A school funded from tax revenue and most commonly administered to some degree by government or local government agencies. This usage is synonymous with its British English equivalent, state school. In the United Kingdom and a few other Commonwealth countries: A traditional privately operated secondary school which usually requires the payment of fees for its pupils, and is often a boarding school. This usage is common in the United Kingdom (although can be ambiguous in Scotland). These schools, wherever located, often follow a British educational tradition and are committed in principle to public accessibility. Originally, many were single-sex boarding schools, but most independent schools are now co-educational with both boarders and day-pupils. This usage is synonymous with preparatory school in American English, though preparatory school in British English has a different meaning. Public-school education is the most common form of education in the United States and is provided mainly by local governments, with control and funding coming from three levels: federal, state, and local. Curricula, funding, teaching, and other policies are set through locally elected school boards by jurisdiction over school districts. The school districts are special-purpose districts authorized by provisions of state law. Generally, state governments can and do set minimum standards relating to almost all activities of primary and secondary schools, as well as funding and authorization to enact local school taxes to support the schools -- primarily through real property taxes. The federal government funds aid to states and school districts that meet minimum federal standards. School accreditation decisions are made by voluntary regional associations. The first tax-supported public school in America was in

Dedham, Massachusetts. The vast majority of adults born in the U.S. have attended a U.S. public school.

Public school is normally split up into three stages: primary (elementary) school (kindergarten to 4th or 5th or 6th grade), junior high (also "intermediate", or "middle") school (5th or 6th or 7th to 8th or 9th) and high school (9th or 10th to 12th, somewhat archaically also called "secondary school"), with some less populated communities incorporating high school as 7th to 12th. Some Junior High Schools (Intermediate Schools) contain 7th to 9th grades or 7th and 8th, in which case the High School is 10th to 12th or 9th to 12th respectively. The middle school format is increasing in popularity, in which the Elementary School contains kindergarten through 5th grade and the Middle School contains 6th through 8th grade. In addition, some elementary schools are splitting into two levels, sometimes in separate buildings: Primary (usually K-2) and Intermediate (3-4 or 3-5). Some middle schools consist of only 7th and 8th grades. The K-8th format is also an emerging popular concept, in which students may attend only two schools for all of their K-12 education. Many charter schools feature the K-8 format in which all primary grades are housed in one section of the school while the traditional junior high school aged students are housed in another section of the school. Some very small school districts, primarily in rural areas, still maintain a K-12 system in which all students are housed in a single school. In the United States, institutions of higher education that are operated and subsidized by U.S. states are also referred to as "public." However, unlike public secondary schools, public universities charge tuition, though these fees are usually much lower than those charged by private universities, particularly for "in-state" students. Community colleges, state colleges, and state universities are examples of public institutions of higher education. In particular, many state universities are regarded as among the best institutions of higher education in the U.S., though usually they are surpassed in ranking by certain private universities and colleges, such as those of the Ivy League, which are often very expensive and extremely selective in the students they accept. In several states, the administrations of public universities are elected via the general electoral ballot. Thus the location of public school may vary in each context i.e. it may be located within city center in old city down town areas or in the outskirts of the city in more natural environments.

AR-309: ARCHITECTURE AND TOWN PLANNING (A&TP-B) By: RAVINDAR KUMAR Assistant Professor Department of Architecture and Planning NED University of Engineering and Technology Karachi LECTURE NO: 24 TOPIC: LOCATION OF INDUSTRY & RESIDENTIAL AREAS INTRODUCTION: The theme of current lecture is location of Industry and residential areas. In order to address this theme it is imperative to answer different questions such as: What are the reasons for the location of a particular business or industry in a specific area? Was it just a snap decision or is there more of a science to the decision? This is the subject of location of industry. Similarly it is also significant to know why people decide about living in a particular housing scheme whereas; different types of residences available at variety of locations within city? The answers of these questions are outlined below. LOCATION OF INDUSTRIES AND FIRMS[1]: An industry consists of firms that each have common characteristics in terms of the nature of their economic activity. The chemical industry, for example, is made up of hundreds of firms that have the common characteristic of being involved in either dealing with or manufacturing chemicals. These chemicals might be used for a wide variety of different processes, including agriculture, construction, medicines and a wide range of others - textiles, plastics, and paper, cleaning and so on. Individual firms might choose to set up their business in a variety of locations. In some cases, businesses with common characteristics are very widely spread. Other industries tend to have firms that might be clustered in a particular area. The crucial factor in many cases will be locating where costs of production can be minimised. Planning laws and regulations might mean that it is not always possible to set up in the preferred location. The economist (and later sociologist) Alfred Weber (1868-1958) pioneered the work on location of industry way back in 1910. His theory was based on the principle that a business would seek to locate where costs could be minimised. If there were two locations, a and b, where a represented a location where the cost of setting up was lower than b, then the firm would always go to a. Weber was writing at a time when the industrial revolution resulted in a number of large industries being concentrated in certain parts of the UK - coal, steel, shipbuilding, textiles and so on. Whilst the factors that were relevant to firms in those industries are different for many firms in the 21st Century, some of the basic principles he laid down are still relevant. There are a number of factors that will influence where a business will choose to locate. NEARNESS TO POWER: Some firms require either a certain type of power/energy source or particular amounts to be able to operate effectively. This means that one consideration for location is somewhere that has relatively easy access to such sources. This might be particularly relevant for a business that uses large amounts of power in the production process. In simple terms, the location has to be in a position to be able to supply the amount of power that a business might need. Some businesses need large amounts of power to be able to produce - this might be much more than is normally available from a

domestic supply and so there has to be that source available if location is to be viable. The chemical industry is an example of production that uses large amounts of power. If we use the example of the chemical industry, the production process involved in this industry requires large amounts of gas and electricity. Providing the amount of electricity needed for such processes is not the same as the amount needed by the average house. NEARNESS TO MARKET: Access to a market for the good or service produced is an important component for some firms. The market in this context is referring to the customers who buy the good or service produced. In some cases, this can be the general public at large; others might be far narrower. For example, some businesses sell their output to a small number of other businesses. The importance of access to a market depends on the type of business and what it is involved in. For some businesses, being near to customers is essential. One obvious example is a snack bar or caf. To survive, such businesses need to be somewhere where customers will regularly pass by. In the case of our chemical firms, nearness to the market might not be quite as important as might be the case for online retailers such as Amazon, where other means of getting to the market are more important (good distribution and communication networks, for example). The importance of being near to the market might also be dictated by the nature of the product produced. Weber identified the importance of this in his original analysis. Weber noted that the ratio of the weight of raw materials to the finished product might be a factor influencing location. We refer to this as 'bulk reducing' or 'bulk increasing' industries. A bulk reducing industry is one where the finished product is less bulky and easier to transport and distribute than the raw materials. Steel is a good example of this type of industry. Steel is made from a combination of coal, iron ore and fluxes which are processed before being combined in a blast furnace where molten steel is then processed into steel slabs, plate and so on. In such circumstances, the cost of transporting the raw materials may be high compared to that of the finished product. A bulk increasing industry is one where the opposite occurs. In this case, the finished product might be more bulky than the raw materials. A good example here is the furniture industry. Completed items of furniture (not flat-packed obviously) tend to be far more bulky than the raw material used to make it. NEARNESS TO A SUPPLY OF RAW MATERIALS: Some firms may rely on a source of raw materials for their business. If these raw materials are nearby, it is pretty much common sense that transport costs can be reduced if the firm is located nearby rather than far away. This might be particularly relevant for bulk reducing firms. In Weber's time, the steel industry tended to be located near to sources of coal (for coking) and supplies of iron ore. If the raw material is not available locally then it may be that a firm chooses to locate near a port, or other point of import, where they can access the raw materials efficiently and at lowest cost. In other cases, the raw material might be less obvious. In certain parts of the UK, there tends to be a relative concentration of certain types of farming. In these cases it may be the quality of the land for arable use that might be important. In other cases it might be that certain types of land and area are more suitable for dairy farming. Even more obvious might be the proximity of many fishprocessing plants located near to fishing ports or firms involved in quarrying. NEARNESS TO A SUPPLY OF LABOUR: All businesses need labour to operate. In some cases, this labour has to have high levels of skill.

Some areas have concentrations of industry in a region and have become known for having a pool of skilled labour available. In such cases, it can save a firm both time and cost locating near to the supply of labour. This can be extended if the local labour supply is relatively cheap. A number of firms in recent years relocating some of their operations to different countries to take advantage of the supplies of skilled and cheap labour that exist: for example, call centres in India and James Dyson's relocation of manufacturing capacity to Malaysia. The Economist Intelligence Unit reported that at the time of the decision by Dyson in 2002, labour costs for a UK worker stood at 9 per hour compared to just 3 in Malaysia. Moreover, UK office rents cost 114 per square metre per year whilst similar rents in Malaysia are priced at just 38 per square metre per year. Certain parts of the country may be associated with certain types of labour. In the City of London, for example, there may be opportunities for firms in the financial industry to access supplies of highly skilled and experienced labour. There are, in addition, a number of specialist business schools in the City that are able to attract good quality teaching and research staff as well as recruiting good quality students. As a result, firms in the locality know that they have access to good quality labour. PROXIMITY OF OTHER BUSINESSES - EXTERNAL ECONOMIES OF SCALE: Where industry becomes concentrated in an area, there are generally a number of supporting or ancillary firms set up. In some cases, these firms supply specialised services or products to other firms in the industry. In and around fishing ports, for example, there might be specialist engine services, specialists in marine insurance, firms specialising in processing and distribution and so on. In such cases, any new firm seeking to enter the market might well gain benefits from the fact that the industry is concentrated in that area. In the City, there will be firms that have particular specialisms in different areas of finance, whose expertise can be a major reason for firms locating in the City. These benefits can result in lower average costs (costs per unit). This is called external economies of scale. There might also be other specialist benefits. In our example of the chemical industry, the emergency services are specially trained to deal with potential emergencies that might result from a chemical spill or explosion. In addition, there are specialist firms that deal with the problems of waste and processing of unwanted chemical residues. All of these might be of benefit to a new firm looking to set up in the area. THE REPUTATION OF AN AREA: Certain areas of the country have a reputation for particular types of business - this might often be due to its industrial past. Staffordshire is associated with high quality pottery, Nottingham with fine lace, The City for its financial expertise and Sheffield for its steel - just some examples. Any firm linked with those industries setting up in these areas might well be able to trade on the back of the reputation of the area. If a firm that sells cutlery sets up in Sheffield, it may be able to associate its business with the reputation that Sheffield has built up in relation to steel; insurance companies setting up in the City may be able to gain some reputation purely by having a postcode that is linked to the City and so on. The City has a huge reputation for the high quality of its financial services industry. Any firm in the industry setting up in this area will be able to reap the benefits of being associated with this reputation. As the structure of industry in the UK changes in favour of a more service-based economy, the importance of the concentration of industry which was a feature of the old traditional heavy industries that developed after the industrial revolution is declining. Whilst this factor may be seen as being less important it can still be a factor that a firm might consider.

TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION SERVICES: Firms that rely on good communications networks either for information transfer or distribution may well look to locate in areas where such facilities exist. This may include high quality road networks, access to trains, airports, ports and so on. Many new industrial estates have been built in out of town areas and major new trunk roads linking these estates with major road networks make locating in these areas worthwhile for some firms. For other firms, speed of information may be the crucial factor in their business. Many city areas were the first to have access to high speed data networks, broadband, cable and satellite services and so on. For a firm in the City, having high speed data access is essential to the transaction of their business. Data transfer is an important part of many businesses in the knowledge economy. Speed of transfer depends on having the right infrastructure in place - not everywhere in the country has access to super fast data transfer, which may affect decisions on location. In other examples, many hotel chains have located in particular areas often near to motorway exits around major cities or airports. Companies like Travelodge, Holiday Inn, Holiday Inn Express, Ibis and Premier Lodges have all appeared in clusters around these exits. They are hoping to take advantage of business travellers who use these main arterial routes. INCENTIVES: As the structure of industry changes, different regions of the country might experience different levels of economic growth. In some regions, the decline of old traditional industries like coal and steel has not been offset by a growth in new industries. Unemployment can be a problem in these areas. The EU might play a role in location in offering various incentives to help promote economic growth and regeneration in poor regions of the EU. As a result, various government and EU grants and incentives might be available to persuade firms to locate in these areas. The availability of low rent premises, faster planning permissions, employment subsidies (a sum of money given for every job created), reduced red tape, grants etc. can make a difference to a firm that decides to locate in that area. One of the problems, however, is that there might not be any other natural reasons for a firm to locate in these areas and when the incentives run out there might not be any reason for the firm to remain in the area. COMPETITION: Firms will be aware of the extent of the competition in an area when they are looking to locate their business. If there are several other similar businesses in the locality, it might influence their decision about location. Is this a good location decision or not? Being located near to competition can have its disadvantages but might also have some advantages. OPPORTUNITIES FOR EXPANSION: Many businesses might be looking for opportunities to expand in the future. Access to land, and the ease with which the business can expand if necessary, might therefore be something that a business will want to find out before making a location decision, or at least as part of a location decision. In some areas of the country, planning permission may be difficult to get - there may be restrictions on expansion into the countryside, various policies to encourage use of derelict land and so on. Whilst this may be of benefit to society as a whole, it is not necessarily the most cost-effective solution for a business. In some areas of the country, land and rental prices can be significant factors in location decisions.

