Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Faculty of Engineering
Department of Computer Science & Engineering
Module – Information Technology – CSE 1010e
Week Topic
1 Introduction to IT
2 Tutorial: Chapter 1 and 2
3
4 Tutorial: Chapter 3 and 4
5
6 Tutorial: Chapter 5 and 6
7
8 Tutorial: Chapter 7 and 8
9 Test [up to chapter 7]
10 Tutorial: Chapter 9 and 10
11
12 Tutorial: Chapter 11 and 12
13 Word Processing and Spreadsheet Tests
14 Tutorial: Chapter 13 and Revision
15
http://www.baycongroup.com/el0.htm
MODULE OBJECTIVES
On completing the Introduction to IT Module, you should be able
to:
o Use a personal computer comfortably and handle hardware
and software correctly.
o Understand the development of the computer from its
origins to the present.
o Distinguish between data and information and their roles in
modern computing.
o Associate the functions of the components of a computer
system with the descriptions of the components and compare
the capabilities of several computer systems.
o Use word processing, spreadsheets and presentation
graphics packages.
o Understand and apply the definitions of many of the
technical words used in the field of computers.
o Identify the types of data files, the methods of data
retrieval, and the methods of data modeling used in file
design.
o Perform the steps involved in basic systems analysis and
design.
o Appreciate the role of computer in society and the
workplace, and be aware of the future potential for, and
concerns about, the advancement of computer technology.
Chapter 1
Learning Objectives
Overview
This chapter will give you an overview of the concepts underlying Information Technology (IT). It
starts by describing the increased importance of IT in our everyday life and provides a definition
for the term IT itself. It presents IT as consisting of computers supported by appropriate
connectivity through networking. A short description of hardware and software making the
components of computers is given as well as various types of computers are presented. The
student will also see various examples where computers are applied together with the numerous
benefits and drawbacks associated with their uses. Finally the chapter is closed with a brief note
on the trends affecting IT today after a quick overview of what networks and the Internet are all
about.
Hardware
Software
Hardware refers to the physical or tangible parts of the computer. They usually consist of input
devices to accept information to be processed, storage devices to store important information,
processing unit to process information and output devices to display/print processed information or
take necessary actions.
Figure 1-2 Components of a computer
Software on the other hand refers to programs (instructions) that tell the computer how to process
information to give the desired output. Two main types of software exist; Applications
Software and Systems Software. System software is made up of special programs that tell the
computer how to operate. An example is the Operating System such as Microsoft Windows that a
computer needs to operate whereas application software is any program that processes
information specific for the users need. Examples are word processing software, spreadsheet
software and payroll calculations software. Hence a computer requires both hardware (input,
storage and output devices) and software (system and application) in order to be able to serve the
purpose of a user.
Supercomputers are the most powerful computers that exist. They have got very high
processing power and are used by large organizations in advanced applications like space
exploration.
Mainframe computers have lesser processing power than supercomputers but they do
provide great processing speeds and data storage. They are typically used for long periods
of time and mostly serve companies like international banks that have to process millions
of transactions for their customers.
Mini computers are also known as midrange computers. They have got relatively high
processing power and capacity that mostly fit the need for mid range organizations. They
are used in manufacturing processes or handling email that are sent and received by a
company.
Micro computers are the least powerful and the most commonly used are often referred
to as Personal Computers (PC). They provide the necessary processing capability and
storage space that a common individual will require to perform routine tasks such as
typing a letter, building a presentation, watching a movie etc. Desktop computers,
notebooks (laptops), Personal Digital Assistants (PDA’s) are all different categories of
microcomputers.
(a) (b)
Medical diagnosis and treatment are now extensively done using computers. Medical
doctors can now estimate the date of birth of babies and health status of babies during
pregnancy. Other examples include treating of cancer and brain scanning.
Manufacturing processes in industries now make use of robots that are controlled by
computers to build finished products from their raw materials with very little intervention
of human. Car manufacturers for instance make intensive use of robots.
Banking services like ATMs allow us to access our accounts 24 hours a day and 7 days a
week to perform routine actions like making a deposit, withdrawing money and verifying
accounts balance through mini statements. Additional services include mobile phones top
ups whereby prepaid mobile phone accounts can be automatically credited from a given
bank account.
Communication has never been easier than now by using mobile phones. Chat and
sending sms is now an integral part of our life. Modern mobile phones now enable viewing
the person to whom we are speaking with.
Entertainment such as IP television has made our life more interactive in that we can
select which TV program we want to view and at what time, process known as video on
demand.
Web based applications using the Internet has brought people even closer. New
businesses known as ecommerce have emerged such that a person can shop for almost
anything without having to leave his house. Online applications involving much less use of
paperwork such as booking for a flight, and seat reservation at the university avoids the
hassle of waiting in long queues and provide for a more efficient and quick means of
operation.
Figure 1-8 Web page viewed on a browser with the help of Internet
A person will need a browser (E.g. Firefox, Microsoft Internet Explorer) to view web pages and a
modem to connect to the Internet. The term web and Internet are often used interchangeably. You
will learn more about the Internet and the Web in Chapter 10.
1.6 Benefits and drawbacks of IT
So far, we have seen computers mostly as making our life easier. It is important however to recall
that any new technology if not well used can cause serious problems to people. Below is a list of
benefits of using computers, followed by some computer drawbacks that should not be ignored.
Benefits
Faster processing is achieved using computers compared to human beings especially when
calculations are involved.
Storage facility allows individuals and especially organization to keep soft copies of their
work instead of hard copies like papers and large files that are cumbersome. This also
makes organization and retrieval of information easier and quicker. Hospitals using IT for
instance can very easily have access to the file of any patient easily.
Many users can have access to the same service at the same time as in the case of a book
that can be viewed at the same time by many students.
Professional services are delivered especially in advertising, video and image editing that
gives a new dimension to the underlying industry.
Customizing outputs that allows you to write your own application software such that it
suits your need better. An organization may wish to develop its own software that allows it
to calculate the salary of all its employees automatically and print out a summary after
processing.
Integrated applications have been made possible with computers. For instance you can
watch movies, listen to music, type your report and talk over the Internet using
computers.
Drawbacks
Loss of jobs has been very significant since the introduction of computers as many
organizations have been able to perform the same tasks using lesser human intervention.
Security issues have been of great concern with IT. Many people have seen their bank
account manipulated, their privacy invaded and as well their businesses affected. This area
is often known as cyber crime.
Health problems resulting from excessive use of computers include eye strain, head ache,
back pain and others. Hence it is essential that special care is taken while using
computers.
Ethical issues such as illegal copying of other people’s works are now very easy using
computers. Other concerns include applying parental control to avoid that children are
exposed to adult materials over the Internet.
Software reliability mainly addresses the trust that people place in computer software. For
instance, how far can we trust a lift that is controlled by a piece of software?
1.7 Trends in IT
An interesting feature of computers and IT is that the technology is ever changing. Computer
specialists are always finding new ways of improving our life and developing new computer
systems. Current trends aim at providing wireless services (without cables) to people while
improving on the speed and storage space of existing computer systems. Other trends include
reducing the size of computers, their costs and increasing their processing power while catering for
the various drawbacks mentioned earlier.
Capron H.L., Johnson J.A., “Computers, Tools for an information age” eighth edition,
Prentice Hall, 2004.
Exercises
2. Computers are
(a) Documents
(b) Guidelines
(c) Software
(d) Information
(e) Procedures
(a) Mainframe
(b) Mini computer
(c) Micro computer
(d) Super computer
(e) Laptop
(a) Link
(b) Network
(c) Communication software only
(d) Cable
(e) Communication hardware only
7. Firefox is an example of a
(a) Internet
(b) Web
(c) WWW
(d) World wide web
(e) All of the above
9. Protocols refer to
Exercises
Open-Ended questions
2. In your own words, explain how IT has changed the living standard of the common
people today.
3. Describe different types of computers stating specific situations where they are used.
4. IT is said to consist of both computers and networking facility. Explain this statement by
providing suitable examples.
5. Any new technology brings about threats. How far does this statement apply to IT?
The Internet
Learning Objectives
2. Know what is the world wide web (WWW) and how it came about
6. Understand what are search engines and how they are used
7. Know what are the different means of communicating on the Internet: email, blogs, wikis,
newsgroups, mailing lists, chat rooms.
Overview
In this chapter, students are introduced to the various Internet and WWW concepts. The student
learns about the Internet, its history, the WWW, the difference between the Internet and the
WWW and the various applications of the web. They will also be introduced to some new web
concepts like wikis and blogs.
10.0 Introduction
In the last two decades, the Internet has known a huge growth around the world. Mauritius has
not been left behind - in 2004, there were some 77000 Internet subscribers in Mauritius (Mauritius
in figures, June 2005, CSO publication, page 23). With the advent of mobile technologies, the
Internet has known an even bigger growth. Nowadays people can connect to the Internet and send
emails using their mobile phones or some other mobile device.
The Internet is a network of networks connecting all countries of the world. The networks are
made of different kinds of computers which are connected to each other via cable, satellite or even
using wireless technologies. These machines transmit huge amount of information between them.
1960’s
The Internet started in the 1960’s when researchers were investigating the possibility of
connecting computers to share information and programs from anywhere. In 1969 the first such
physical network was developed by the ARPA (Advanced Research Projects Agency) which is now
known as DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency). The network interconnected four
computers in four different universities in the United Stated and was known as the ARPAnet. In the
following years the ARPAnet grew as more computers and more networks were added to the initial
network.
1970’s
As the ARPANET grew, the need for a reliable service was felt and to cater for that a protocol was
required. The protocol would maintain effective communication between the different machines
and take care of problems like jamming, interference and loss of data.
In the early 1970’s a complete protocol called the Network Control Protocol (NCP) was developed
and users could now begin developing applications.
Web-based electronic mail was also developed. A few years later an improved protocol called
TCP/IP was developed, to allow computers and different kinds of network to communicate with
each other. In 1976 Europe joined the ARPANET. It was at that time that the term Internet was
introduced.
1980’s
In the 1980’s TCP/IP became ‘The’ protocol on the Internet. During the 1980s computer sellers
began to sell desktop computers equipped with networking software and companies started to
become interested with the Internet.
At the end of the 1980s, the first worm was released on the Internet causing concern on privacy
and security on the Internet. Terms like cracker and hacker were created.
1990’s
In the 1990’s the original ARPANET was dismantled and was replaced by the NSFNET backbone. At
that time the WWW was invented. The WWW changed the way information was presented and
accessed on the Internet. Web browsers were invented to access web pages. In 1997, all countries
of the world were connected to the Internet.
2000’s
In the 2000s there has been an explosion in the use of wireless devices such as mobile phones and
PDAs and therefore the WWW had to change to cater for these users as well. The web size
surpassed 1 billion indexable pages. (Survey carried out by NEC-RI and Inktomi)
A web server is a host computer with web server software installed on it and it stores and shares
files over the Internet. Tim Berners-Lee wrote the both the first World Wide Web server, "httpd".
Examples of Web Server software are Apache and Microsoft IIS.
A web client on the other hand is a computer with client software installed on it and it makes
requests to the web server. Tim Berners-Lee wrote the first client, "WorldWideWeb" a what-you-
see-is-what-you-get hypertext browser/editor. Examples of Web Client software are web
browsers.
A web site is a collection of web pages linked to each other via hyperlinks. Each website has a
unique address that identifies it.
Web servers have a domain name as well as an IP address. Domain names are more easily
remembered than IP addresses. A Domain Name Server keeps a list of Domain names and their
corresponding IP addressees.
The browser understands that this web page is being requested. It looks after the http:// and
before the closing / if there is one. This represents the name of the server i.e the machine where
the website resides and the specific page required. In the above example the server is:
www.uom.ac.mu and the page is index.asp.
The browser sends the request to that server and the request travels the Internet moving from
machine to machine until it reaches the server.
When the server receives the request, it looks at file extension of the requested file to determine
what kind of file it is. Some files can be sent directly while others need to be processed first and
then sent, hence the need to look at the file extension.
The server then sends a response to the client; the response travels the Internet from machine to
machine until it reaches the client. When the client browser receives the response, it reads the
data and renders it in the browser for the user. The whole process is a series of requests and
responses.
The new document contains hyperlinks and the user can again click on these, starting the whole
process again.
The Internet or the net is a network of networks. As mentioned previously it is made from
computers and cables. The main purpose of the Internet is to share information. When you are
sending information to someone else on the Internet, that information is broken down into packets
and the address of the receiver is attached to the packet. This is then sent to the next computer
connected to the Internet which sends it to the next computer and so on until it reaches the
destination computer. Therefore the Internet delivers packets anywhere in the world and normally
well under a second.
The World Wide Web is an abstract space of information. It consists of all the web pages
connected to each other via hyperlinks. On the Internet there are computers – hardware; on the
web there are text documents, images, music, videos and other files - information. On the Internet
the computers are connected via cables while on the web the documents are connected via links.
The Internet came about much earlier than the web and exists without it. The web is based on the
Internet and cannot exist without it.
There are different kinds of computers on the Internet and these computers have different
operating systems e.g. Windows, UNIX, Mac OS, etc. For these machines to be able to
communicate they need to follow the same rules and these are defined by protocols.
A protocol is the special set of rules that different communicating bodies use to exchange
messages. These rules define how information is sent and also what happens in case there is loss
of information during the transfer.
The most common protocols that are used on the Internet are HTTP, FTP, TCP/IP, HTTPs…
10.5.1 TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)
TCP/IP is the basic communication language of the Internet. As mentioned in the history section, it
followed the original protocol on the Internet, NCP. It is also used in private networks like intranets
and extranets.
A PC
A modem
A telephone line or a wireless device
An Internet Service Provider (ISP)
The Internet Service Provider, also called Internet Access Provider, is an organization that offers
users access to the Internet and to its related services like email. Many ISPs are telephone
companies but not all of them. The user connects to the ISP which is always connected to the
Internet and can thus access the Internet.
A software
The user also needs some software to connect to the Internet. These can either be web browsers
or email clients.
A special kind of website exists to enable users to look for information. Such websites are known
as search engines. Search engines enable Internet users to search for web pages containing
specific information. They also have the option of refining the search by putting conditions such
that more specific and appropriate information is obtained.
There are various kinds of search engines; some can be used to look for any kind of information
while some can only be used to look for information on a specific subject. There are general search
engines, meta search engines, regional search engines, pay-per-click search engines, email-based
search engines, answer-based search engines, job search engines, shopping search engines, blog
search engines, news search engines, multimedia search engines, medical search engines and a lot
more.
Closely related to search engines are web directories. Web directories are human-compiled indexes
of sites, which are then categorised. The fact that a website is reviewed by an editor before being
placed in the index means that getting listed in a directory is often quite difficult. Consequently,
having a listing in a directory guarantees the website a good amount of well-targeted visitors. Most
search engines will rank a website higher if they find that web site in one of the directories.
Google – Yahoo –
http://www.google.com http://www.yahoo.com
While web directories are maintained by human editors, search engines operate on their own.
Most major newspapers and news channels are also online these days. Therefore anyone who
wants to know the latest news simply has to visit any one of these websites and since these are
updated many times a day, they are even more up-to-date than newspapers.
10.9.2 Communication
One of the major uses of the Internet today is for communication purposes. It is much faster to
send an email to someone than to send a letter and the response can be as rapid. There are
various means of communication on the Internet. [See Section 10.10 for more information on
communicating on the Internet]
Communication can also be in terms of sharing information. As mentioned previously, most major
newspapers and news channels are online these days and news are communicated in real time (as
they happen).