In the south east of the UK, for example, average land prices for residential use have risen from 275,000 per hectare in 1983 to 2.49 million in 2002; in Inner and Outer London, the rise was even more dramatic with prices rising from 759,000 to 5.49 million per hectare. Compare this to Wales, where the price for a hectare in 1983 was 85,000 and rose to 980,000 by 2002. A recent report by real estate business DTZ noted that the West End of London was the most expensive place in the world to rent office space. They reported that the average cost per workstation area stood at 12,001. Hong Kong came in second at 10,170. DEVELOPMENT AGENCIES AND INWARD INVESTMENT UK Regional policy in recent years has changed its emphasis. The UK's membership of the EU has been a part of this. The approach is to have a coordinated policy with the EU to help each region achieve its full economic potential but at the same time to allow decision-making to be devolved to the lowest level, where possible. This means that the regions themselves will take a lead in encouraging economic development and supporting businesses in their region. PHYSICAL FACTORS[2]: Raw materials: The factory needs to be close to these if they are heavy and bulky to transport. Energy supply: This is needed to work the machines in a factory. Early industries were near to coalfields. Today, electricity allows more freedom. Natural Routes: River valleys and flat areas were essential in the days before railways and motorways made the movement of materials easier. Site and Land: Most industries require large accessible areas of cheap, flat land on which to build their factories. HUMAN AND ECONOMIC FACTORS[3]: Labour: A large cheap labour force is required for labour-intensive manufacturing industries. Hightech industries have to locate where suitable skilled workers are available. Market: An accessible place to sell the products is essential for many industries i.e. those that produce bulky, heavy goods that are expensive to transport; those that produce perishable or fragile goods; those that provide services to people. The market is not so important for other industries such as high-tech whose products are light in weight and cheap to transport. Such industries are said to be 'footloose'. Transport: A good transport network helps reduce costs and make the movement of materials easier. Cost of land: Greenfield sites in rural areas are usually cheaper than Brownfield sites in the city. Capital: This is the money that is invested to start the business. The amount of capital will determine the size and location of the factory. Government policies: Industrial development is encourages in some areas and restricted in others. LOCATION OF RESIDENTIAL AREA[4]: A residential area is a land use in which housing predominates, as different from industrial and commercial areas. Housing may vary significantly between, and through, residential areas. These

include single family housing, multiple family housing such as (apartments, duplexes, townhomes (or similar configurations), condominiums) or mobile homes. Zoning for residential use may permit some services or work opportunities or may totally exclude business and industry. It may permit high density land use or only permit low density uses. Residential zoning usually includes a smaller FAR (floor to area ratio) than business, commercial or industrial/manufacturing zoning. The area may also be large or small. In certain residential areas, largely rural, quite large tracts of land may exist which have no services whatsoever. Because a large distance must be traveled to access the nearest services, most journeys involve using a motor vehicle or some other form of transport. This need has resulted in Residential land development usually existing or planned infrastructure such as rail and road. The pattern of development is usually set forth in the restrictive covenants contained in the deeds to the properties in the development, but may also result from or be reinforced by zoning. Restrictive covenants are not easily changed as the agreement of all property owners (many of whom may not live in the area) may need to be obtained to effect a change. The area may also be large or small. Residential Differentiation are some of the various zones under which Residential Areas fall i.e. inner city residential, inner mixed zone, established residential, new development, urban-rural fringe, rural residential, sub-regional centers. Residential development is the dominant land-use within the City,[5] offering residents a high quality and much sought after residential environment and providing some of the finest residential streets. The leafy tree lined streets and the variety of housing type and style create a most appealing environment. The concentration of high quality community services, together with proximity to the centre of city and the good access to public transport, are necessary attraction for people who wish to live there. A more accurate prediction can be made of the types of housing required to satisfy the diverse characteristics of our population when further research in the form of a detailed "Residential Housing Needs Strategy" is undertaken. There has also been a trend for many non-residential uses to locate or creep into our residential areas. Some existing non-residential uses (such as schools) are considered integral to the residential area, providing a service to local residents, and sometimes broader population, but their growth has the potential to create traffic and other amenity problems and to displace housing. Concerning the location of new housing it is imperative to maintain and increase housing choice and diversity within existing residential areas. Increase residential development opportunities (including higher density development) in and around commercial centres and other strategic locations. Protect existing housing stock and residential use. Encourage a high standard of residential development. Minimise the impact of institutions and other nonresidential uses on their surrounding areas. Minimise the impact of commercial/industrial uses in areas adjoining residential and other sensitive uses. There are no specific socialist types of land use distribution of new housing, internal organisation of residential blocks, or location of companies. Even the principle goal of socialist city planning to locate new residential areas closed to working areas has been pursued in western planning too.[6] Thus; the residential areas shall be located in such a way in any city that may fulfill the functions of living working and recreation of a family. Furthermore; there are variety of housing types such as low income middle income and high income housing whereas; the location of each of these housing types subject to the level of affordability of a family to live within close proximity to city center or in the outskirts of the city.

AR-309: ARCHITECTURE AND TOWN PLANNING (SECTION-B) By RAVINDAR KUMAR Assistant Professor Department of Architecture and Planning NED University of Engineering and Technology Karachi LECTURE NO: 25 TOPIC: LAYOUT OF STREET, ROAD CROSSING AND LIGHTING INTRODUCTION: The theme of current lecture is, layout of street, road crossing and lighting. The main purpose of this theme is to get a clear understanding about the physical features of a street along with its major elements. The term street itself is a very vast term and it is explained and interpreted in various ways. Similarly the characteristics of streets are also plentiful. Thus in the following all these aspects of streets shall be discussed in details. WHAT IS STREET? A Street is a paved public thoroughfare in the built environment. It is a public parcel of land adjoining buildings in an urban context, on which people may freely assemble, interact, and move about. A Street is characterized by the degree and quality of street life it facilitates, whereas a road serves primarily as a through passage for vehicles or pedestrians.[1] STREET FURNITURE: Street furniture[2] is a collective term for objects and pieces of equipment installed on streets and roads for various purposes, including traffic barrier, benches, bollards, post boxes, phone boxes, streetlamps, street lighting, traffic lights, traffic signs, bus stops, grit bins, tram stops, taxi stands, public lavatories, fountains and memorials, and waste receptacles. An important consideration in the design of street furniture is how it affects road safety. STREET NAME SIGNS identify streets, for the benefit of visitors, especially postal workers and the emergency services. They may also indicate the district in which the street lies. A BENCH is essentially a chair made for more than one person, usually found in the central part of any settlement (such as plazas and parks). They are often provided by the local councils or contributors to serve as a place to rest and admire the view. Armrests in between are sometimes provided to prevent people lying down and/or to prevent people from sitting too close to someone who likes to keep some distance. BOLLARDS are posts, short poles, or pillars, with the purpose of preventing the movement of vehicles onto sidewalks or grass etc. POST BOXES, also known as MAIL BOXES, are found throughout the world, and have a variety of forms: round pillar style found in Japan and the U.K. (the two feature a difference in that the Japanese version has a round lid while the UK version is flat); rectangular blue boxes in the United States; red and yellow boxes with curved tops in Australia, some on poles. The Canadian version is a red box with a slanted back top.

PHONE BOXES or TELEPHONE BOOTHS are prominent in most cities around the world, and while ranging drastically in the amount of cover they offer users, e.g. many only cover the phone itself while others are full booths, are instantly recognisable. The widespread use of mobile phones has resulted in a decrease in their numbers. STREETLAMPS are designed to illuminate the surrounding area at night, serving not only as a deterrent to criminals but more importantly to allow people to see where they're going. TRAFFIC LIGHTS (or TRAFFIC SIGNALS) usually include three colours: green to represent "go", amber to inform drivers that the colour will alternate shortly and red to tell drivers to stop. They are generally mounted on poles or gantries or hang from wires. TRAFFIC SIGNS warn drivers of upcoming road conditions such as a "blind curve", speed limits, etc. Direction signs tell the reader the way to a location, although the sign's information can be represented in a variety of ways from that of a diagram to written instructions. Direction signs are usually mounted on poles. Recently, illumination has started to be added in order to aid nighttime users. PUBLIC LAVATORIES allow pedestrians the opportunity to use restroom facilities, either for free or for a per-use fee. STREETS TYPOLOGY: Streets are of many types and there are different names attributed to a street. For instance street can be termed as an alley, lane, avenue, boulevard etc. In addition there are streets names such as Main Street, side streets, two way streets, numbered streets, walkways and cul-de-sacs etc. Similarly there are processes attached to streets such as traffic calming etc. An ALLEY[3] or ALLEYWAY is a narrow, pedestrian lane found in urban areas which usually runs between or behind buildings. In older cities and towns in Europe, alleys are often what is left of a medieval street network, or a right of way or ancient footpath in an urban setting. In older urban development, alleys were built to allow for deliveries such as coal to the rear of houses. Alleys may be paved, or simply dirt tracks. Blind alleys have no outlet at one end and are thus a cul-de-sac. Many modern urban developments do not incorporate alleys. In some locations installation of gates to restrict alleyway access have significantly reduced burglary rates. On blocks where gates are not installed, residents sometimes erect home-made barricades at alley entrances. Alleys which are narrow pavements between/behind buildings can be known as SNICKETS, GINNELS, JENNELS or ALLEYWAYS. This has led to the word SNICKELWAY, originally in York, though the term has become more widespread. In Sussex the term TWITTEN is commonly used whilst in Liverpool the term ENTRY or JIGGER is more common. The word JITTY is also often used in Derbyshire and Leicestershire. GULLEY is the term sometimes used in the Black Country.

In Karachi and Mumbai the term PATLEE GALLEE (Narrow Street) is usually used as an admonition for cowards to runaway. In Nottinghamshire TWICHELL is a common name. In Scotland the terms CLOSE, WYND AND PEND are commonplace. JENNEL is local to Sheffield. In Glasgow, Edinburgh and Belfast, and the surrounding areas, certain alleys are known as ENTRIES, ENTRY, AND ANTRIM. In Australia and Canada the terms LANE, LANEWAY and SERVICEWAY are also used. In the United States and Canada alleys are sometimes known as REAR LANES or BACK LANES because they are at the back of buildings. The word LANE[4] has several meanings and types, it can be a portion of a paved road which is intended for a single line of vehicles and is marked by white or yellow lines or a lane is a narrow road or street, usually lacking a shoulder or a median; this is typically applied to roads, but can also be applied to urban streets or areas that used to be streets. A TRAFFIC LANE OR TRAVEL LANE is a lane for the movement of vehicles traveling from one destination to another, not including shoulders and auxiliary lanes. A THROUGH LANE or thru lane is a traffic lane for through traffic. At intersections, these may be indicated by arrows on the pavement pointing straight ahead. A CARRIAGEWAY is a series of lanes (or part of a road) in which vehicles travel. A LOADING LANE is an area next to a curb, which is reserved for loading and unloading passengers. It may be marked by a "LOADING ONLY" sign or a yellow or white curb. A TRAM LANE is a lane reserved for the use of buses, trams and taxicabs. AN EXPRESS LANE of a road is used for faster moving traffic and has less access to exits/off ramps. AN AUXILIARY LANE along a highway or motorway connects slip roads, with the entrance ramp or acceleration lane from one interchange leading to the exit ramp or deceleration lane of the next. A DECELERATION LANE is a paved or semi-paved lane adjacent to the primary road or street. It is used to improve traffic safety by allowing drivers to pull off the main road and decelerate safely in order to turn, so that the traffic behind the turning vehicle is not slowed or halted. Deceleration lanes are primarily found in suburban settings. A FIRE LANE is the area next to a curb, which is reserved for firefighting equipment, ambulances, or other emergency vehicles. Parking in these areas, often marked by red lines, usually warrants a parking ticket. A PASSING LANE is often provided on steep mountain grades, in order to allow smaller vehicles to pass larger, slower ones. This is sometimes called a climbing lane if on the uphill side. Passing lanes

may also be provided on long stretches of other roadway. On two-lane roads, passing in the lane of oncoming traffic is sometimes allowed given a long enough straightaway, if the broken line is on the normal side of travel. A COLLECTOR LANE of a road is used for slower moving traffic and has more access to exits/off ramps. A TRANSFER LANE of a road is used to move from express lanes to collector lanes, or vice-versa; it is somewhat similar to an auxiliary lane. A MERGE LANE is a lane or onramp used to merge two flows of traffic into one, with the merge lane being the lane that disappears at the end of the merging area. Merge lane lengths depend mainly on the speed differential of the two merging flows, as the slower flow has to use the lane to accelerate. THE EMERGENCY LANE of a road (also known as the breakdown lane, shoulder or hard shoulder) is reserved for breakdowns, and for emergency vehicles. The inner boundary of the lane often features rumble strips in order to physically warn drowsy or inattentive drivers that they are drifting off the roadway. This feature is seen especially often on highways and motorways, where the minimallystimulating and monotonous nature of high-speed driving at night increases the chances for driver disorientation and serious injury or death if an accident does take place. A DESIGNATED BICYCLE LANE is a portion of the roadway or shoulder designated for the exclusive or preferential use of bicyclists. This designation is indicated by special word and/or symbol markings on the pavement and "BIKE LANE" signs. A BUS LANE is reserved for buses providing public transportation on a fixed route, sometimes with overhead catenary for trolleybuses. In some countries, bus lanes may also be used by some other traffic, such as taxis, bicycles and motorbikes. A TRUCK LANE (United States) or crawler lane (Great Britain) is a lane provided on long and steep uphill stretches of high-speed roads to enhance the ability of vehicles which can maintain speed up the incline to pass those vehicles (usually heavy trucks) which cannot. In addition, these lanes are intended to optimize pavement performance and minimize pavement fatigue. A REVERSIBLE LANE, which uses overhead lights, signs, poles or barriers to indicate the current direction of travel it is to be used for. Typically, it is used at rush hour to accommodate extra traffic, and at other times as a center turn lane. In between, there is approximately one hour where no traffic is allowed. While the idea is very simple, the term suicide lane became a common slang description for this design, because many people ignored their driving or the lights. Because of their history of numerous accidents and collisions, reversible lanes are rarely used now. AN OPERATIONAL LANE OR AUXILIARY LANE is an extra lane on the entire length of highway between interchanges, giving drivers more time to merge in or out. AN OVERTAKING LANE is the lane furthest from the shoulder of a multi-lane carriageway (sometimes called the fast lane, although this is deprecated by the authorities). AN AVENUE[5] is a straight road with a line of trees or large shrubs running along each side, which is used, to emphasize the "coming to," or arrival at a landscape or architectural feature. In most cases,