10.9.3 Education
More and more the Internet is being used for education purposes. Students use the Internet to
look for information when they have some coursework or assignment to submit or they use it as a
learning aide.
But many people are also following courses online, meaning they register for a course and instead
of going to a classroom at a university or training centre, they sit in front of a computer at home
or at the office and follow their courses by reading the lecture notes online or by viewing a video of
their lecturer delivering a course. This mode of learning known as e-learning has the added
advantage of taking place at home or at the office and at a time that is convenient to the learner.
10.9.4 Business
More and more businesses are going online either for marketing purposes or for conducting
business directly. Ecommerce and eBusiness are two terms that almost everyone has heard of.
EBusiness is more than just e-commerce. It covers business processes along the whole value
chain: electronic purchasing ("e-procurement") and supply chain management, processing orders
electronically, customer service and cooperation with business partners.
10.9.5 Entertainment
A lot of people use the Internet for entertainment purposes. People listen to music and watch
movies on the Internet – they can either do these in real time (e.g.http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio/)
or they can download them and use later. People also play games on the Internet
(e.g. http://games.yahoo.com/games/front), either alone or with other people who are connected
to the Internet.
10.10.1 Email
10.10.1.1 What is Email?
Electronic mail, abbreviated e-mail or email, is a method of composing, sending, and receiving
messages over electronic communication systems. The electronic communication system can be
either over the Internet or can be in an intranet.
The term e-mail applies both to the Internet e-mail system based on the Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol (SMTP) and to intranet systems allowing users within one company or organization to
send messages to each other.
Intranet email predates the Internet. Email came into existence in 1965 as a way for multiple
users to communicate. But the invention of the Internet brought about web based email.
Email addresses have a specific format. They are made of two parts separated by the “at” sign
character, @. The prefix of the email address identifies the user and the suffix gives the domain
name of the mail server.
For example: Cse1010user@uom.ac.mu
The domain name uom.ac.mu indicates that “uom“ is an academic institution, “ac“ sub domain,
found under Mauritius “mu“ domain.
Chat rooms can also be 2D visual chat rooms. In these chat rooms the user can see a graphic
representation of other members and they can move about in the “room”. Examples of this type of
chat room are The Palace and The Manor.
There are also 3D chat rooms. These are similar to the 2D chat rooms except that they are in 3D
and are more realistic. Examples of this type of chat are There, Second Life, andActiveworlds.
All these chat rooms also have audio and video communication so that the users can either hear
each other or even see each other.
10.10.3 Newsgroups
A newsgroup is a repository for messages posted by many different users from around the world.
Newsgroups are arranged in hierarchies making it easier to find specific information. Usually
newsgroups focus on a specific subject.
10.10.5 Forums
Forums are websites on the WWW where discussions can take place. Forums are also known as
web forums, message boards, discussion boards, discussion forums, discussion groups, bulletin
boards or forums. The difference between forums and newsgroups is that some additional software
is required to participate in a newsgroup, a newsreader while there is no need for additional
software to participate in a forum.
10.10.6 eNewsletters
A newsletter is a regularly distributed publication generally about one main topic that is of interest
to its subscribers. When the newsletters are sent by email, they are called eNewsletters.
eNewsletters can be published by businesses, especially companies, or clubs to provide
information of interest to their employees or members. Most newsletters are free although some
are fee-paying. eNewsletters are similar to Mailing Lists except that they are more commercial in
nature.
10.10.7 Blogs
A blog (the shorthand for weblog or web log) is a website where messages are posted and are
displayed in reverse chronological order. A blog is usually on a specific topic e.g. politics, health,
games or can be a personal diary.
A blog is different from newsgroups and forums since only the author or authoring group can
create a topic for discussion on the blog. There are cases where blogs function as forums when
other people are granted access to post on the blog but the blog owners can initiate and frame the
discussions.
Example of a blog creating website is: http://www.blogger.com/
Example of a blog is: http://cse1010.blogspot.com/
A blog is very easy to create. The user usually does not need to know any web design or
programming. The user simply uses a blog creating website to create his blog. He first registers
with the website, then he specifies the name of his blog and finally he chooses a template for his
website. The blog website takes care of creating a blog for the user in the format selected. Even
adding content to the blog is very easy, the user has to login and then can add content through a
simple user interface. Once again the blog website takes cares of updating the user’s blog.
Wikis usually contain a system which records all changes made to items so that the page content
can be reverted back if need be.
10.10.9 Plug-ins
A plug-in is a small computer program that understands how to interpret one specific data format.
The plug-in usually interacts with a specific program to provide a certain, usually very specific,
function.
When a new data format is invented, the plug-in to handle the format must also be developed. For
example, the plug-in for an audio clip must be able to use audio hardware to convert the digitized
format into sounds. Before the new format can be used, the plug-in must be downloaded and used
as an extension to the browser. Most new browsers have the some commonly used plug-ins.
Typical examples are plug-ins to display specific graphic formats (e.g. SVG, Scalable Vector
Graphics, if the program does not support this format natively), to play multimedia files, to
encrypt/decrypt email (e.g. PGP, Pretty Good Privacy), or to filter images in graphic programs.
Exercises
(a) A pc
(b) A web browser
(c) A telephone line
(d) A modem
(e) A printer
3. What is a hyperlink?
4. Which of the following is NOT a possible error message when accessing a website?
5. Spam is
7. A Blog is
(a) A personal web site where other people can leave comments
(b) A special kind search engine
(c) A web browser
(d) A web server
(e) A website that can be edited by anyone
8. A wiki is
(a) A personal web site where other people can leave comments
(b) A web browser
(c) A web server
(d) A website that can be edited by anyone
(e) A router
9. A protocol is
(a) A computer which contains server software and which hosts web pages on the web
(b) A special software that is used to access web pages on the web
(c) A special software that is used to read emails on the web
(d) A kind of virus that spreads when a user requests a web page
(e) Another name for a web browser
Open-Ended Questions
1. What are the main differences between the Internet and the WWW?
9. Explain the term Domain name and its importance on the web.
Computer
Security
Learning Objectives
3. Describe the types of computer attacks, viruses and misuse of computer systems
Overview
This chapter presents the basic concepts of computer security.
The objective of computer security is to protect a computer system’s valuable resources, such as
information, hardware, and software. Security relies on confidentiality, integrity, and authorisation
or availability.
Nowadays, as computers become ever-more prevalent and connected with each other, computer
systems need to be protected against increasing number of attacks, malicious codes and IT
misuse. Several techniques are available to minimise computer security risks, namely passwords,
encryption, firewalls and antivirus software.
Furthermore, computer users need to be aware of various security threats and the tools available
to protect computer systems. Up-to-date legislation governing computer security, data protection,
privacy laws and other IT laws are vital in order to fight against cyber offences and protect users.
11.0 Introduction
Over the last decades, computing environment has changed from unconnected or standalone
computers to a highly interconnected network of powerful computer systems. Many traditional
activities have been extended or even transferred to the computing environment. For example,
instead of sending a letter, we send email, in addition to going to the bookstore, we can buy a
book online, instead of buying the newspaper, we visit a news Web site, instead of visiting a bank,
we go to the bank’s Web site, and instead of keeping accounts information in a book, specialised
software are used. With our increased daily dependence on computers and networks at home or in
office, ensuring that computer systems are secure has become very important.
11.1 What is computer security?
The meaning of the term computer security has evolved in recent years. Traditionally, most
people’s idea of computer security focused on the physical computer. An example is the prevention
of theft or damage to the hardware. Today, however, with omnipresent computer access,
communications, and networking, physical measures rarely provide meaningful protection for
either the information or the service. Generally, computer security is referred as the process of
preventing and detecting unauthorised use of computer systems and the data stored on them.
Prevention measures help to stop unauthorised users (also known as "intruders") from accessing
any part of the computer system. Detection helps to determine whether or not someone attempted
to break into the system, if they were successful, and what they may have done.
11.2.1 Confidentiality
Sensitive data transferred over computer network need to be protected. Confidentiality means to
protect the data being transferred from exposure to third party. The need for keeping information
secret arises from the use of computers in sensitive fields such as government and industry.
Encryption is one of the methods used to avoid data from being “seen” during transmission. Data
are encrypted before sending and decrypted on receiving.
11.2.2 Integrity
Integrity of data is important for data transmitted over computer network. It guarantees the data
or information being transferred is intact and trustworthy. In other words, the data received by the
intended receiver should be exactly the same as it was sent. Digitally signed document helps to
maintain the integrity of data or information being transmitted.
The availability of computer systems is crucial to many businesses or organisations and in some
cases the lack of availability can result in significant financial losses. For example, the
unavailability of banking computer systems can result in clients unable to access their funds or in
the bank employees unable to process transactions.
Viruses are similar to worms except that they attach themselves to other pieces of code and are
spread as that code is executed.
A Trojan is a piece of code which looks like a desirable application while performing malicious
activity in the background. An example of this would be a pirated video game, which functions
correctly and allow users to play while installing an unauthorised program to the operating system.
i. In the dormant phase, the virus is idle, but not all viruses have this stage.
ii. In Propagation phase, the virus places an identical copy of itself into other programs or into
certain system areas.
iii. Triggering phase is when the virus is activated to perform the function for which it was created.
iv. In the Execution phase, the function for which the virus was created, is performed. The function
may be harmless or damaging.
Virus types
The following are three main categories of viruses:
i. Transient (parasitic) virus: It is the most common virus form. It attaches itself to a file and
replicates when the infected program is executed.
ii. Memory resident virus: This virus type is lodged in main memory as part of a system program.
Virus may infect every program that executes.
iii. Boot Sector Viruses: It infects important files located in boot sector and spreads when the
computer system is switched on. Consequently, it gains control of computer systems before the
virus detection tools, thus it is very hard to notice. Common carrier files for boot sector viruses are
AUTOEXEC.BAT, CONFIG.SYS, IO.SYS, .COM files and .EXE files.
First there is detection to determine the files infected and the location of the virus.
Secondly identification is used to spot and classify the specific virus.
Then removal process eliminates the virus from all infected systems, so the virus cannot
spread further.
Finally, recovery is done to restore the computer system to its original state.
11.3.5 Fraud
Computer fraud is a serious cybercrime nowadays. Examples are, changing input data in an illegal
way or entering unauthorised data and modifying output of a computer system. Other types of IT-
related fraud are: financial fraud by misuse of stolen credit card details or other financial
information, telecommunication fraud by the use of telecommunications systems or services for
dishonest or fraudulent purposes.
According to surveys, the most common type of attacks are those resulting from malicious codes
(i.e. computer viruses types). The Internet and Information and Communication Technologies have
increased security threats. Example, prior to an attack, hackers break into computer workstations
and servers with high speed Internet commections and install hard-to-detect malicious software.
At the designated time, a signal is sent via the Internet to these computers to launch hidden
programs, causing the targeted or ‘victim’ site to be flooded or jammed with requests. This can
lead to access denial or disable Internet-based services of the victim server.
Email security is a service that intercepts and examines the email addresses to a domain. Any
suspicious origin of email is filtered before reaching the mail server. This prevents malicious
attachments, spams, other unwanted mail and attacks off the network. Spam blocker or anti-spam
software are used to provide email security.
11.4.1 Encryption
Emails travel through many different computers on the way to their destinations, and anyone with
access to those computers has the ability to read the emails. Email encryption is commonly used
to convert an email message into an unintelligible form that prevents people other than the
intended recepient from reading it. This is a powerful tool to protect user privacy.
The famous Caesar’s cipher is a classic encryption example and it was used for concealing meaning
of messages by Julius Caesar. This simple algorithm specifies that alphabets in a message can be
replaced by offsetting each either to the right (forward) or to the left (backward), and the key
specifies how many letters the offset should be. Example:
If the original message or plaintext is “MEET ME AFTER THE BATTLE”, and suppose Caesar’s
encryption procedure is to offset 3 alphabets to the right. Value 3 is normally the secret key only
known by sender and receiver. The cipher operates by replacing each letter by another letter, a
fixed distance away. Therefore, the computed encrypted message is “PHHW PH DIWHU WKH
EDWWH”.
Attachment security – Outlook defines two attachment security levels: level 1 and level 2. Level
1 attachments include extensions such as .vbs, .exe, and .com, which are automatically blocked by
default. Level 2 attachments include all other types such as .doc, .xls, and .ppt. Level 2
attachments are not blocked by Outlook; however a dialog box prompts the user to save the
attachments to the hard disk when accessing it. The pupose of the dialog box is to give the user
an opportunity to scan the file before opening it.
Install Antivirus software - An anti-virus software consists of computer programs that attempt
to identify, thwart and eliminate known computer viruses and other malicious software (also called
malware). If a piece of code or program in a file matches any virus identified by the anti-virus
software during a virus scan process, then one of the following actions can take place:
Attempt to repair the file by removing the virus itself from the file.
Quarantine the file, such that it remains inaccessible to other programs and its virus can
no longer spread.
Delete the infected file.
Some common anti-virus software packages are: Norton Anti-Virus, McAfee VirusScan and PC-
cillin. Regular updates of the anti-virus software are needed to ensure consistent protection
against new viruses.
Security has become a problem for all those who use the web, whether home users or large
companies connecting to the Internet. Hackers, computer viruses and other threats are constantly
affecting web services.
11.6.1 Firewalls
One of the most popular security component used on computer systems connected to the Internet
is the firewall. In building construction, a firewall is designed to keep a fire from spreading from
one part of the building to another. Similarly, in networks and computer systems, a firewall is an
important security component. A firewall is a combination of hardware components and
appropriate software that controls or filters access between two networks. It is considered as a
first line of defence in protecting private information and it is placed at the junction point between
the two networks, as shown in Figure 11-2 . Encryption helps to solve many security problems.
However, it is not a complete solution and is often complimented with a firewall to restrict the
types of access permitted between a computer or private network and the rest of the Internet (i.e.
a firewall protects against unwanted Internet traffic). The main component of a firewall is a packet
filter, which is capable of preventing data packets of a certain type from passing through the
firewall.
Figure 11-2 Network with Firewall
In computer security, social engineering is a term that describes a non-technical kind of intrusion.
It relies mainly on human interaction. It often involves tricking other people to break normal
security procedures. For example, a person using social engineering to break into a computer
network would try to gain the confidence of someone who is authorised to access the network in
order to get them to reveal information, such as username and password, that compromises the
network’s security. Prevention includes educating people about the value of information and
increasing people’s awareness about security threats.
The current environment in which we live and operate in, people use computers for everything,
from banking and investing to shopping and communicating. Therefore, a “culture of security” is
needed so as to protect all computer users from security breaches. People are considered the
weakest link in the security chain. Awareness of the risks and available safeguards is the first line
of defense for security of computer systems.
11.8 Passwords
A password is a secret combination of different characters (letters, numbers or symbols) that is
used to allow only authorised users have access to certain services, e.g. email account, or files on
a computer. Password selection is one of those critical activities that is often neglected as part of a
good security baseline. Many computer systems today are only protected by a simple user ID and
password. If an attacker guesses the right userID and password combination, then, all other steps
taken to secure the computer system collapse. Therefore selecting a ‘good’ password is critical to
protecting computer systems.
There are mainly two types of passwords: weak and strong passwords.
A strong password is one that is designed to be hard for a person or program to discover. It is
sufficiently long, random by the user who chose it, so that “guessing” for it will require a long
time. Examples of strong passwords: J*p2zeO4!F or #79kLLwyee. Strong passwords are normally
at least eight characters long with a mix of character types, do not contain user name or other real
name and they do not contain a complete dictionary word.