the trees planted in an avenue will be all of the same species, so as to give uniform appearance along the full length of the avenue. The French term, alle, is confined normally to avenues planted in parks and landscape gardens. In urban or suburban settings, "avenue" is often a qualifier for a road name, along with "lane", "street", "way", etc. In some cities which have a grid plan, such as Manhattan, there is a convention that avenues run in a north-south direction, while streets run in an east-west direction, or vice versa. BULEVARD[6] has several generally accepted meanings. It was first introduced in the French in 1435 as boloard and has since been altered into boulevard; As a type of road, a boulevard is usually a wide, multi-lane arterial thoroughfare, divided with a median down the center, and roadways along each side as slow travel and parking lanes and for bicycle and pedestrian usage, often with an aboveaverage quality of landscaping and scenery. Some people also use the term boulevard to refer to the division or central reservation in a road. It can consist of anything from a simple thick curb of concrete, to a wide strip of grass, to a thoroughly landscaped space of trees, shrubs, and other foliage; in urban areas, boulevards can also contain public art or memorials. Wide boulevards also sometimes serve as rights-of-way for trams or light rail systems. Another use for the term boulevard is for a strip of grass between a sidewalk and a road, and located above a curb. Though in Europe the two are often adjacent, many residential neighbourhoods in the United States and Canada feature strips of grass or other greenery between the sidewalk and the road, placed in order to both beautify the street and to provide a buffer between vehicles and pedestrians. MAIN STREET[7] is the metonym for a generic street name of the primary retail street of a village, town, or small city in many parts of the world. It is usually a focal point for shops and retailers in the central business district, and is most often used in reference to retailing and socialising. Main Street is commonly used in the United States, Canada, and Ireland, some parts of Scotland and also in some countries in central Europe. HIGH STREET is the common term in the United Kingdom. In Jamaica as well as North East England and some sections of Canada, the usual term is FRONT STREET. In Cornwall, the equivalent is FORE STREET. In some larger cities, there may be several Main Streets, each relating to a specific neighborhood or formerly separate city, rather than the city as a whole. In Hong Kong, "Main Street" can be translated in Chinese into"ZHENG JIE" or "DA JIE"; however, in Hong Kong, officially "CENTRE STREET" is a branch road off Sheung Wan District. In England, the terms "MARKET STREET" or "MARKET PLACE" are often used to designate the heart of a town or city, as is the more common High Street (certainly in newer urban developments, or towns or cities which were not original market towns). HIGH STREET is often the name of a fairly busy street with small shops on either side, often in towns and villages. In Sweden, almost all towns and cities have their own main street, a street called "STORGATAN" (Literally means, "THE BIG STREET"). They are typically surrounded by stores and restaurants, and in most cases open for pedestrians only, where no vehicles are allowed.

Likewise in Norway, this type of street is called "GGATE" (Literally means "WALKING STREET"). JALAN BESAR (roughly translated from Malay as "MAIN ROAD") is a common street name used in Malaysia when referring to main streets of older urban centres in the country. Such main streets were originally constructed during British colonisation, and were named in English as "Main Street" or "Main Road", depending on the size and nature of the urban centre. In rural Sindh there are many small villages or sub districts or taluka level settlements that have one main central street bazaar (market) also known as DHAK BAZAAR (literally means a COVERED MARKET) which is an example of Main Street in our local context of Pakistan. A SIDE STREET[8] is a street that intersects a main street and ends there. Most side streets are lined with residences. Side streets when built are mostly intended only for the traffic of their residents and visitors. A TWO-WAY STREET[9] is a street that allows vehicles to travel in both directions. On most two-way streets, a line is painted down in the middle of the road to remind drivers to stay on their side of the road. If there is no line, a car must stay on the appropriate side and watch for cars coming in the opposite direction and prepare to pull over to let them pass. A two-way street can also be used as an idiomatic metaphor to indicate that something goes both ways. For example, "Communication within a relationship must be a two- way street that is heavily traveled in both directions." A NUMBERED STREET[10] is a street whose name is a number rather than a worded name. Numbered streets, are commonly identified with names like "street," "avenue," etc., are among the most common street names found in North America. Numbered streets exist in cities which have grid-based naming systems, with numbers usually starting at 1 and then proceeding in numerical order. Some cities also have lettered street names. For example, Washington, D.C., has streets identified as a letter followed by "Street," such as Street A. New York has avenues titled "Avenue" followed by the respective letter of the alphabet, such as Avenue D. A WALKWAY[11] is an umbrella term for all formal surfaces which support the act of walking. This includes sidewalks, trails, paths, stairs, ramps and open passageways. The walkway is a path for walking that is generally not enclosed. It can be at ground level, or it can be elevated, such as a boardwalk, or a floating dock/trail. It can be a simple constructed path or something more complex to cross a road or a body of water. An open pedestrian overpass or a special tunnel is also an element of a walkway. It can also be used to board and remove passengers from aircraft to the terminal building. A CUL-DE-SAC[12] is a dead-end street with only one inlet/outlet. In urban planning culs-de-sac are created to limit through-traffic in residential areas. While some culs-de-sac provide no possible passage except in and out of their road entry, others allow cyclists, pedestrians or other nonautomotive traffic to pass through connecting easements or paths. The word "cul-de-sac" and its variants, "dead end" and "no exit", have inspired metaphorical uses in literature and in culture too. TRAFFIC CALMING[13] is a set of strategies used by urban planners and traffic engineers which aim to slow down or reduce traffic, thereby improving safety for pedestrians and bicyclists as well as improving the environment for residents. Traffic calming was traditionally justified on the grounds of pedestrian safety and reduction of noise and local air pollution which are side effects of the traffic.

However, streets have many social and recreational functions which are severely impaired by car traffic. The Livable Streets study found that residents of streets with light traffic had, on average, three more friends and twice as many acquaintances as the people on streets with heavy traffic which was otherwise similar in dimensions, income, etc. For much of the twentieth century, streets were designed by engineers who were charged only with ensuring traffic flow and not with fostering the other functions of streets. The basis for traffic calming is broadening traffic engineering to include designing for these functions. There are 3 "Es" that traffic engineers refer to when discussing traffic calming: Engineering, (community) Education, and (police) Enforcement. Because neighborhood traffic management studies have shown that often it is the residents themselves who are contributing to the perceived speeding problem within the neighborhood, it is stressed that the most effective traffic calming plans will entail all three components, and that engineering measures alone will not produce satisfactory results. A number of visual changes to roads are being made, to many streets, to bring about more attentive driving, reduced speeds, reduced crashes, and greater tendency to yield to pedestrians. Visual traffic calming includes lane narrowing (9-10'), road diets (reduction in lanes), use of trees next to streets, on-street parking, and buildings placed in urban fashion close to streets. Physical devices include speed humps, speed cushions, and speed tables, sized for the desired speed. Such measures slow cars to between 10 and 25 miles (15-40 km) per hour. Most devices are made of asphalt or concrete but rubber traffic calming products are emerging as an effective alternative with several advantages. TRAFFIC CALMING CAN INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING ENGINEERING MEASURES: Narrower Traffic Lanes streets can be narrowed by extending the sidewalk, adding bollards or planters, or adding a bike lane or parking. Narrowing traffic lanes differs from other road treatments by making slower speeds seem more natural to drivers and less of an artificial imposition, as opposed to most other treatments used that physically force lower speeds or restrict route choice. Speed Bumps, sometimes split or offset in the middle to help emergency vehicles reduce delay. Speed Humps, parabolic devices that are less aggressive than speed bumps and used on residential streets. Speed Tables, long flat-topped speed humps that slow cars more gradually than humps. Speed Cushions, a series of three small speed humps that slow cars down but allow emergency vehicles to straddle them so as not to slow response time. Chicanes, which create a horizontal deflection causing vehicles to slow as they would for a curve; Raised Pedestrian Crossings and Raised Intersection. Curb Extensions (also called bull bouts) which narrow the width of the roadway at Pedestrian Crossings. Pedestrian Refuges or small islands in the middle of the street; Median DIVERTERS to prevent left turns or through movements into a residential area; Changing the surface material or texture (for example, the selective use of Brick or Cobblestone); Additional give way (yield) signs;

Converting One-Way Streets into Two-Way Streets. Chokers, which are curb extensions that narrow the roadway to a single lane at points. Allowing parking on one or both sides of a street, converting an intersection into a Cul-De-Sac or Dead End, Boom Barrier, restricting through traffic to authorised vehicles only. Close streets to create the Pedestrian Zones. Watchman traffic calming system etc. ROAD CROSSING: A pedestrian crossing[1] or crosswalk is a designated point on a road at which some means are employed to assist pedestrians wishing to cross. They are designed to keep pedestrians together where they can be seen by motorists, and where they can cross most safely with the flow of vehicular traffic. Pedestrian crossings are often at intersections, but may also be at other points on busy roads that would otherwise be perilous to attempt to cross. They are common near schools or in other areas where there are a large number of children. Crosswalks can be considered a traffic calming technique. CHARACTERISTICS OF ROAD CROSSING: Crossings are of various types. The simplest crossings may just consist of some markings on the road surface. These are often called Zebra crossings, referring to the alternate white and black stripes painted on the road surface. Depending on local laws, pedestrians crossing the road may or may not have priority over road traffic when using the crossing. If the pedestrian has priority, then they have an incentive to use the crossing instead of crossing the road at other places. In some countries, pedestrians may not have priority, but may be committing an offence if they cross the road elsewhere. In this respect term Jaywalking is used. Jaywalking[2] is an informal term used to refer to illegal or reckless pedestrian crossing of a roadway. Examples include a pedestrian crossing between intersections (outside a crosswalk, marked or unmarked) without yielding to drivers and starting to cross a crosswalk at a signalized intersection without waiting for a permissive indication to be displayed. Some crossings have special signals consisting of electric lamps or light-emitting diode (LED) panels. The signals allow pedestrians and road traffic to use the crossing alternately. On some traffic signals, pressing a button is required to trigger the signal. These signals may be integrated into a regular traffic light arrangement or may be on their own if the crossing is not at an intersection. Audible or tactile signals may also be included to assist people who have poor sight. Sites with extremely high traffic or roads where pedestrians are not allowed (freeways or motorways) may instead be crossed pedestrian bridges or tunnels. A variation on the bridge concept, often called a skyway or skywalk, is sometimes implemented in regions that experience inclement weather. In many cities, countdown clocks are being added to give notice to both drivers and pedestrians the time remaining on the crossing signal. Special markings are often made on the road surface, both to direct pedestrians and to prevent motorists from stopping vehicles in the way of foot traffic. There are many varieties of signal and marking layouts around the world and even within single countries. In the United States, there are many inconsistencies, although the variations are usually minor. There are several distinct types in the United Kingdom, each with their own name. Pedestrian refuges or small islands in the middle of a street may be added when a street is very wide, as these crossings can be too long for some individuals to cross in one cycle. In places where there is very

high pedestrian traffic, pedestrian scrambles may be used, which stop vehicular traffic in all directions at the same time. Another relatively widespread variation is the Curb extension (also known as a bulb-out) which narrows the width of the street and is used in combination with crosswalk markings. STREET LIGHT: A Street light, lamppost, street lamp, light standard, or lamp standard is a raised source of light on the edge of a road, which is turned on or lit at a certain time every night. Modern lamps may also have light-sensitive photocells to turn them on at dusk, off at dawn, or activate automatically in dark weather. Also, it is not uncommon for street lights to be on posts which have wires strung between them, such as on telephone poles or utility poles. HISTORY OF STREET LIGHTING[14]: Before incandescent lamps, gas lighting was employed in cities. The earliest lamps required that a lamplighter tour the town at dusk, lighting each of the lamps, but later designs employed ignition devices that would automatically strike the flame when the gas supply was activated. The earliest of such street lamps were built in the Arab Empire, especially in Crdoba, Spain.[15] The first electric street lighting employed arc lamps, initially the'Electric candle', developed by the Russians in 1875. This was a carbon arc lamp employing alternating current, which ensured that the electrodes burnt down at the same rate. Thames Embankment in London had the first electric street lighting in Britain. The United States was swift in adopting arc lighting, and by 1890 over 130,000 were in operation in the US, commonly installed in exceptionally tall moonlight towers. The first street in the UK to be lit by electric light was Mosley Street, in Newcastle-upon-Tyne. The street was lit by Joseph Swan's incandescent lamp in February, 1879.[16] First in the United States, and second overall, was the Public Square road system in Cleveland, Ohio, on April 29, 1879. Wabash, Indiana holds the title of being the third electrically-lit city in the world, which took place on February 2, 1880. Four 3,000 candlepower Brush arc lamps suspended over the courthouse rendered the town square "as light as midday." Kimberley, a city in the centre of South Africa, was the first city in Africa to have electric street lights - first lit on 1 September 1882. In Latin America, San Jose, Costa Rica was the first city; the system was launched on August 9, 1884, with 25 lamps powered by a hydroelectric plant. Timioara, in present-day Romania, was the first city in mainland Europe to have electric public lighting on the 12 of November 1884. 731 lamps were used. In 1888 Tamworth, New South Wales, Australia became the first location in the Southern Hemisphere to have electric street lighting, giving the city the title of "First City of Light". Arc lights had two major disadvantages. First, they emit an intense and harsh light which, although useful at industrial sites like dockyards, was discomforting in ordinary city streets. Second, they are maintenance-intensive, as carbon electrodes burn away swiftly. With the development of cheap, reliable and bright incandescent light bulbs at the end of the 19th century, they passed out of use for street lighting, but remained in industrial use longer.