A weak password is one that is short or is a default, or which can be rapidly guessed by searching
a subset of all possible passwords such as words in the dictionary, proper names, words based on
the user name or common variations on these themes. Example of weak passwords: admin, 4321
or test.
Weak passwords provide attackers with easy access to computers or networks, while strong
passwords are considerably harder to crack.
The following guidelines help to make a password more difficult to guess or obtain:
Given enough time and computing power, virtually any password can be cracked by simply testing
all possible passwords. It is therefore necessary to have users change their passwords on a regular
basis. For example, users have to change their passwords every 60 to 90 days, very secure
computer systems may need passwords change every 30 to 45 days. Additionally, passwords
should not be reused, i.e. using the same password later on.
1. Many free utilities, such as file sharing software or toolbars and other pieces of software of
unknown origin, come loaded with adware and spyware. Suspicious or untrusted software should
not be downloaded or installed, as they can affect computer performance.
2. Antivirus software can quickly detect when viruses, worms, and other types of malicious code
are introduced to any computer. It is essential that current version of supported antivirus software
is installed and set for regular and automatic updates.
3. Computer users have to assign strong password to prevent hackers from stealing confidential
information. Hard-to-guess passwords that can withstand automated password cracking attempts
is important for higher security.
4. The computer system’s firewall provides an additional level of protection against malicious
activity by examining and restricting network traffic to the computer.
6. Backup is a way of securing information; it is another copy of all important computer files kept
in another location. These files are kept on hard disks, CD-Rs, CD-RWs, and tapes. Backups act as
an insurance copy in case of data loss.
7. In the case of operating systems and other softwares, patches have an important role of fixing
security holes. A patch is a small piece of software designed to update and fix problems with a
computer program. To facilitate updates, operating systems often provide automatic update
facilities.
Due to increasing vulnerability of individuals regarding their privacy and protection of data, there
have been significant regulatory activities on the issue of data protection and confidentiality. All
individuals have important confidentiality needs that are usually associated with the right to
privacy. In the case of organisations, the need for confidentiality is of such importance to protect
information assets, intellectual property rights or professional duties. The laws in this area are
quite diverse as the level of security required varies for different circumstances and applications.
To develop Mauritius as a cyber island and strengthen the ICT sector, legal frameworks have been
put in place to promote the growth of ICT industry. The four main IT related laws currently
existing in Mauritius in 2006 are outlined below:
Exercises
2. When the attacker is capable of sending data with the illusion that it is coming from a different
source, this is called :
(a) fraud
(b) spoofing
(c) redirecting
(d) sabotage
(e) spamming
3. Which of the following is not considered good practise for password security?
(a) Changing the password on a regular basis
(b) Using a combination of upper- and lower-case characters, a number, and a special character in
the password
(c) Avoiding inclusion of dictionary words
(d) Not writing the password down
(e) Using less than eight characters long
4. A combination of hardware components and appropriate software that controls or filters access
between two networks is called:
(a) an antivirus
(b) a firewall
(c) a port
(d) a trojan
(e) a network card
5. A piece of code which looks like a useful application while performing malicious activity in the
background is:
(a) a trojan
(b) a worm
(c) a cypher
(d) a patch
(e) a bug
(a) masquerading
(b) Intruding
(c) social engineering
(d) fraud
(e) malware
7. Which of the following is not a carrier file for boot sector viruses?
8. Which legislation has been specifically enacted to protect the society from criminal activities
perpetrated through computer systems?
(a) filtering
(b) shielding
(c) encryption
(d) protection
(e) integrity
Exercises
Open-Ended Questions
4. Explain how encryption can provide secure email transmission? Use Caesar’s cipher with key
value 4 to encrypt the message “I came I saw and I conquered”.
5. Distinguish between strong and weak passwords, and outline the characteristics that make a
password difficult to guess.
6. Describe the types of attacks that e-commerce web sites frequently experience.
7. Write a brief essay outlining the steps required to minimize the possibility of an attack on a
computer system.
8. Define the term computer worm, and distinguish it from computer virus.
9. Describe some of the user security responsibilities that you feel are most important for users to
remember.
10. In an environment familiar to you (the university or where you work, for example) determine
what computer security measures are employed. Discuss whether you think they are sufficient.
Chapter 12
Software Utilities
Learning Objectives
3. Be aware of the importance of keeping systems free from adware and spywares.
5. Understand the importance of Antivirus software and keep the system virus free.
b. Synchronize the files between their systems and external storage devices.
Overview
This chapter introduces the students to a wide range of software utilities, which will help them to
ensure that the data is properly taken care of. This chapter assumes that the student is familiar
with the terms like virus, security, encryption and Internet. The students are expected to go
through the chapters on Computer Networks, Computer Security and The Internet before
proceeding with the current chapter. The student will understand the importance of antivirus
software, keeping the computer free from adwares and spywares, data compression, data backup.
The student is also made aware of the usefulness of file synchronization between the computer
and external storage devices so as to maintain consistency of the data files. The various tools
available to burn data be it normal data or audio or video data on to CDs and DVDs will also be
highlighted. The chapter also highlights to students the popular products available in the current
scenario to enable them to carry out the various tasks mentioned.
12.0 Introduction
Software utilities are programs that are developed to provide useful service by performing
common and housekeeping tasks for the computer.
Freeware – Software can be classified as freeware if the author has control on it. The
author defines the terms of usage and distribution of the software. Under normal terms,
the author of the software allows the users to use it for personal use and does not permit
the user to use it for commercial purpose. The user is legally bound to abide by the terms
of usage set by the author. A freeware is available to the users and is cost free. The users
must not expect any help in terms of support if there are errors in the software. Most of
the freeware softwares include information of how a user can use the software. Usually
most of the freeware softwares do not have a time limit. Freeware that requires the users
to send a postcard to the author are termed as Postcardware. The idea behind this is to
humanize the transaction so as to remind the author that there are users making use of
his software. Some freeware softwares are also termed as Donationware where payment
for the software is completely optional.
Shareware – Software can be classified as shareware if it released by the author for the
users to try it before making a decision to purchase the software. Sharewares are
copyrighted. The duration for trying the software varies from author to author. After the
expiry of the trial period, the user is expected to either register the software by paying the
author for further usage or discontinue the usage by uninstalling the software. Usually
most of the authors release the shareware versions of the softwares in a manner such that
after the expiry of trial period, either the software stops running or important features of
the software get disabled. By registering the software, the user can avail service
assistance and software updates. Shareware softwares where some features are limited till
the user registers the software are termed as Crippleware. Shareware softwares where a
popup screen continuously prompts the user to register the software are termed
as Nagware.
Malware – Malware is a type of program usually known as malicious softwares which gets
installed on the user’s computer without the knowledge of the user through the web
browser and collects the user’s information (passwords, IP address, Operating System
details etc..) and transmits the information to a third party, usually a hacker.
Adwares belong to the category of programs which are legally allowed and are usually
associated with programs not registered by the users. Usually the programs are sponsored
shareware or freeware. When the programs are being used, a small portion of the screen
is utilized for displaying advertisement banners or pop up windows and this is a possible
source of revenue for the authors of the programs. When the programs are terminated,
the advertisement banners disappear. Adware can be either malicious* or non malicious.
*Malicious code is a portion of code designed in order to intentionally cause damage or change the
way of working of the system.
Figure 12-1 Example of an Adware on an application
When the adware assumes a high degree of intrusive nature, by tracking the surfing behavior of
the user in order to serve advertisement purposes then it is termed as a spyware. Thus spyware
is a malicious program which is installed by the user unknowingly along with a freeware or a
shareware which was downloaded from the Internet. Once the spyware is installed on the
computer, it monitors the user’s activity and transmits the information to a third party without the
user’s knowledge. The type of information that can be transmitted by a Spyware ranges from
gathering information about e-mail addresses, passwords to credit card numbers. The spywares
have the capability of monitoring the keystrokes of the users, gather information about other
applications, make provision for installation of other spywares, scan the data on the computer and
access cookies amongst others.
Disk Defragmenter – As the user stores files on the hard drive, the storage methodology
may or may not be sequential. In due course of time, the file needs to be split into several
portions and stored in several locations on the hard drive according to the availability of
space. If a file is split into several portions then the time taken to read the file is longer
when compared to reading the file which is stored at contiguous locations. In order to
overcome this problem, the Disk Defragmenter arranges all the portions of the file in a
manner that they are all in a contiguous location so that it improves the file access time.
Thus a Disk Defragmenter is a computer program which is designed to increase the speed
of reading the file and the amount of usable space by rearranging the files and unused
space. Most of the Disk Defragmenters are included along with the Operating Systems like
Microsoft Windows (Figure12-2), utility packages like Norton Utilities
(www.symantec.com), or other standalone defragmenters like PerfectDisk
(www.raxco.com/products/) or Diskeeper (www.diskeeper.com).
Figure 12-2 Microsoft Windows Disk Defragmenter Utility
Disk Cleanup – In due course of time, there are a lot of unnecessary files stored on the
hard drive which might not be of any use and take up a lot of storage space. Disk Cleanup
is a system utility which is used to delete temporary and other files that are no longer
needed. Disk Cleanup searches the hard drive, and then lists temporary files, Internet
cache files, and unnecessary program files that can be deleted safely. Most of the
Operating Systems have this utility inbuilt.
Data Backup and Restoration – The process of copying files from the computer onto a
second medium such as zip drive, pen drive or tape drive is termed as data backup. This
helps the user to safeguard the data and retrieve it in case of loss of data. The traditional
data backup medium used with Personal Computers was floppy disks. But considering the
nature and amount of data being dealt with in the current scenario, the floppy disks have
become obselete due to limitations with respect to the medium. They have been replaced
with technologies such as CD-RWs, Pen drives, DVD-RWs and online
backups. Pen drives are also known as key drives. These drives can hold huge
amounts of data. There are a lot of softwares which not only take care of backing
up the data but also synchronising the data both at the source and destination
drive. Some of the backup and synchronisation utilities are
Compression tools are used which reduce the size of the file as well as the time taken to transfer
the file. Compressed files are commonly referred to as zipped files.
Groups of files can also be compressed into a single compressed file. This compressed file is
commonly referred to as an archive file. By doing so the user has the advantage of being able to
download / upload several files as a single compressed file and making use of the disk space
efficiently.
In order to reduce the size of the file the compression tools use complex mathematical algorithms
to search for repeating patterns and replace them with smaller codes which reduce the overall size
of the file. By doing so, the overall number of bits and bytes in a file are reduced. There is a large
range of data compression techniques of which only few are standardized.
To view the contents of a compressed file, corresponding decompression tools are used. These
tools read the codes and convert them back to original patterns thereby expanding the file back to
the original size.
Most of the currents tools have the options for both compressing and decompressing the files. The
most common compressed files have the extension .zip, .tar, .sit, .rar and .cab. Some of the
common compression / decompression utilities are Winzip (www.winzip.com) (Figure 12-6),
WinRAR / RAR (www.rarlab.com) (Figure 12-7), PKzip / PKunzip, StuffIt (http://www.stuffit.com)
amongst others.
It is also possible to create archive files with .sea or .exe extensions which are self-extracting files.
These do not need any additional software to decompress them. These files can be opened like an
ordinary file and the file gets automatically launched. Thus these compression utilities allow huge
files, be it data or pictures or video into archive files which utilize less disk space and thereby
making the process of transmitting between locations an easy job.
As seen in Section 12.3, it is possible to compress files into smaller sizes in order to allow easy
transmission between different locations. However this set up may not be appropriate when the
files are to be downloaded from the Internet. Whenever there are disruptions in the Internet
connection, there is no flexibility in terms of continuing with the download of the file. When the
files are to be downloaded, many browsers allow a certain number of files to be downloaded
simultaneously.
Thus some of the drawbacks that arise when the files are downloaded via the traditional browsers
are as follows
The need for a program which handles efficient downloading of files from the Internet arose due to
the above mentioned drawbacks. Most of the download managers integrate seamlessly into the
web browsers. Most of the current web browsers have their own Download Managers. Apart from
utilities for downloading files there are also utilities for downloading whole sites and updating them
regularly.
Users who use dialup connections are the ones who benefit a lot from Download Managers. The
Download Managers give the flexibility of scheduling downloads and hanging up the Internet
connection after completion of download. They also keep track of all the links the user clicks. They
also allow the user to place several files in queue for download.
Some of the software companies provide their own downloaders (Figure 12-8) to download
software from their own sites to exercise control over the redistribution of their software.
GetRight® (www.getright.com)
Files are scanned as soon as the files are downloaded (The files will be scanned only if
there is an antivirus application installed in the computer).
Files can be downloaded from several mirror sites (servers) simultaneously to reduce the
download time drastically.
They allow the users to have a preview of the multimedia files as they are downloaded.
As seen in Chapter 11 Section 11.3.3, it is necessary for users to protect their computers from
various types of viruses which are released every now and then. The category of software whose
primary objective is to protect the computer from virus attacks is known as antivirus. Antivirus
software searches the storage devices of the computer for any known and potential viruses and
removes any that are found. Due to the rapid growth of the Internet, it has become necessary for
each and every user to safeguard his/her computer from virus attacks. Most of the antivirus
softwares include auto update feature which automatically downloads the profiles of new viruses
on to the computer from the company’s website. Most of the antivirus companies release the
updates weekly or upon the discovery of new potentially destructive viruses. Some of the
companies also have virus removal tools specific to a particular virus.
Antivirus software can be installed like any other program and executed. They can also be
configured to perform automatic scans of the computer by specifying the schedules and
automatically download latest virus definitions. Whenever a virus is discovered, the antivirus
specialists try to analyse the virus by isolating it. By doing so, they get a better understanding
about the effects of the virus and devise a strategy of detecting the virus and removing it.
When an antivirus program is run, it checks the computer, it compares the contents of each file
with the virus definitions it has and if a match occurs, it tries to remove the virus. If the antivirus
program cannot clean the file, it quarantines the file so that the virus does not infect other files in
the computer. Every month a large number of viruses are released into the network and it very
important for the antivirus program to have the latest virus definitions. Some of well known
antivirus software are: Norton Antivirus (www.symantec.com) (Figure12-11), McAfee
(www.mcafee.com) amongst others.
As seen in Section 12.1, programs that help the user to protect his/her computer against
spywares are termed as anti-spywares. Usually most of the anti-virus companies bundle anti-
spyware program along with the anti-virus software. Some of the anti-spyware programs are
WinPatrol (www.winpatrol.com), Windows Defender
(www.microsoft.com/athome/security/spyware/software/default.mspx) (Figure 12-12), Spybot
(http://spybot.safer-networking.de/) (Figure 12-3) amongst others.
Multimedia Utilities are programs which help the user to record and play audio-video clips, burn
CDs and DVDs, manipulate pictures amongst others. Many of the multimedia utilities have the
capabilities of managing (conversion/editing) media (audio/video) files, burning them on to the
storage media (CD-ROMs/DVDs). Some utilities include an additional capability of taking data
backup and retrieving media data from the discs. Therefore it is quite difficult to categorize the
utilities as either Audio-Video Utilities or CD-ROM/DVD Burner Utilities or Image Editing Utilities.
Some of the commonly used multimedia utilities are:
o Audio — Enables the user to create an audio CD which includes CD audio burning for CD
player use, Jukebox CD burning for PC use, and MP3 ripping from CDs.
o Backup — Enables the user to take backups of the CDs/DVDs or the entire storage
media.
o Copy — Enables the user to copy a disc, write images on discs, and store images on
your hard disk.
o Tools — Enables the user to delete data and check the finalised disc.