Incandescent lamps were primarily used for street lighting until the advent of high-intensity discharge lamps. They were often operated in high-voltage series circuits. Series circuits were popular since the higher voltage in these circuits produced more light per watt consumed. Furthermore, before the invention of photoelectric controls, a single switch or clock could regulate all the lights in an entire district. To avoid having the entire system go dark if a single lamp burned out, each street lamp had to be equipped with a device that ensured that the circuit would remain intact. Early series street lights were equipped with isolation transformers that would allow current to pass across the transformer whether the bulb worked or not. Later the FILM CUTOUT was invented. The film cutout was a small disk of insulating film that separated two contacts connected to the two wires leading to the lamp. If the lamp failed (an open circuit), the current through the string became zero, causing the entire voltage of the circuit (thousands of volts) to be imposed across the insulating film, penetrating it as described in Ohm's law. In this way, the failed lamp was bypassed and illumination restored to the rest of the street. (This is the same principle used in Christmas tree lights. The street light circuit contained an automatic device to regulate the voltage in the circuit, preventing the current from increasing as additional lamps burned out, preserving the life of the remaining lamps. When the failed lamp was replaced, a new piece of film was installed, once again separating the contacts in the cutout. This style of street lighting was recognizable by the large porcelain insulator that separated the lamp and reflector from the light's mounting arm. The insulator was necessary because the two contacts in the lamp's base may have operated at several thousands of volts above ground/earth. Today, street lighting commonly uses high-intensity discharge lamps, often HPS high pressure sodium lamps. Such lamps provide the greatest amount of photopic illumination for the least consumption of electricity. However when scotopic/photopic light calculations are used, it can be seen how inappropriate HPS lamps are for night lighting. White light sources have been shown to double driver peripheral vision and increase driver brake reaction time at least 25%. When S/P light calculations are used, HPS lamp performance needs to be reduced by a minimum value of 75%. This is now a standard design criterion for Australian roads. PURPOSES OF STREET LIGHTS: There are three distinct main uses of street lights, each requiring different types of lights and placement. Misuse of the different types of lights can make the situation worse by compromising visibility or safety. BEACON LIGHTS A modest steady light at the intersection of two roads is an aid to navigation because it helps a driver see the location of a side road as he comes closer to it and he can adjust his braking and know exactly where to turn if he intends to leave the main road or see if someone is at the intersection. A beacon light's function is to say "here I am" and even a dim light provides enough contrast against the dark night to serve the purpose.

To prevent the dangers caused by a car driving through a pool of light, a beacon light must never shine onto the main road, and not brightly onto the side road. In residential areas, this is usually the only appropriate lighting, and it has the bonus side effect of providing spill lighting onto any sidewalk there for the benefit of pedestrians. On Interstate highways this purpose is commonly served by simply placing reflectors at the sides of the road to reflect the light coming from people's headlights. ROADWAY LIGHTS: Street lights are not normally intended to illuminate the driving route (headlights are preferred), but to reveal signs and hazards outside of the headlights' beam. Because of the dangers discussed above, roadway lights are properly used sparingly and only when a particular situation justifies increasing the risk. This usually involves an intersection with several turning movements and much signage, situations where drivers must take in much information quickly that is not in the headlights' beam. In these situations (A freeway junction or exit ramp) the intersection may be lit so that drivers can quickly see all hazards, and a well designed plan will have gradually increasing lighting for approximately a quarter of a minute before the intersection and gradually decreasing lighting after it. The main stretches of highways remain unlighted to preserve the driver's night vision and increase the visibility of oncoming headlights. If there is a sharp curve where headlights will not illuminate the road, a light on the outside of the curve is often justified. If it is desired to light a roadway (perhaps due to heavy and fast multilane traffic), to avoid the dangers of casual placement of street lights it should not be lit intermittently, as this requires repeated eye readjustment which implies eyestrain and temporary blindness when entering and leaving light pools. In this case the system is designed to eliminate the need for headlights. This is usually achieved with bright lights placed on high poles at close regular intervals so that there is consistent light along the route. The lighting goes from curb to curb. Research a few years ago suggested that by comparison to other countries, more pedestrians are hit by motor vehicles at night in Britain. The theory behind this was that Britain almost exclusively, used low pressure sodium street lighting, (LPS); unlike the rest of the world that use mercury vapour gas discharge lighting. This was most noticeable when flying in from Europe at night and seeing a warm orange glow when approaching Britain. LPS lighting, being monochromatic, shows pedestrians as shadowy forms, unlike other forms of street lighting. In recognition of this, pedestrian crossings are now lit by additional "white" lighting, and sodium lighting is being replaced by modern types. SECURITY LIGHTING: Security lighting is similar to high-intensity lighting on a busy major street, with no pools of light and dark, but with the lighted area extending onto people's property, at least to their front door. This requires a different type of fixture and lens. The increased glare experienced by drivers going through the area might be considered a trade-off for increased security. This is what would normally be used along sidewalks in dense areas of cities. Often unappreciated is that the light from a full moon is brighter than most security lighting.

DANGERS OF STREET LIGHTS: There are two optical phenomena that need to be recognized in street light installations. The loss of night vision because of the accommodation reflex of drivers' eyes is the greatest danger. As drivers emerge from an unlighted area into a pool of light from a street light their pupils quickly constrict to adjust to the brighter light, but as they leave the pool of light the dilation of their pupils to adjust to the dimmer light is much slower, so they are driving with impaired vision. As a person gets older the eye's recovery speed gets slower, so driving time and distance under impaired vision increases. Oncoming headlights are more visible against a black background than a grey one. The contrast creates greater awareness of the oncoming vehicle. Stray voltage is also a concern in many cities. Stray voltage can accidentally electrify light poles and has the potential to injure or kill anyone who comes into contact with the pole.[17] Some cities have employed the Electrified Cover Safeguard technology which sounds an alarm and flashes a light, to warn the public, when a pole becomes dangerously electrified. There are also physical dangers. Street light stanchions (poles) pose a collision risk to motorists. This can be reduced by designing them to break away when hit (frangible or collapsible supports), protecting them by guardrails, or both. High winds or accumulated metal fatigue also occasionally topple street lights.

AR-309: ARCHITECTURE AND TOWN PLANNING (SECTION-B) By RAVINDAR KUMAR Assistant Professor Department of Architecture and Planning NED University of Engineering and Technology Karachi LECTURE NO: 26 TOPIC: COMMUNITY PLANNING INTRODUCTION: If you want to know how a shoe fits ask the person who wear it not the person who made it.[1] All over the world there is increasing demand from all sides for more local involvement in the planning and management of the environment. It is widely recognised that this is the only way that people will get the surroundings they want. And it is now seen as the best way of ensuring that communities become safer, stronger, wealthier and more sustainable. But how should it be done? How can local people wherever they live best involve themselves in the complexities of architecture, planning and urban design? How can professionals best build on local knowledge and resources? Over the past few decades, a wide range of methods has been pioneered in different countries. They include new ways of people interacting, new types of event, new types of organisation, new services and new support frameworks. This lecture provides an overview of these new methods of community planning. BENEFIT OF COMMUNITY PLANNING: When people are involved in shaping their local surroundings, the benefits can include: 1. Additional Resources: Governments rarely have sufficient means to solve all the problems in an area. Local people can bring additional resources which are often essential if their needs are to be met and dreams fulfilled. 2. Better Decisions: Local people are invariably the best source of knowledge and wisdom about their surroundings. Better decision-making results if this is harnessed. 3. Building community: The process of working together and achieving things together creates a sense of community. 4. Compliance with legislation: Community involvement is often, and increasingly, a statutory requirement. 5. Democratic credibility: Community involvement in planning accords with peoples right to participate in decisions that affect their lives. It is an important part of the trend towards democratisation of all aspects of society. 6. Easier fundraising: Many grant-making organisations prefer, or even require, communityinvolvement to have occurred before handing out financial assistance. 7. Empowerment: Involvement builds local peoples confidence, capabilities, skills and ability to cooperate. This enables them to tackle other challenges, both individually and collectively. 8. More appropriate results: Design solutions are more likely to be in tune with what is needed and wanted. Involvement allows proposals to be tested and refined before adoption, resulting in better use of resources.

9. Professional education: Working closely with local people helps professionals gain a greater insight into the communities they seek to serve. So they work more effectively and produce better results. 10. Responsive environment: The environment can more easily be constantly tuned and refined to cater for peoples changing requirements. 11. Satisfying public demand: People want to be involved in shaping their environment and mostly seem to enjoy it. 12. Speedier development: People gain a better understanding of the options realistically available and are likely to start thinking positively rather than negatively. Time-wasting conflicts can often be avoided. 13. Sustainability: People feel more attached to an environment they have helped create. They will therefore manage and maintain it better, reducing the likelihood of vandalism, neglect and subsequent need for costly replacement. GETTING STARTED WITH COMMUNITY PLANNING: How do we get started with community planning? How do we decide which methods to use, and when? How do we design an overall strategy geared to our own circumstances? The approach adopted will be different for every community. There is rarely quick fix or blueprint. Each place needs to carefully devise its own community planning strategy to suit local conditions and needs. But there are principles, methods and scenarios which appear to be universally relevant, and can be drawn on for inspiration and guidance. They are based on pioneering projects and experience from many countries over the past few decades. It is unlikely that we would be able to draw up a complete strategy at the outset. Flexibility is important, in any case, to be able to respond to new circumstances and opportunities. But planning a provisional overall strategy is a useful discipline so that everyone understands the context in which the chosen methods are being used arid the purpose of each stage. First, define the goal or purpose. Then devise a strategy to achieve it. 1. At first we need to understand the general principles and philosophy of community planning 2. Secondly we need to understand the methods and range of options available for community planning 3. Thirdly we need to develop a scenario to see if any case exist elsewhere in the world that may relate to our own context so as to get inspiration 4. Fourthly we need to sketch out a scenario of our own situation 5. Fifthly we need to develop our strategies and planner i.e. action plan, event plan and progress monitoring plan 6. Sixthly we think about the people / community to be involved 7. Seventhly we produce an item wise budget and allocate responsibilities to people 8. Finally we need to organise a process planning meeting with the community to review the implementation of our plan Once we have done this we will be in a position to assess the options available and resources required. We will be working with a fixed budget and known contributors, with our limited options. More likely, securing financial and other support will be part of the process. Raising funding may not be easy, but organisations of all kinds are increasingly prepared to contribute as they begin to see

how community planning activity can benefit the communities and there is a great deal that can be achieved by obtaining 'support in kind'; help and assistance in non-financial terms. PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNITY PLANNING[2]: 1. Accept different agendas: People will want to be involved for a variety of reasons, for instance: academic enquiry, altruism, curiosity, fear of change, financial gain, neighbourliness, professional duty, protection of interests, socialising. This need not be a problem but it helps to be aware of peoples different agendas. 2. Accept limitations: No community planning activity can solve all the worlds problems. But that is not a reason for holding back. Limited practical improvements will almost always result, and community planning activity can often act as a catalyst for more fundamental change. 3. Accept varied commitment: Far too much energy is wasted complaining that certain people do not participate when the opportunity is provided. All of us could spend our lives many times over working to improve the local environment. Everyone has their own priorities in life and these should be respected. If people do not participate it is likely to be because they are happy to let others get on with it, they are busy with things which are more important to them or the process has not been made sufficiently interesting. 4. Agree rules and boundaries: There should be a common understanding by all main interest groups of the approach adopted. Particularly in communities where there is fear for instance that others may be trying to gain territorial advantage it is vital that the rules and boundaries are clearly understood and agreed. In particular it is important to be clear about what can and cannot be changed as a result of any community involvement. 5. Avoid jargon: Use plain language. Jargon prevents people from engaging and is usually a smokescreen to hide incompetence, ignorance or arrogance. 6. Be honest: Be open and straightforward about the nature of any activity. People will generally participate more enthusiastically if they know that something can be achieved through their participation (eg if there is a budget for a capital project). But they may be quite prepared to participate at risk providing they know the odds. If there is only a small chance of positive change as a result of people participating, say so. Avoid hidden agendas. 7. Be transparent: The objectives and peoples roles should be clear and transparent at events. For instance, it may seem trivial but the importance of name badges to prevent events being the preserve of the incrowd can never be stressed enough. 8. Be visionary yet realistic: Nothing much is likely to be achieved without raising expectations. Yet dwelling entirely on the utopian can be frustrating. Strike a balance between setting visionary utopian goals and being realistic about the practical options available. 9. Build local capacity: Long-term community sustainability depends on developing human and social capital. Take every

opportunity to develop local skills and capacity. Involve local people in surveying their own situation, running their own programmes and managing local assets. Help people to understand how planning processes work and how they can be influenced. Communications and cultural activities are particularly effective at building capacity. 10. Communicate: Use all available media to let people know what you are doing and how they can get involved. Community newspapers or broadsheets in particular are invaluable. Community newspapers and, increasingly, websites are invaluable. Information provision is a vital element of all participatory activities. 11. Encourage collaboration: Create partnerships wherever possible between the various interest groups involved and with potential contributors such as financial institutions. 12. Flexibility: Be prepared to modify processes as circumstances dictate. Avoid inflexible methods and strategies. 13. Focus on attitudes: Behaviour and attitude are just as, if not more, important than methods. Encourage self-critical awareness, handing over control, personal responsibility and sharing. 14. Focus on existing interests: Start participatory working with a focus on the existing interests and motivations of local people. They will then see the relevance of being involved. 15. Follow up: Lack of follow-up is the most common failing, usually due to a failure to plan and budget for it. Make sure you set aside time and resources for documenting, publicising and acting on the results of any community planning initiative. 16. Go at the right pace: Rushing can lead to problems. On the other hand, without deadlines things can drift. Using experienced external advisors may speed up the process but often at the expense of developing local capacity. Get the balance right. 17. Go for it: This is the phrase used most by people who have experienced community planning when asked what their advice would be to others. You are bound to have doubts; it is usually a leap in the dark. But you are unlikely to regret taking the plunge. 18. Have fun: Getting involved in creating and managing the environment should not be a chore. It can be a great opportunity to meet people and have fun. The most interesting and sustainable environments have been produced where people have enjoyed creating them. Community planning requires humour. Use cartoons, jokes and games whenever possible. 19. Always Work on Human scale: Work in communities of a manageable scale. This is usually where people at least recognise each other. Where possible, break up larger areas into a series of smaller ones and translate regional issues to a local scale. Working on regional planning issues requires a high level of coordination between community and interest groups and the use of specific methods. 20. Integrate with decision-making: Community planning activity needs to be integrated with government decision-making processes. Participatory processes are undermined if there is no clear link to decision-making. 21. Involve all those affected:

Community planning works best if all parties are committed to it. Involve all the main interested parties as early as possible, preferably in the planning of the process. Activities in which key players (such as landowners or planners) sit on the sidelines are all too common and rarely achieve their objectives completely. Time spent winning over cynics before you start is well worthwhile. If there are people or groups who cannot be convinced at the outset, keep them informed and give them the option of joining in later on. 22. Involve all sections of the community: People of different ages, gender, backgrounds and cultures almost invariably have different perspectives. Ensure that a full spectrum of the community is involved. This is usually far more important than involving large numbers. 23. Learn from others: There is no need to re-invent the wheel. One of the best sources of information is people who have done it before. Dont think you know it all. No one does. Be open to new approaches. Get in touch with people from elsewhere who have relevant experience. Go and visit them and see their projects; seeing is believing. Do not be afraid of experienced consultants but choose and brief them carefully. 24. Local ownership of the process: The community planning process should be owned by local people. Even though consultants or national organisations may be providing advice and taking responsibility for certain activities, the local community should take responsibility for the overall process. 25. Maintain momentum: Regularly monitor progress to ensure that initiatives are built on and objectives achieved. Development processes are invariably lengthy; the participation process needs to stay the course. If there has to be a break, start again from where you left off, not from the beginning. Periodic review sessions can be very valuable to maintain momentum and community involvement. 26. Mixture of methods: Use a variety of involvement methods as different people will want to take part in different ways. For instance, some will be happy to write letters, others will prefer to make comments at an exhibition or take part in workshop sessions. 27. Now is the right time: The best time to start involving people is at the beginning of any programme. The earlier the better; But if programmes have already begun, participation should be introduced as soon as possible. Start now. 28. Ongoing involvement: Community involvement in planning issues needs to be an ongoing and continuous activity and be supported accordingly. One-off consultations with tight deadlines only have limited value. 29. Personal initiative: Virtually all community planning initiatives have happened only because an individual has taken the initiative. Dont wait for others. That individual could be you! 30. Plan your own process carefully: Careful planning of the process is vital. Avoid rushing into any one approach. Look at alternatives. Design a process to suit the circumstances. This may well involve combining a range of methods or devising new ones. 31. Plan for the local context:

Develop unique strategies for each neighbourhood. Understand local characteristics and traditions and use them as a starting point for planning. Encourage regional and local diversity. 32. Prepare properly: The most successful activities are invariably those on which sufficient time and effort have been given to preliminary organisation and engaging those who may be interested. 33. Process is as important as product: The way that things are done is often as important as the end result. But remember that the aim is implementation. Participation is important but is not an end in itself. 34. Professional enablers: Professionals and administrators should see themselves as enablers, helping local people achieve their goals, rather than as providers of services and solutions. 35. Quality not quantity: There is no such thing as a perfect participation process. The search for one is healthy only if this fact is accepted. Generally, the maximum participation by the maximum number of people is worth aiming at. But any participation is better than none and the quality of participation is more important than the numbers involved. A well organised event for a small number of people can often be more fruitful than a less well organised event for larger numbers. 36. Reach all sectors: Use methods to reach all sectors of the community for example young people, minority ethnic communities, small businesses, the silent majority, the hard to reach. But take care to avoid further alienation of disadvantaged groups by creating separate processes. 37. Record and document: Make sure participation activities are properly recorded and documented so that it can be clearly seen who has been involved and how. Easily forgotten, such records can be invaluable at a later stage. 38. Respect cultural context: Make sure that your approach is suitable for the cultural context in which you are working. Consider local attitudes to gender, informal livelihoods, social groupings, speaking out in public and so on. 39. Respect local knowledge: All people, whether literate or not, whether rich or poor, whether children, women or men, have a remarkable understanding of their surroundings and are capable of analysing and assessing their situation, often better than trained professionals. Respect local perceptions, choices and abilities and involve local people in setting goals and strategies. 40. Shared control: The extent of public participation in any activity can vary from very little to a great deal. Different levels are appropriate at different stages of the planning process but shared control at the planning and design stage is the crucial ingredient. 41. Special interest groups: Important Groups representing different special interests have a vital role to play in shaping the environment because of its complexity. Decision-makers need to consider evidence which represents best the variety of interests of current and future communities, including taking into account views of specific interest groups with particular knowledge. 42. Spend money: Effective participation processes take time and energy. There are methods to suit a range of budgets

and much can be achieved using only peoples time and energy. But over-tight budgets usually lead to cutting corners and poor results. Remember that community planning is an important activity, the success or failure of which may have dramatic implications for future generations as well as your own resources. Budget generously. 43. Think on your feet: Once the basic principles and language of participatory planning are understood, experienced practitioners will find it easy to improvise. Avoid feeling constrained by rules or guidance 44. Train: Training is invaluable at all levels. Encourage visits to other projects and attendance on courses. Build in training to all your activities. 45. Trust in others honesty: Start from a position of trusting others and generally this will be reciprocated. Lack of trust is usually due to lack of information. 46. Use experts appropriately: The best results emerge when local people work closely and intensively with experts from all the necessary disciplines. Creating and managing the environment is very complicated and requires a variety of expertise and experience to do it well. Do not be afraid of expertise, embrace it. But avoid dependency on or hijacking by, professionals. Keep control local. Use experts little and often to allow local participants time to develop capability, even if it means they sometimes make mistakes. 47. Use facilitators: Orchestrating group activities is a real skill. Without good facilitation the most articulate and powerful may dominate. Particularly if large numbers of people are involved, ensure that the person (or people) directing events have good facilitation skills. If not, hire someone who has. 48. Use local talent: Make use of local skills and professionalism within the community before supplementing them with outside assistance. This will help develop capability within the community and help achieve longterm sustainability. 49. Use outsiders, but carefully: A central principle of community planning is that local people know best. But outsiders, if well briefed, can provide a fresh perspective which can be invigorating. Getting the right balance between locals and outsiders is important; avoid locals feeling swamped or intimidated by foreigners. 50. Visualise: People can participate far more effectively if information is presented visually rather than in words. A great deal of poor development, and hostility to good development, is due to people not understanding what it will look like. Use graphics, maps, illustrations, cartoons, drawings, photomontages and models wherever possible. And make the process itself visible by using flipcharts, Post-it notes, coloured dots and banners. 51. Walk before you run: Developing a participatory culture takes time. Start by using simple participation methods and work up to using more complex ones as experience and confidence grow. 52. Work on location: Wherever possible, base community planning activities physically in the area being planned. This makes it much easier for everyone to bridge the gap from concept to reality.

AR-309: ARCHITECTURE AND TOWN PLANNING (A&TP-B) By RAVINDAR KUMAR Assistant Professor Department of Architecture and Planning NED University of Engineering and Technology Karachi

LECTURE NO: 27 TOPIC: SUBURBAN DEVELOPMENT INTRODUCTION: In order to understand the process of suburban development; it is imperative to at first grasp the concept of suburbs and suburban growth and then an interpretation of the phrase suburban development in the context of a town, city and a region may be possible. In the following all these three issues are discussed and described in details. WHAT IS MEANT BY SUBURBS? Suburbs[1] are commonly defined as smaller residential communities lying immediately outside a city. In the United States, suburbs have a prevalence of usually detached[2] single-family homes.[3] Some suburbs have a degree of political autonomy, and most have lower population density than inner city neighborhoods. Modern suburbs grew in the 20th century as a result of improved road and rail transport and an increase in commuting. Suburbs tend to proliferate around cities which ideally have an abundance of adjacent flat land.[4] Any particular suburban area is referred to as a suburb, while suburban areas on the whole are referred to as the suburbs or suburbia, with the demonym being a suburbanite. ETYMOLOGY AND USAGE OF THE TERM SUBURB: The word is derived from the Old French subburbe and ultimately from the Latin suburbium, formed from sub, meaning "under", and urbs, meaning "city". In Rome, important people tended to live within the city wall on one of the seven roman hills, while the lower classes often lived outside of the walls and at the foot of the hills. "Under" in later usage sometimes referred variously to lesser wealth, political power, population, or population density. The first recorded usage, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, comes from Wycliffe in 1380, where the form subarbis is used. SUBURB HAS DIFFERENT MEANINGS IN DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE WORLD: In the United States, Canada, suburb usually refers to a separate municipality, borough, or unincorporated area outside a town or city. This definition is evident in the title of David Rusk's book CITIES WITHOUT SUBURBS[5], which promotes metropolitan government. U.S. colloquial usage sometimes shortens the term to 'burb, and "the Burbs" first appeared as a term for the suburbs of Chicago. In Ireland and the United Kingdom, suburb merely refers to residential areas outside the city centre, regardless of administrative boundaries.

Suburbs in this sense are not separated by open countryside to the city centre. In large cities such as London, suburbs include formerly separate towns and villages which have been gradually absorbed during city's growth and expansion. In Australia and New Zealand, suburbs have become formalized as geographic subdivisions of a city and are used by postal services in addressing. In rural areas of Australia their equivalent are called localities. In Australia, the terms inner suburb and outer suburb are used to differentiate between the higher-density suburbs with close proximity to the city center, and the lower-density suburbs on the outskirts of the urban area. Inner suburbs, such as Te Aro in Wellington, Prahran in Melbourne and Ultimo in Sydney, are usually characterised by higher density apartment housing and greater integration between commercial and residential areas. HISTORY OF SUBURBS: Prior to the 19th century, suburb often correlated with the outlying areas of cities where work was most inaccessible; implicitly, where the poorest people had to live. Charles Dickens used the word this way, albeit not exclusively, in his descriptions of contemporary London. The modern American usage of the term came about during the course of the 19th century, as improvements in transportation and sanitation made it possible for wealthy developments to exist on the outskirts of cities. The Australian and New Zealand usage came about as outer areas were quickly surrounded in fast-growing cities, but retained the appellation suburb; the term was eventually applied to the original core as well. GROWTH OF SUBURBS IN UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: The growth of suburbs was facilitated by the development of zoning laws, redlining and various innovations in transport. After World War II availability of FHA loans stimulated a housing boom in American suburbs. In the older cities of the northeast U.S., streetcar suburbs originally developed along train or trolley lines that could shuttle workers into and out of city centers where the jobs were located. This practice gave rise to the term bedroom community, meaning that most daytime business activity took place in the city, with the working population leaving the city at night for the purpose of going home to sleep. The growth in the use of trains, and later automobiles and highways, increased the ease with which workers could have a job in the city while commuting in from the suburbs. GROWTH OF SUBURBS IN UNITED KINGDOM: In the United Kingdom, railways stimulated the first mass exodus to the suburbs. The Metropolitan Railway, for example, was active in building and promoting its own housing estates in the north-west of London, consisting mostly of detached houses on large plots, which it then marketed as "Metroland".[6] As car ownership rose and wider roads were built, the commuting trend accelerated as in North America. This trend towards living away from towns and cities has been termed the urban exodus[7]. ZONING AND SUBURBAN DEVELOPMENT: Zoning laws also contributed to the location of residential areas outside of the city centre by creating wide areas or "zones" where only residential buildings were permitted. These suburban residences are built on larger lots of land than in the urban city. For example, the lot size for a residence in

Chicago is usually 125 feet (38 m) deep, while the width can vary from 14 feet (4.3 m) wide for a row house to 45 feet (14 m) wide for a large standalone house. In the suburbs, where standalone houses are the rule, lots may be 85 feet (26 m) wide by 115 feet (35 m) deep, as in the Chicago suburb of Naperville. SUBURBANISATION: Manufacturing and commercial buildings were segregated in other areas of the city. Increasingly, more people moved out to the suburbs, known as suburbanization[8].Moving along with the population, many companies also located their offices and other facilities in the outer areas of the cities. This has resulted in increased density in older suburbs and, often, the growth of lower density suburbs even further from city centers. An alternative strategy is the deliberate design of "new towns" and the protection of green belts[9] around cities. Some social reformers attempted to combine the best of both concepts in the garden city movement.[10]In the United States, since the 18th century urban areas have often grown faster than city boundaries. Until the 1900s, new neighborhoods usually sought or accepted annexation to the central city to obtain city services. In the 20th century, however, many suburban areas began to see independence from the central city as an asset. In some cases, White suburbanites saw self-government as a means to keep out people who could not afford the added suburban property maintenance costs not needed in city living. Federal subsidies for suburban development accelerated this process as did the practice of redlining by banks and other lending institutions.[11] Cleveland, Ohio is typical of many American central cities; its municipal borders have changed little since 1922, even though the Cleveland urbanized area has grown many times over. Several layers of suburban municipalities now surround cities like Cleveland, Chicago, Detroit, Los Angeles, Dallas, Fort Worth, San Francisco, Atlanta, Pittsburgh, and Philadelphia. While suburbs had originated far earlier; the suburban population in North America exploded after World War II. Returning veterans wishing to start a settled life moved en masse to the suburbs. Levittown developed as a major prototype of mass-produced housing. At the same time, African Americans were rapidly moving north for better jobs and educational opportunities than were available to them in the segregated South. Their arrival in Northern cities en masse in addition to race riots in several large cities such as Detroit, Chicago, and Philadelphia further stimulated white suburban migration. In the U.S., 1950 was the first year that more people lived in suburbs than elsewhere. In the U.S, the development of the skyscraper and the sharp inflation of downtown real estate prices also led to downtowns being more fully dedicated to businesses, thus pushing residents outside the city center. SUBURBAN DEVELOPMENT IN CANADA: Urban development in Canada has largely paralleled development in the United States. After World War II, large bedroom communities of single-family homes and shopping centers sprouted on the outskirts of Canadian cities. However, Canada has far fewer suburban municipalities than the U.S. Many large cities, such as Winnipeg, Calgary, Edmonton, and Ottawa, extend all the way to, and even include the countryside. However, the fact that literal boundaries of suburbs are not present in Canada does not eliminate suburbs, per se. The boundaries of Canadian cities are under the jurisdiction of the provinces, which have imposed city-suburb mergers. Vancouver and Montreal regions still have suburban municipalities, although their suburban areas are generally grouped into

fewer cities than is typical in the United States. British Columbia created a "metropolitan" government for the Vancouver area in 1965, but the urbanized area has since grown well beyond it.