Figure 12-17 Screenshot of Roxio Digital Media SE
o applications to edit audio, mix multiple audio tracks, watch VCD, SVCD and DVD movies
http://www.pcworld.com/downloads/
http://www.download.com/
Exercises
(a) I Only
(b) II Only
(c) III Only
(d) I, II & III
(e) None
3. Shareware softwares where some features are limited till the user registers the software are
termed as ______________.
(a) Crippleware
(b) Nagware
(c) Spyware
(d) Adware
(e) Malware
4. ________________ is a type of program which gets installed on the user’s computer without
the user’s knowledge and transmits the user’s information to a third party.
(a) Postcardware
(b) Crippleware
(c) Nagware
(d) Adware
(e) Malware
5. ________________ Utility takes care of arranging all the portions of the file in a manner that
they are all in contiguous locations.
6. Which of the following statements are true with respect to Data Compression Utility:
I. Makes use of mathematical algorithms to search for repeating patterns and replace them with
smaller codes which reduce the overall size of the file.
II. Enables transfer of large files from one location to another by compressing the size of the file.
III. For every Data Compression Utility there exists a corresponding Decompression Utility.
IV. Data Compression Utility does not allow the creation of self extracting compressed files.
7. Which of the following statements are true with respect to Disk Cleanup Utility:
I. It is used to compress all large files into smaller files.
II. Scans the hard drive for the files that can be safely deleted.
III. Deletes the temporary files and other files that are not needed.
8. Which of the following statements are true with respect to download utility?
I. Allows the user to pause the download of a file.
II. Allows the user to download several files simultaneously from a site.
III. Allows the user to compress the file at the site and download it to their computer
(a) I Only
(b) II Only
(c) III Only
(d) I & II Only
(e) II & III Only
9. Which of the following statements are true with respect to Antivirus software?
I. Takes care of performing automatic scans of the computer
II. Cleaning the infected file on detection
III. Quarantines an infected file
IV. Preventing infected programs from getting installed on the computer.
Learning Objectives
Explain the need for a legal framework resulting from the use of IT.
Overview
This chapter highlights the issues and trends in IT. The first part of the chapter discusses the
health, legal and ethical issues that are associated with the use of IT or more specifically
computers at home, in the workplace or in a public area. It provides examples of health problems
that can occur with the use of computers while providing for precautions to avoid these problems.
The chapter also introduces the concept of ergonomics as an efficient way to use computers in a
healthy and productive manner. IT being a tool can also be misused and so various examples of
how IT can be misused are given to create an awareness of the risks that computer users are
exposed to. An overview of the legal framework to protect any individual involved in computers is
also provided with special attention given to the laws that exist in Mauritius. A brief introduction of
copyright is given since it is very easy to breach such rights using computers. Ethics as a
complement to existing IT laws are presented so as to ensure correct use of IT and computers as a
technology. The second part of this chapter deals with the new trends in IT such as wearable
computers, Biometrics and IP Television to name a few.
13.0 Introduction
Information technology is associated with numerous benefits that have indeed enhanced our living
standards. Unfortunately as mentioned earlier in Chapter 1, any new technology if not well
utilized may cause serious problems and information technology or more specifically computers
are not to be excluded from this category. This chapter will give an overview of the health, legal
and ethical issues that need to be catered for with the use of computers. Various examples of how
an individual’s health can be affected when using a computer are described followed by the
precautions that are required to avoid such problems.
IT use is regulated by certain laws, hence common misuses of IT and a brief description of IT
related laws in Mauritius are given. Copyright, an important issue in relation to computers, is then
presented. Some ethical guidelines as to the proper use of IT are provided. Finally the new trends
in IT today are introduced.
If a person sits for long periods of time in an uncomfortable position while typing and lookingat a
computer screen, the following physical problems may arise:
2. Use a good screen that does not flicker and is not blurred.
3. Ensure that any light source is not reflected on the computer screen and if
possible use anti glare shields.
4. Always use computers in a well lit room and keep the screen at a reasonable
distance form you.
(a) (b)
Figure 13-1 (a) Eyestrain resulting from prolonged exposure to computer
(a) (b)
Figure 13-2 (a) Arm and wrist pain due to improper positioning when working
(a) (b)
Figure 13-3 (a) Neck pain resulting from improper position when working on
computers (b) Back pain can result when working for long hours and using
uncomfortable chair
13.1.2 Ergonomics
Ergonomics in simple terms studies factors that relate humans to the things they use with the aim
of designing devices, or methods of working that can be fitted to human abilities instead of doing
the reverse. In this way, it is expected that users will not suffer from health risks while at the
same time maintaining productivity. Considering the use of computers in the workplace or at
home, ergonomics will provide recommendations as to the specifications of the chair, table,
computer screen, position, height and seating arrangement required in order to cater for the
health of the user. Figure 13.4 shows such a typical ergonomic arrangement.
During recent years, IT has been at the heart of many disputes whereby people have faced many
situations resulting from the misuse of such technology. Some examples include:
Monitoring networks to steal confidential information such as credit card numbers and
passwords.
Blocking or stopping a service such as an online store like amazon.com or a bank ATM’s
network.
Consequently there has been an urgent need to define a proper legal framework to protect every
individual either directly or indirectly related to IT. The framework consists of carefully defined
laws that govern proper use of IT to protect the rights of an individual or an organization. Actually
different laws exist for different countries and Mauritius has its own IT related laws. Refer
to Chapter 11; Section 11.10 for a few examples of IT related laws in Mauritius.
13.2.1 Copyrights ©
Computers have made it easy to copy and edit materials like music, movies, images and
documents that are easily available over networks like the Internet and from secondary storage
devices like CDs. Distributing these materials is much easier now and often most of them are
copyrighted, meaning that only the authors have the right to use, modify or distribute them.
Hence any other individual that copies, modifies or distributes a copyrighted material will be
infringing the right of the legitimate author and can be pursued by law. Hence you must seek the
permission of the author before using a copyrighted material.
To know whether a material is copyrighted and hence protected under the copyright law, an
individual needs to look for the symbol ©, that should appear somewhere on the material
concerned. Exceptions to the use, modification and distribution of copyrighted materials do exist
however and these are:
Figure 13-7 Highlights of guidelines for ethical behaviour provided by BCS
6. Thou Shalt Not Copy Or Use Proprietary Software For Which You have Not Paid.
7. Thou Shalt Not Use Other People’s Computer Resources Without Authorization
Or Proper Compensation.
9. Thou Shalt Think About The Social Consequences Of The Program You Are
Writing Or The System You Are Designing.
10. Thou Shalt Always Use A Computer In Ways That Insure Consideration And
Respect For Your Fellow Humans.
However it is important to note that ethics complement the law and hence we need both in
order to provide for a secure environment whereby people use Information Technology for
the benefits of human beings.
13.4 Trends in IT
Currently there is an ever increasing range of applications that make IT more useful. Traditionally
the use of computers was primarily for basic data processing. But with advancements in both
processing power and size of computers, the range of applications expanded from word
processing, data storage and spreadsheet applications to a wider range of innovative and useful
applications. These applications include educational software, desktop publishing, computer-aided
design and manufacturing (CAD/CAM), games, modelling and simulation, networking and
communications software, electronic mail, the World Wide Web, digital imaging and photography,
audio and video applications, electronic commerce applications, groupware, file sharing, search
engines, and many others. The growth and diversity of applications greatly increase the utility of
IT, leading to its further expansion. This chapter highlights some of the innovative applications
that have made a mark in the current decade and will be used for quite some time. The trend in IT
is becoming increasingly interdisciplinary in nature. One of the major progresses is wearable
technology which is the basis for all future applications. Grid Computing is also making rapid
strides. These two technologies form the basis of a wide range of IT applications.
Wearable technology has been in existence for quite some time now. It broadly refers to mobile
electronic devices that can be discreetly implanted into the user’s outfit as part of the clothing or
as an accessory which is operational and can be accessed with minimum hindrance to the user’s
normal activity. The basic aim of using a wearable device is to enhance the user’s activity and
environment in an invisible mode. The most important trait of these devices is that they are
context sensitive in nature. By context sensitivity, it is meant that the devices must be able to
recognize the change in the user’s state and environment. The driving force behind the wearable
technology is the ever increasing desire for hands free computing.