Today, Toronto has some of the largest suburban municipalities in North America, and the two largest suburbs in Canada are in this metro area. Mississauga (668,549) and Brampton (433,806) together claim 1.1 million inhabitants, and would be the third largest city in Canada if merged. Many Toronto suburbs have significantly improved on the suburban philosophy, adding a downtown to many suburban centers, notably Mississauga, Brampton, Vaughan and Markham. In 1998 the governmental structure was reorganized to include many of these formerly independent suburbs into the Greater Toronto Area. Vancouver has several large suburbs, with more than three quarters of a million people living in Surrey (the third largest suburb in Canada), Richmond, and Burnaby. Montreal has its two largest suburbs, Laval and Longueuil, as well as a suburban group of smaller municipalities neighbouring Montreal known as the West Island. CHARACTERS OF POST WORLD WAR II SUBURBS IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA: Many post-World War II American suburbs are characterized by eight major aspects: i. Lower densities than central cities, dominated by single-family homes on small plots of land, surrounded at close quarters by very similar dwellings. ii. Zoning patterns that separate residential and commercial development, as well as different intensities and densities of development. Daily needs are not within walking distance of most homes. iii. Subdivisions carved from previously rural land into multiple-home developments built by a single real estate company. These subdivisions are often segregated by minute differences in home value, creating entire communities where family incomes and demographics are almost completely homogeneous, although suburban developments have become and are becoming more diverse. iv. Shopping malls and strip malls behind large parking lots instead of a classic downtown shopping district. v. A road network designed to conform to a hierarchy, including culs-de-sac, leading to larger residential streets, in turn leading to large collector roads, in place of the grid pattern common to most central cities and pre-World War II suburbs. vi. A greater percentage of one-story administrative buildings than in urban areas. vii. A greater percentage of Caucasians and less percentage of citizens of other ethnic groups than in urban areas. Black suburbanization grew between 1970 and 1980 by 2.6% as a result of central city neighborhoods expanding into older neighborhoods vacated by whites.[12], [13] , [14] viii. Compared to rural areas, suburbs usually have greater density, higher standards of living, more complex road systems, and less wildlife SUBURBAN DEVELOPMENT IN OTHER PARTS OF THE WORLDS: In many parts of the developed world, suburbs are different from the American suburb, both in terms of population and in terms of what they represent. In some cases suburbs of cities outside of North America are economically distressed areas, inhabited by higher proportions of recent immigrants, with higher delinquency rates and social problems. Sometimes the notion of suburb

may even refer to people in real misery, who are kept at the limit of the city borders for economic, social and where applicable some argue ethnic reasons. An example in the developed world would be the banlieues of France, or the concrete suburbs of Sweden. In most ways, the suburbs of most of the developed world are comparable to several inner cities of the U.S. and Canada. In the UK, the government is seeking to impose minimum densities on newly approved housing schemes in parts of southeast England. The new catch phrase is 'building sustainable communities' rather than housing estates. However, commercial concerns tend to retard the opening of services until a large number of residents have occupied the new neighbourhood. In the illustrative case of Rome, Italy, in the 1920s and 1930s, suburbs were intentionally created ex novo in order to give lower classes a destination, in consideration of the actual and foreseen massive arrival of poor people from other areas of the country. Many critics have seen in this development pattern (that was circularly distributed in every direction) also a quick solution to a problem of public order (keeping the unwelcome poorest classes together with the criminals, in this way better controlled, comfortably remote from the elegant "official" town). On the other hand, the expected huge expansion of the town soon effectively covered the distance from the central town, and now those suburbs are completely engulfed by the main territory of the town. Other newer suburbs were created at a further distance from them. In China, the term suburb is new, although suburbs are already being constructed rapidly. Many new suburban homes are similar to their equivalents in the United States, primarily outside Beijing and Shanghai, which also mimic Spanish and Italian architecture.[15] In Hong Kong, however, suburbs are mostly government-planned new towns containing numerous public housing estates. New Towns such as Tin Shui Wai may gain a notorious reputation as a slum. However, other new towns also contain private housing estates and low density developments for the upper middle and upper classes. In Malaysia, suburbs are common, especially in areas surrounding the Klang Valley, which is the largest conurbation[16] in the country. These suburbs also serve as major housing areas and commuter towns[17]. Terraced houses[18], semi-detached houses[19] and shophouses[20] are common concepts in suburbs. In certain areas such as Klang, Subang Jaya and Petaling Jaya, suburbs form the core of these places. The latter one has been turned into a satellite city[21] of Kuala Lumpur. Suburbs are also evident in other smaller conurbations including Ipoh, Johor Bahru, Kota Kinabalu, Kuching and Penang. MAJOR PROBLEM OF SUBURBAN DEVELOPMENT: Suburbs typically have more traffic congestion[22] and longer travel times than traditional neighborhoods.[23] Only the traffic within the short streets themselves is less. This is due to three factors: almost-mandatory automobile ownership due to poor suburban bus systems, longer travel distances and the hierarchy system, which is less efficient at distributing traffic than the traditional grid of streets.

In the suburban system, most trips from one component to another component require that cars enter a collector road, no matter how short or long the distance is. This is compounded by the hierarchy of streets, where entire neighborhoods and subdivisions are dependent on one or two collector roads. Because all traffic is forced onto these roads, they are often heavy with traffic all day. If a traffic accident occurs on a collector road, or if road construction inhibits the flow, then the entire road system may be rendered useless until the blockage is cleared. The traditional "grown" grid, in turn, allows for a larger number of choices and alternate routes. Suburban systems of the

sprawl type are also quite inefficient for cyclists or pedestrians, as the direct route is usually not available for them either. This encourages car trips even for distances as low as several hundreds of meters (which may have become up to several kilometres due to the road network). Improved sprawl systems, though retaining the car detours, possess cycle paths and footpath connecting across the arms of the sprawl system, allowing a more direct route while still keeping the cars out of the residential and side streets. SOME KEY WORDS TO HAVE INSIGHT ABOUT SUBURBS & SUBURBAN DEVELOPMENT: Finally it is necessary to know that there are many more expressions of the term suburbs through which the concept of suburbs and suburban development can be further elaborated i.e. Boomburbs[24];Commuter town[25]; Developed Environments[26] such as Rural[27],Exurban[28], and Urban[29]; Edge city[30]; Ethnoburb[31];Exurb[32]; Faubourg[33]; Inner suburbs[34]; Microdistrict[35];Penurbia[36]; Streetcar suburb[37]; Suburbia bashing[38]; Urban rural fringe[39]; Urban sprawl[40]; White Flight[41] etc. In addition aList of largest suburbs by population[42] may be explored online orLondon commuter belt[43] (Stockbroker belt) and other Settlement types[44] such as Hamlet[45], Village[46], Town[47], City[48], andMegalopolis[49] can be studied from the world wide web.

AR-309: ARCHITECTURE AND TOWN PLANNING (A&TP-B) By RAVINDAR KUMAR Assistant Professor Department of Architecture and Planning NED University of Engineering and Technology Karachi

LECTURE NO: 28 & 29 TOPIC: SLUM AREAS AND THEIR UPGRADING INTRODUCTION: The theme of current lecture is the slum areas and their upgrading. This theme clearly identify that there are two main aspects that would be discussed in current lecture. On the one hand the discussion would be focussed on understanding of the slum areas, whereas; on the other hand the description would be given for upgrading of a slum area within an urban and regional context. In the following all these issues are discussed and described in details. BACKGROUND OF SLUM AREAS: It is grave reality that, in current urbanizing world the numbers of urban poor are increasing with enormous speed. Whereas; the formal sectors efforts of providing housing to urban poor are inadequate due to absence of political will, extraordinary growth of population & influx of migrants in urban areas. As a repercussion there emerge slums & squatter settlements in the cities. The term squatter settlements, leads us to variety of concepts. The depth in this term is such a huge phenomenon that it compels us to think of its process of development and address the numerous questions attached to it such as:

Why squatter settlements emerge? How they are formed in a city? What are its socioeconomic and physical implications with human abuse cycles?

In order to understand the phenomenon of slum areas and squatter settlements one has to look at the existing housing situation, formal sectors approaches in housing provision process and development of squatter settlements via informal sectors mechanism. DEFINITIONS OF SQUATTER SETTLEMENTS AND SLUM AREAS: Before going into further details of slums and squatter settlements or Katchi Abadis it is necessary to understand the definitions of squatter settlements & slum areas in the city.

SQUATTER SETTLEMENTS: The Oxford English Dictionary explains that A squatter settlements is defined as the occupied land by a group of settlers having no formal or legal title to the land occupied by them, especially one thus occupying land in a district not yet surveyed by the government. The term squatter settlement if analyzed into some details one can easily find that the word Squatter means an unauthorized occupant of the land where as settlement means the placing of person & things in a fixed or permanent position. Therefore one can also conclude that, when an unauthorized occupation of land occurs in any district or area then the people or things fixed or placed themselves on permanent basis to their occupied land. However such occupied land often removed or bulldozed by authorities in the name of slum clearance or slum upgrading. As a repercussion large number of people becomes displaced & millions of rupees invested in one such occupied land go waste. Thus the issue of squatter settlements has a human and financial value attached to it. SLUM AREAS: According to Mr. G.K. Hiraskar[1] there are three different definitions of slum areas. These are as follows: A slum is predominantly an over crowded area which is in advanced state of decay where dwellings are unfit for human habitation. It is an area which lacks the basic amenities like water supply & drainage for standard living and where an unsanitary condition prevails & diseases flourish. Slum is a poverty-stricken area where there is high birth rate, infant morality, illegitimacy, juvenile crime, delinquency & death, thus represent the state of hell on the surface of earth. Thus these definitions clearly spell out that; slum is menace to health, safety, morality and general welfare of the inhabitants. SO, WHAT TO DO ABOUT IT? Squatter settlements & slum areas are quite common. According to a rough estimate in Karachi alone, more than 60 percent of population lives in more than 700 squatter settlements & slums. SO, HOW TO DEAL WITH THIS ISSUE? It is a self evident fact that, squatter settlements & slum areas are growing with an enormous speed in the entire major urban centers of the world. Whether; it is Karachi, Lahore, Islamabad, Bombay, Delhi, Calcutta, Madras, New York, Tokyo, London, Rio-de-Janeiro, Sao Paulo, Shanghai or any other large metropolitan or mega city for that matter. The basic question always remain that how to deal with this ever enlarging monster in which major victims are the human beings themselves?

 The answer to this & such type of questions is to first understand the current situation of any context where slums & squatters are emerging. Secondly what is the process of their making? Thirdly who are the actors involved behind squatter making drama? Fourthly how to deal with this issue? Fifthly what are the good practices in this regard which addressed this issue and Finally what are the good practices that exist and needs to be enhanced in order to find out the solutions to address this problem? RETROSPECT OF SQUATTER SETTLEMENTS IN PAKISTAN: After the freedom from British Raj in 1947, Karachi became the capital of Pakistan and during the first three years after independence a major influx of migrants came to Karachi. The population of Karachi at that time was 4 lackh inhabitants where as within three years of time 6 lackhs migrants came to Karachi who has an abject need for housing. Considering the housing demand government allowed them to squatter in whatever feasible place for their survival. As a repercussion an unorganized invasion of government land occurred & city because filled with slums & squatter settlements and city become very congested with a filthy built environment. Thus in this way the phenomenon of squatter settlement emerges as housing option for poor people who are in immediate need of a shelter. In all our cities of Pakistan the government owns a lot of land which is mainly belongs to C.B.R. i.e. Central Board of Revenue and P.B.R. i.e. Provincial Board of Revenues in both inside and outside the cities. Likewise, there are other departments such as Pakistan railways. Owns a lot of land in the country. In 1950 and 60s the people came from India occupy these governments land in the form of cluster planning of settlements. These were mainly known as Unorganized invasion on government land. In Karachi, this unorganized invasion not only occurred on government land but private houses and buildings were also occupied by these migrants. In 1958, Pakistan has seen its first Martial Law Administration or military government. Now military regime has a particular policy regarding these unorganized squatter settlements. They particularly do not like them at all in (then) capital i.e. Karachi. They call it the scars on face of city (just like G.K. Hiraskar) and they like the city to be clean from these settlements. Therefore, they start bulldozing these settlements and throw them out of the city. As a repercussion informal sector get into shape. In the informal sector process, mainly government employees meet the middlemen (A Dalal) and tough guys (Gundas) and give them protection and advice to make an unorganized invasion or Kabza on governments land. They jointly occupied the land, subdivided it in haphazard plots and sell it. In this way occupation of land occurred in 50s by the migrants from India.

However later on in 1960s an organized invasion on governments land took place through the organized efforts of informal sector actors. This illegal occupation of government land is popularly known as ISDs or Informal / Illegal Land subdivisions. The process of this illegal subdivisions or ISDs has nine major actors. It includes, a political top, an administrative top, Mr. X, a middle man, police, field personal belongs to different institutions & departments, land grabbers (plot sellers), tough guys and other services providers. All these nine actors have different roles to play in the squatter making dram. Their interrelationships are so strongly organized and in hierarchy that an squatter settlement establish without any hindrance or spontaneously & in a peculiar manner that it

seems a solution to provision of housing to urban poor. This relationship emerged in 1960s & 70s. it was defined by Professor Dr. Jan Van Der Linden[2]to author is a training course on Appropriate shelter strategies held at SKAA Karachi. The process of making a squatter settlement begins with Mr. X; Mr. X may be any body who has the information about land, contacts in administrative or political setup and a powerful & sound background. Lets suppose his name is Mr. Wahab. This Mr. X has a subordinate or a middle man who may be a Dalal or locally known as Thalla Wala or Block Maker, let's suppose his name is Mr. Aqeel. Mr. Aqeel has the contacts with plots sellers (locally known as land grabbers), tough guys (Shagirds) and informal service providers. All these actors has different role to play at different period of time during the development of the settlement. At first Mr. Wahab contacts the administrative top & political top and identifies a piece of land in the outskirts of city because it is quite risky business to occupy land within city. On a secret place a meeting held between these three actors and their shares are decided.

Then Mr. Wahab made a claim to 500 acres to land and asks his subordinate Mr. Aqeel to take at least 100 families to the site, to occupy the land. Mr. Aqeel then contacts the plot sellers and tough guys to bring the destitute and all those families who are in need of house to the site. By the time Mr. Wahab conceptualizes the occupation of land & establishes contacts with the administrative top and political top, he is informed by Mr. Aqeel that the plot sellers have prepared a list of destitute and needy people. Thus in the middle of the night these people are brought into site on the trucks with bamboos posts and mats for the construction of shacks. After they began to put up their huts, the original owners of the site arrive on site with people or guards with guns. They inform the people that the land is leased to them by the government and they will kill any body who tries to occupy it. A scuffle followed and some of the tough guys get injured in the process. Here enters the police into the scene and try to control the situation & held negotiation between the original owner & Mr. Aqeel. Then it is decided that no houses shall be put up however the destitute can stay on the site until the matters are settled. Next day the original owner hire a lawyer & made a case in court of law against the occupation of land by Mr. Aqeel & his associates, which is leased to him. The case gets admitted. On the other hand Mr. Aqeel filed a complaint with the local police that the guards of original owner had caused a bodily harm to his Shagirds clients & associates. Then further negotiations took place between the original owner & Mr. Aqeel, under the auspices of mutual friends and local police. As a result the original owner is given option to receive rupees 500/plot which was developed by land grabbers of the area & Mr. Aqeel. Where as these mutual friends & police get few plots as a fee for these negotiations. Then those plots which was given to destitute are exempted from the payment to original owner, similarly, Mr. Aqeel also do not change any profit on these plots. However, Rs. 200/plot was paid to government officials by Mr. Aqeel for not interfering in this whole event. This money is also obtained from the plot owners, who also pay Rs. 200 per plot to police directly for not bulldozing their shacks or removing people from site. Afterwards the negotiations complete. The original owner withdraws its case against Mr. Aqeel & his Shagirds and Mr. Aqeel also with draw his case against original owner. However the original owner files a new case against the government officials for permitting the Squatment of land which was leased to the original owner. This case never ends for the years to come. After the completion of negotiations with owner the real process of settlement begins with the sufferings & miseries of people. At first Mr. Aqeel laid out the plan of the settlement with the guidance of Mr. X and helps of

his Shagirds develop around 2000 plots on grid iron pattern. The roads of the settlements are leveled with hiring tractors & bulldozers from governments line departments. Its charges are taken from people. Plots for mosques & shops are set a side. This time the negotiations took place with government officials and 30 percent of plots are given to them & will be sold by Mr. Aqeel on their behalf at an appropriate time. Now plot sellers become quite active to sell the plots in the settlement except those reserved for government officials. Now whoever purchases a plot in the settlement, has to construct his house in a months time and move in, otherwise Mr. Aqeel sells his plot to someone else & refund the money. However this refund never really happens. The price of 80 square yards plot was set at Rs. 900 only.[3] From which Rs. 500 went to original owner and 200 rupees to government officials and Rs. 200 to Mr. Aqeel as a profit. The original owner of the land appointed a Chowkidar or caretaker to keep track on number of plots developed so that Mr. Aqeel may not cheat him. Similarly government officials had their informal representatives who visit the site regularly. Each week accounts are settled between all the parties involved. Additionally; when the local body elections takes place the selected members i.e. the councilors also get their share.

Initially in the development process of squatter settlements the major problem is water provision. This is done through tankers of government agencies on payment for each tanker. Therefore at first they made a water committee and a water tank is made in the area. The 2nd problem in squatter settlement was transport, which is solved through the Dalals (Aqeel) pressure group and linkage with transporters. They pressurize the agencies through political leaders and get the approval of transport route. After land occupation the poor people starts house building process on incremental basis. At first through Katcha structure people based build their houses. Then arise another action in this squatter making dram and that is Thalla Wala who gets the plot in settlement and made contact with material mafia with 20% profit to them. This Thalla Wala sells this material to people on 30% profit with credit. This Thalla Wala is actually playing a dual role of technical advisor to poor people for their house building process and work as an architect. He also works in the squatter settlement as a financer of house; because he gives building materials on credit. Another actor in the development process of squatter settlement is police. They also get their share when plot was subdivided and sold to people or when people made their house as pucca house. The police is a main actor in squatter development process who get more money than any body else in the settlement. It is also an evident fact that whenever they need money they bulldoze a house and then get money form each house. In the mean time the squatter settlement develops with very fast pace and become larger and larger. Then middleman or (Dalal) or Mr. Aqeel later on, make a social welfare organization and register it with the government. Then he called a meeting of people in squatter settlement and invitee a political leader and asks him to help them in development and getting services of water, electricity or gas. From them they get the facilities, on the spot such as on the spot they get the sign on documents from politicians and the engineers and technocrats of bureaucracy. This process is called lobbying. Now in this case the police left behind, so they made contact to newsmen and Journalists start writing about the illegal subdivisions in the newspaper. Finally in this way this process of squatter settlement continues and organized invasion become the grave reality of the cities & towns in Pakistan.

CASE STUDY OF SLUMS & SQUATTER SETTLEMENTS IN INDIA: After having a clear picture of slums & squatter settlements in Pakistan; lets look at the case example of slums in India. Slum and squatter settlements are too common in India. It is estimated that about twenty-five percent population of any city in India live under sub-human conditions of slums. These are commonly called as Bustees in Calcutta, Jhoparpattis in Bombay Jhuggi Jhonpries in Delhi, Cheries in Madras and Ahataas in U.P. It is estimated that more than 6 lakh persons live in bustees in Calcutta, 2 lack in Jhoparpattis in Bombay, 1.5 lack in Jhuggi Jhonpris in Delhi, and 1.2 lack in Cheries in Madras.[4] That is why Bombay is dubbed as a city without Soul and its beauty is only Skin-Deep, although it is one of the finest cities, in the world. Even one cane clearly spells out that all over the world the primate cities are the cities without soul. Similarly there is a saying that, God made the country, man made the town and the Devil made the slums. This devil that made the slums is avaricious, anti-social, lacks civic sense, and is beyond the ordinary means of control. Though this notion of slum is quite common; however one must also realize the causes & reasons behind the development of slums in urban context of India. Because, it s also a disgrace to both the dwellers and the town authorities in India who allow the slum to grow and develop as a black spot on the citys face with each new slum area or squatter settlement. CAUSES OF SLUMS AND SQUATTER SETTLEMENTS IN INDIA: There are eight main causes for the formation of slums in India. RAPID INDUSTRIALIZATION: The Industrial growth and employment opportunities in towns and cities have acted as powerful magnets to attract the rural population to cites the workers employed in the in these factories & industrial areas generally make their habitation as near as possible to the place of work. They are low waged persons and cannot afford daily traveling from the distant places in the city. Hence in a short time the available land or open space is occupied by them buildings without any proper planning. This gives rise to the formation of slums. POPULATION GROWTH: There is a great demand/supply gap between the tremendous growth of population and the construction of houses. These shortages manifest themselves in creating slums. LACK OF ZONING: If zoning regulations are not enforced in the early development of town, there are chances for industrial area to encroach upon residential areas. Thus very soon there emerges overcrowding with the formation of slums. PHYSICAL & SOCIAL DECENTRALIZATION: One of the major reasons for slum development is the physical and social decentralization in which the rich and middle class people move out to the extension areas of city by leaving the poor in the overcrowded part of the town to make it more unsanitary. As a result the slum colonies start mushrooming at a fast rat within city.

LACK OF EDUCATION: If the inhabitants are lacking in education, they may not pay attention to improve the living conditions, and lose the civic interest and neighbourhood spirit. They are therefore easily attracted by social evils, and delinquency. As a repercussion an apathy (every thing goes) emerges in people and they make slums. POVERTY: One of the main causes for the slum formation can be described in one word as poverty. The meager and unsteady income leaves the family with no other choice but to direct all the energies in earning their daily bread and butter with some minimal clothing. It is difficult for them to pay heavy rent for a decent living. They therefore move in slum move in slum areas, for nobody with black money builds decent houses for the slum-dwellers. REPAIR AND MAINTENANCE: There is nothing wrong with old houses if they are looked after from time to time. But in India, repair and maintenance are the foreign words. Hence most of these buildings remain in a state of decay to favor the formation of slums. INADEQUATE POWERS: Lack of adequate powers and enforcing the same by the local authorities for the proper development of the town are also the reasons for the formation of slums. If preventive measures are not taken in time, the decent localities of the town will be the slums of tomorrow. Even Chandigarh which is a planned capital is growing beyond the bounds of rigid planning in suburbs and slums. EFFECTS OF SLUMS ON TOWN-LIFE: There are seven major effects of slums on town life. PEOPLES HEALTH: Unhealthy conditions are created due to absence of public facilities like water supply, drainage, sanitation and light etc. the sub-human conditions of the slums considerably affect the health and life of the people. LACK OF SOCIO CULTURAL LIFE: There is complete absence of social and cultural life due to slum formation in the city. PEOPLES MORAL CONDUCT: The mental outlook of the slum dweller is affected due to his physical environment. He develops low moral character as such he is easily attracted by vice, delinquency, crime and clandestine activities in bootlegging, narcotics, drugs, adulteration, etc. PEOPLES PERFORMANCE & EFFICIENCY: The overcrowding area is full of noise, smoke and congestion. This affects considerably on the working conditions of the people in offices, schools, hospitals etc.

ACCELERATION OF ACCIDENTS: Due to slum development the road trend to become congested i.e. children play on roads so there is a danger from traffic accidents. LACK OF PUBLIC PLACES: With the development of slums all open areas being attacked and there emerge no open space for recreation, pure air etc. LACK OF CIVIC SENSE: A slum dweller loses his ambition, civic interest as well as wholesome neighborhood spirit. In short a slum as such forms a black spot and spoils the healthy environment of the city as a whole. Thus it becomes an abject need to improve the physical, social & cultural life of city. And preventive measures shall be taken to avoid formation of slums. PRECAUTION AGAINST FORMATION OF SLUMS: The slums in the towns gradually grow & develop to prevent them. Slums are health hazards to the cities which later on create serous socio-economic and political problems. Thus Nip in the bud or Prevention is better than cure are the watch words against the formation.First of all, the authorities should make provision for healthy conditions of living and working. The subsidized cheap housing in sufficient number should be provided for the workers, Labourers, and poor people with all civic amenities and utility services. The authorities should enforce the law that the employers should provide better housing facilities for their Labourers. They should have power to control the rents under Rend Restriction Act. They should arrest the sub-standard and unauthorized constructions on vacant lands. Proper wages should be provided to the labors to improve their standard of living. The laborers in return should maintain and carry out repairs whenever required so as to keep the existing buildings in a good condition. The laborers should be properly educated to take care of health, cleanliness and general welfare of their families. SLUM CLEARANCE: Even after taking precautions if the slums develop then there emerges only one option for authorities and that is slum clearance. The process of slum clearance in India is done with two basic methods. i.e. Improvement Method and Complete Removal Method. IMPROVEMENT METHOD: One methods of not aggravating the housing shortage is to take up slum-improvement scheme. This method has an added advantage of not causing much disturbance to the slum dwellers. As the slums are developed due to poor drainage system and unhealthy conditions. Hence the drainage arrangement is modified and improved. Public utility services like water, drainage, electricity, gas may be provided in the affected area. In slum area the housing conditions are also fairly good and only a few houses need some improvement to make them slightly more habitable. Further, any impending structures coming in the way may be removed. Low portions of the old slums like ditches, or swamps may be filled up and then the existing roads may be widened. With proper planning and improvement works it is possible to make the slums slightly more habitable at the minimum cost.

COMPLETE REMOVAL METHOD: In this method area may be completely cleared out of the existing locality. In this case only such buildings which are really in good condition are retained and all other dilapidated structures are pulled down. Transit Camps in the form of temporary buildings near the slum areas should be constructed to accommodate those displaced in the process of slum clearance. Any stinking factory that occurs in slum areas may be shifted to some other more suitable place. The areas thus cleared up may be used as open spaces and as sites for new buildings; part of it may also be used for widening the streets. Care should be taken to keep the density within amenities such as water supply, drainage, sanitary arrangements, electricity, gas etc. Lastly the legal aspects of this scheme while shifting the population should also receive due attention. The legal aspect include publication of the slum clearance scheme; acquiring the land, paying compensation for the acquired land, making accommodation for the displaced persons in the process of slums clearance etc. The slum eradication by this method proves to be very costly, but it is certainly worth-while to bear it in the interest of the community of the city. FINANCIAL ASSISTANCE FOR SLUM CLEARANCE SCHEMES: In India the scheme introduced in 1956 contemplates the grant of financial assistance by the Central Government to State Government and Union Territories for slum clearance and improvement schemes. The main principles of the scheme are given below. There should be minimum dislocation of the slum dwellers. They should be re-housed in nearby area of the existing sites. To keep down rent within paying capacity of the slum dwellers and emphasis is given on the provision of minimum standards on environmental hygiene and utility services rather than on construction of costly structures. The government of India provides financial assistance to the state government in the form of block grants and block loans and the state governments are free to make its use as per their requirements. The state government and local bodies can provide dwelling units viz. open developed plots, skeletal house, pucca tenements, hostel dormitory type and night shelters, to slum dwellers. These units will be provided with independent lavatory, pucca bath, and washing platforms connected with drains and taps. The cost of these dwelling units ranges from Rs. 1850 to Rs. 8750 per units and the subsidized rental ranges from Rs. 6 to Rs. 39 per months, depending upon the type and place of construction. The existing ceiling cost for normal two-roomed house is Rs. 5000 and that for a small two-roomed house is Rs. 4000. In case night shelters are constructed, the ceiling cost is limited to Rs. 727 and the rent chargeable for sleeping accommodation for the pavement dwellers should not exceed 25 paise per person per night including service charges. Financial assistance is admissible under the scheme which is repayable by slum dwellers in 25 years with the rate of interest fixed by the central government from time to time. Such colonies will be provided with water mains, drainage, sewerage, community baths, latrines, water taps, properly paved roads with adequate widths, street lighting etc. The government of India has also approved a scheme in 1960 to remove jhuggis and jhonpris which is applied only to New Delhi. The plots were given on lease for 99 years on paying the cost (with 50% subsidy) in a lump sum or in ten equal annual installments. Likewise central government is making all possible efforts by providing financial assistance to slum dwellers for the improvement of their living conditions.

ANALYSIS & EVALUATION: The case study of India as described above is taken from the book, Fundamentals of Town Planning by G.K. Hiraskar. The reason behind discussing this case study is that, in the text books of Town Planning such type of solutions are given for slum clearance & upgrading; which become obsolete and currently such type of solutions are not applicable. Whereas; the local authorities still believe in such type of temporary solutions for slum clearance & upgrading & propagate it their slum clearance & upgrading programs. Lets analyze why such type of slum clearance & upgrading programs are obsolete? First of all one must understand the existing ground realities. In 1992 a report published by Independent South Asian Commission on Poverty Alleviation[5] which estimated that there are 330-340 million people in south Asia who lives under the poverty level. It means that around 30-40 percent of total population of south Asia lives below poverty live. Furthermore the urban poverty of total poor population has increased from 13% to 18% during the decade of 1986-96. It is also a reality that, Everyday in Asia the urban population increases by the equivalent of one city of 140,000 people[6] where at it is expected that urban population shall be doubled in next 20 years. The cities have so far absorbed the growing number of population in settlements with varying quality of living. However, urban growth has resulted in negative growth of sprawling squatter settlements & slums. In every city in developing countries, there is a large population of less affluent people who reside in squatter settlements. A study from the united nations in 1994 (ESCAP) predicted that 60% of the urban population of Asia shall be living in slums & squatter settlements by the year 2000, whereas; currently the number of squatter settlements & slum dwellers has increased from this number. For instance in Karachi only there are more than 700 squatter settlements in which 60% of urban population lives & it is estimated that by the year 2020 the population of Karachi shall be doubled & 80 percent of population shall be living in slum & squatter settlements. Thus in a city where 60 % of population is living in slums & squatter settlements; can there be any solution like slum clearance with prescribed improvement method or complete removal method? The answer is definitely not because 60 % housing stock neither can be bulldozed completely nor re-planned comprehensively be pulling down all dilapidated structures. The only option available is muddling through or gradual & incremental improvement with the support of public, private & informal initiatives. Because no financial assistance can be equivalent to human sufferings & decades of hard work in building the housing by poor or making of squatter settlements & slums. Even then large number of evictions still takes place in most of the urban centers in Asian countries. For instance, in the city of soul, Korea in just three years of time 750000 people was evicted (Between 1985-88) Similarly Philippines evicted 100000 people each year between 1986-92[7] According to urban resource centers eviction watch in Karachi alone more than 2000 households are evicted between the year 1997-2000. Whereas in 2008 an age old project of Lyari expressway in Karachi may evict around 25000 families with just the compensation of Rs. 50000 each from which a decent toilet is difficult to build. The evictions may cause three basic impacts on the affected of forceful eviction i.e. physical, economic & psychological. It takes around two decades to recover from the misery of eviction from peoples minds. The eviction reduces the housing stock of city & ruins the economic value of housing which may be small in real terms but for an individual it is very big. The eviction detaches the squatter from employment opportunities which are usually in near by areas or within the settlement itself. The eviction also up roots the community & break their social & cultural activities which functions as an economic and psychological safety net. The home is the center of every bodys lives and forceful eviction form home is a very traumatic

experience especially for children its impacts never goes from their memories. While eviction is a traumatic experience in itself the most harmful impact of eviction may actually be the fear of being evicted. It makes people fatalistic, with lost confidence in themselves & discouragement form improving their housing. It can not be denied that there are occasions such as major infrastructure projects where eviction can not be avoided or deny the land owners the right to evict. However it is a reality that land acquisition mostly takes place without compensation. Thus it is quite necessary that evictions should not take place without a dialogue and solutions which are acceptable to both parties. Because squatters have often lived on the land for very long time &they have there by acquitted an informal right to land due to their efforts & hardships of decades for the development & investments on the land. Whereas their nostalgic values are also attached with the settlements they live in for a long period of their life. Thus there is a need to develop a policy regarding slums & squatter settlement while upgrading the city and its slum areas. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS: On the basis of analysis & evaluation of slums & squatter settlements issue following conclusions can be drawn. i) The major issue regarding provision of housing to poor is land, which is pure gold as far as squatter and private sector institutions are concerned. ii) As the land in urban area is considered a commodity through which money can be made! So appropriate land management is an abject need of the time and provision of land to poor by formal sector initiatives can not be avoided. iii) As the population influx to urban areas reached to its zenith the scarcity of land is a grave reality and access to land is required by poor communicated through any means. iv) As the poor people can not have access to the land through formal sector initiatives, therefore they opt for informal sector processes & occupy the governments land & make slums & squatter settlements. v) It is also a reality that in some cases the formal sector it self involved in making squatter settlements due to there failures in provision of housing to poor. vi) Once the slums & squatter settlements develop the major issue which requires immediate attention is the provision of services & infrastructures which is usually obtained by squatter at a very high cost. vii) Furthermore it is a bitter reality that population influx to urban centers continues and shall continue & it can not be eliminated & through formal sector processes housing can not be provided to poor urban communities. viii) Thus what options & strategies are available to formal sector? This is the question which needs to be answered in an appropriate manner. For that matter policies regarding slums & squatter settlements by different countries & the solutions given by different institutions should be analyzed. On the basis of which recommendations can be made. ix) There are two major case examples which can be cited with respect to appropriate policy option for squatter settlements and slum upgrading. One is Guided Land development (GLD) Jakarta and other is Katchi Abadi improvement and Regularization Program of Sindh Katchi Abadi Authority Karachi Pakistan.

GUIDED LAND DEVELOPMENT IN JAKARTA, INDONESIA: Jakarta suffers from housing shortage & tremendous demand of land for housing the poor just like any other city. The government of Indonesia changed its housing policy in late 1960s from focusing on conventional Housing delivery system to strengthening the informal housing sector by providing basic infrastructure & security of land tenure. This policy of government of Indonesia is manifested in their Kampungs Improvement Program (KIP). The Kampungs are basically a common form of low income informal settlements which house around 70% of Jakartas population. The Kampungs Improvement Program (KIP) provided around 70 to 80 percent basic infrastructure to these Kampungs. As a repercussion overwhelming majority of Kampungs dwellers have bought the land they live one. However their access to land remained the same through private & informal land subdivision with a limited land tenure security, therefore land conflicts are quite common. Considering the growing land scarcity, rapidly increased land prices and population growth and the growing awareness and understanding of land management issues the guided land development was established. The GLD-program would provide basic infrastructure such as secondary access roads, foot paths, drainage & water, where as the cost of this development would be recovered through betterment taxes (or more appropriately termed as the cost recovery tax.) The GLD-program recognized the current ongoing process of private & informal land subdivisions; however they guide & control its development & improving its technical standards. In this respect betterment tax allow the government to recover around 60 % of the cost. In 1979 it was estimated that, the cost to residents ranges between Rs. 20000 to Rs. 230000 depends on type & size of plot. (one US $ = approximately Rs. 24 in 1994) Up till now, there are three basic objections raised & debated on GLD-program. Some low income groups may be adversely affected such as tenants. Better income groups also get benefited directly from this program. Subsidized infrastructure provision created negative environmental consequences due to without regulating land use changes. Conclusively there are seven basic objectives, themes, concepts or steps for working of guided land development GLD-program which are as follows: i) To assist poor people to build housing by providing technical and financial support as well as affordable land. The program applies reasonable standards, such as, for example, as minimum plot size of 20 square meters. ii) To guide the transformation of Kampungs, informal settlements and villages into functional urban structures. iii) To provide infrastructure and services at minimum costs for the government and the residents, including an element of cross-subsidy between high and low income groups. Plots adjacent to access roads will for example, be charged considerably higher than plots with access to only a foot path. iv) To stimulate the development of small-scale industries and other work opportunities. v) To set up a special organization within the government for efficient and quick land registration and land titling. vi) To set up a special implementation body within each project area consisting of local land regional government representatives as well as development consultant(s). The development consultant(s)

should act as an intermediary between the private sector and the local community. The functions of the implementation body are to promote, regulate, facilitate and coordinate the development. vii) Finally, to form a management board, consisting of representatives of local government and the residents, initially represented by an NGO, to solve project management problems more directly. After having the clear perception about the guided land development program of Indonesia it is necessary to see another option for slum upgrading and development of squatter settlements through the case example of Sindh Katchi Abadis Authoritys settlement upgrading program. SETTLEMENT UPGRADING IN SINDH, PAKISTAN THROUGH THE INITIATIVES OF SINDH KATCHI ABADI AUTHORITY (SKAA): The government of Pakistan passed the Katchi-Abadis Regularization Act; regularizing all squatter settlements (Katchi Abadis) located on government land and built before 31 March 1985. At the same time, the authorities announced a freeze on the Katchi Abadis that could be regularized. In return for paying a one-time charge to cover the costs of raw land, internal and external development as well as a nominal annual rent, squatters received 99-year leases that could not be transferred within five years. Although the involved costs were low, few households applied for titles and cost-recovery became a major problem. Many residents wanted to see whether fees would be further reduced or removed completely. Sindh Katchi Abadi Authority (SKAA) in Sindh Province has adopted a policy whereby they will only provide land titles to households which have paid the costs of raw land and external development and undertaken internal development themselves (by community itself). The concept of internal development is the development & maintenance of primary roads by community where as external development means provision of infrastructure in secondary and major roads of the settlements by the Sindh Katchi Abadi Authority. This concept is applied to all aspects of physical development such as supply of water & sewerage, sanitation etc. SKAA has taken the approach to encourage the setting-up of community-based organization (CBOs) for the provision of infrastructure. Under the UNICEF funded Urban Basic Program, SKAA has been working closely with the Orangi Pilot Project, a non-governmental organization, which has proven that CBOs can provide infrastructure at a substantially lower cost and at mush faster pace than the government. Where as training & extension services to community based organization is the solution to slum upgrading. In 1994, infrastructure was being constructed by CBOs, funded by squatter households, in several cities in Sindh including Karachi, Sukkur, Larkana, Shikarpur, and was to be introduced in Hyderabad. As of the second quarter of 1994, out of total of 1293 katchi abadis, 132 have completed development works, 201 schemes have been approved and 64,190 households have been provided land rights (SKAA, 1994). FINAL THOUGHT: In the end it is necessary to recognize that squatter settlements, slum area &their upgrading is an issue which is humanitarian, functional (because a healthy work force is more productive) and political (because adequate shelter is a basic human right).

There are one-ninety-two nations in the world who have signed the international covenant on economic, social and cultural rights. The covenant acquired legal status in 1976, and provides a legal obligation for its signatories to provide adequate shelter among the other things. Though the world is changing the governments policies & priorities are also changing, however it is a reality that if governments whishes they will be more efficient if they act as a catalyst & facilitators to informal processes in provision of shelter to poor. It is now proved or rather it is a proven fact that housing the poor as well as squatter settlements and slum upgrading is actually more political and institutional issue rather than technical. As most of the observers of squatter settlements have realized that, people will gradually upgrade their housing overtimes, they invest their capital and labor and mobilize their social network if they are provided the opportunity and their housing is considered legitimate. Thus the three major actors must come together i.e. People, Politicians and Professionals. It will make the world a better place to live without squatter settlements & slums, or improved and upgraded settlements. REFERENCES: 1. Arif Hasan, Seven Reports on Housing March 1992, Published by OPP-RTI, Orangi Karachi, Pakistan. 2. G.K. Hiraskar, Fundamentals of Town Planning, 1993, Published by Dhanpat Rai & Sons, 1682, Nai Sarak Delhi 110006 India. 3. Municipal Land Management in Asia, A comparative study, 1994-95 published by United Nations economic and social commission for Asia & Pacific (UNESCAP) and Regional Network of Local Authorities for the Management of Human Settlements (City Net). [1] G.K. Hiraskar is the author of the book Fundamentals of Town Planning 1993, Published by Dhanpat Rai and Sons, 1682, Naisarak, Delhi 110006, India. [2] Professor Dr. Jan Van Derlinden was the processor at free university Amsterdam Holland, has studied various squatter settlements in Pakistan & India and come across these interrelationships in the making of squatter settlements in Pakistan. Though he has published various publications on squatter settlements However two of his marvelous works are the books, Dalalabad and Land is Pure Gold which defines the process of developing squatter settlement, and the interrelationships of actors involved in it. Similarly another book, Seven Reports on Housing: by Arif Hasan, published by OPP-RTI, March 1992, Karachi, may also define this process quite explicitly. [3] This price of plot was in 1978. for details please see, Seven Reports on Housing by Arif Hasan March 1992, Published by Orangi Piolet Project-Research & Training Institute (OPP-RTI) Karachi, Pakistan. [4] For details please see, Fundamentals of Town Planning by G.K. Hiraskar, 1993 Published by Dhanpat Rai & Sons, 1682, Naisarak Delhi 110006 India. [5] The South Asian Commission on Poverty Alleviation is an independent Commission which is appointed by SAARC countries in 1991s Colombo summit of SAARC. [6] For details please see, Municipal Land Management in Asia, A comparative study, 1994-95 published by United Nations economic and social commission for Asia & Pacific (UNESCAP) and Regional Network of Local Authorities for the Management of Human Settlements (City Net). [7] Ibid No.6

LAST LECTURE TO ALL MY TOWN PLANNING STUDENTS

Dear Students Thank you very much for learning the course of town planning. I wish you all the success and hapiness in life. I believe all my students are wonderful people. I have always tried not just to teach you people but learn from you. Everytime when I come in contact with you I tried to share all my knowledge and understanding about Town Planning in our society. Teaching about Town Planning has always been a very innovative and humbling experience for me. I taught this subject since January 2001 and each year a new learning come across through my students. This year I also learned alot from you and would like to THANK YOU FOR ALL YOUR RESPECT TO MY WORDS AND DEEDS. Finally I just like to give you the last lecture of this course. I believe town planning is all about understanding the realities about your city, its people and the behaviour of society at large. As people in society are very much different from each other it is nearly impossible to understand the total social behaviours of people. Everything is very fluid in cities and it requires continuous learning and comprehension. Always try to understand the viewpoints and standpoints of others. Many things we learn over the period of time. It is time that teaches us everything and make us mature. Our understanding always grow and develope over the period of time. Just like when we were kids we used to like sweets but when we grow old we don't like it any more. Therefore I think we must not jump to the conclusions very quickly and take positions while making judgments about people. We need to think and think again. Because TOWN PLANNING IS ALL ABOUT THINKING PROCESS. Best of Luck and Humble Regards. RAVINDAR KUMAR