Wearable technologies can range from micro sensors which are built into clothes, watches,
jewellery to computers which are integrated as a part of the user’s accessory. These can be used
in several domains and namely health related application domain and smart clothing.
New smart textile and clothing systems are being developed by integrating sensors in the textile
constructions. Application fields for these value-added products are protective clothing for extreme
environments, garments for the health care sector, technical textiles, sport and leisure wears.
Wearable Technology is proving to be useful in improving the quality and reducing the cost of
caring for the aging population, in particular, health monitoring, mobile treatment and nursing.
They are mainly used for monitoring patients over extended periods of time. Wearable technology
allows clinicians to gather data about the home and community settings. Direct observations
concerning the impact of clinical interventions on mobility, level of independence, and quality of
life can be performed by means of wearable systems.
Some of the Examples of wearable Technology are given in the Sections 13.5.1- 13.5.3 that
follows.
13.5.1 MIThril
MIThril is indicative of the functionality that can be expected in next generation wearable devices.
Apart from the hardware requirements, which include having a wide range of sensors with
sufficient computing and communication resources, and the support for different kinds of
interfaces for user interaction, including a vest, the device is being designed in a manner that it
blends with the user’s ordinary clothing and is for a wide range of user behaviours and situations.
A simple example is a reminder delivery system, called Memory Glasses, which acts on user
specified reminders such as “During my next lecture, remind me to give additional examples of the
applications of computers”, and requires a minimum of the wearer's attention. Memory Glasses
uses a proactive reminder system model that takes into account: time, location and the user’s
current activities based on daily events that can be detected such as entering or leaving an office.
Figure 13-8 MIThril Jacket from MIT Media Lab.
Whenever there are conferences, the people attending the conferences make a lot of contacts and
the exchange of contact information between people takes up a lot of time. The application of
wearable technology in this scenario helps in saving time. The product CharmBadge from Charmed
Technology is an electronic business card that can upload and transmit user information through
infrared technology. When people register for the conferences, they are given identity badges
which have the person’s information and areas of interest embedded in them. As the person
moves through the conference whenever there is a match of areas of interest, the badges flash
indicating that there is a match in the areas of interest and thereby gives the person scope of
conversing with the opponent. If the person chooses to converse, then during the scope of
conversation, the badges contact each other and keep track of the conversation time. This is
further expanded to exhibitions, where the person can keep track of the interesting products and
technologies at the stall. Then the information gets stored on to the computer at the conference
desktop for further processing (This application makes use of a protocol called Internet Protocol
Version 6 (IPV6)). The information is then transferred to a secure website from where the person
can download the required information and import them into his / her email application.
In simplest terms, grid computing is the pooling of all IT resources into a single set of shared
services for all enterprise computing needs. Grid computing infrastructure continually analyzes
demand for resources and adjusts supply accordingly. It works on the principle of applying the
resources of many computers in a network to a single problem at the same time – usually a
scientific or technical problem that requires a great number of computer processing cycles or
access to large amounts of data for solving problems too intensive for any stand-alone machine.
Figure 13-11Grid Computing
Grid computing uses software to divide and process pieces of a program to as many as several
thousand computers. A number of corporations, professional groups and university consortia have
developed frameworks and software for managing grid computing projects.
Perhaps the most ambitious is Oxford University's Centre for Computational Drug Discovery's
project that utilizes more than one million PCs to look for a cancer cure. People around the world
donate a few CPU cycles from their PCs through "screensaver time." The project eventually will
analyze 3.5 billion molecules for cancer-fighting potential. More than 50,000 years of CPU power
(based on a 1.5 gigahertz chip) have been put to work so far. Other examples include SETI.
Bio-informatics* is another area where grid computing is very useful. Grid computing is used in
genome projects** .
*Bio-Informatics is the use of computers in solving information problems in the life sciences. It
mainly involves the creation of extensive electronic databases on genomes, protein sequences etc.
Also involves techniques such as three-dimensional modeling of bimolecular and biological systems
**Genome is the total genetic composition of an individual. The complete genetic information
possessed by an organism.
A smart card, a type of chip card is a plastic card embedded with a computer chip that stores and
transacts data between users. This data is associated with either value or information or both and
is stored and processed within the card's chip, either a memory or microprocessor. The card data
is transacted via a reader that is part of a computing system. Smart card-enhanced systems are in
use today throughout several key applications, including healthcare, banking, entertainment and
transportation. To various degrees, all applications can benefit from the added features and
security that smart cards provide. Smart cards greatly improve the convenience and security of
transactions. They provide tamper-proof storage of user and account identity. Smart cards also
provide vital components of system security for the exchange of data throughout virtually any type
of network. They protect against a full range of security threats, from careless storage of user
passwords to sophisticated system hacks. Multifunction cards can also serve as network system
access and store value and other data.
Credit cards
Electronic cash
Wireless communication
Banking
Satellite TV
Government identification
13.7.2 Biometrics
Siemens)
Biometrics is a rapidly evolving technology which has been widely used in forensics such as
criminal identification and prison security. Recent advancements in biometric sensors and
matching algorithms have led to the deployment of biometric authentication in a large number
of civilian applications.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 13-14 (a), (b) and (c) illustrate the use of biometric in Face Recognition, Iris Recognition and
Biometrics can be used to prevent unauthorized access to ATMs, cellular phones, smart cards,
desktop PCs, workstations, and computer networks. It can be used during transactions
conducted via telephone and Internet (electronic commerce and electronic banking). In
automobiles, biometrics can replace keys with key-less entry and key-less ignition. Due to
increased security threats, many countries have started using biometrics for border control
and national ID cards. However a biometric system which relies only on a single biometric
identifier in making a personal identification is often not able to meet the desired performance
requirements. Identification based on multiple biometrics represents an emerging trend. A
multimodal biometric system, which integrates face recognition, fingerprint verification, and
speaker verification in making a personal identification, is a better option. This system takes
advantage of the capabilities of each individual biometric. It can be used to overcome some of
the limitations of a single biometrics. Preliminary experimental results demonstrate that the
identity established by such an integrated system is more reliable than the identity established
by a face recognition system, a fingerprint verification system, and a speaker verification
system.
13.7.3 Telemedicine
As the health care system continues to change and adapt to the new realities associated with
finance and management restructuring, the technological side of patient care also has changed.
Telemedicine is the use of electronic information and communication technologies to provide and
support health care when distance separates the participants. It is a system that connects primary
care physicians, providers, specialists and patients. Telemedicine is not a new concept. It has
existed for a number of years in the form of the telephone and fax machines. In recent years, with
the improvements made in access, technology, and communications systems, telemedicine has
expanded and, in a time of limited resources, has become a feasible alternative for smaller and
rural medical facilities to provide routine and specialized services. Particularly in rural areas, it
offers the potential of both improved access to care and improved quality of care. The primary
applications of telemedicine are clinical, educational, administrative, and research. Clinical
applications include initial patient evaluations, diagnosis (telediagnosis), and consultation
(teleconsultation). Physician supervision of non- physicians and monitoring of patient status are
possible. Continuing education for professionals is available, as is patient and community
education (tele-education). Administrative uses, such as conferences, scheduling, and utilization
and quality review may be provided. Research is enhanced by aggregation of data from multiple
sources and coordination. Telemedicine allows access to the wealth of information available on the
Internet. This allows information to be at the touch of a finger. The availability of e-mail allows an
efficient mechanism of communication between consulting and primary physicians. Communication
between facilities is enhanced.
Telemedicine allows patients to receive medical care in their own community. This increases the
financial viability of rural medical facilities and strengthens the rural economy by keeping the flow
of resources in local communities. Telemedicine assists in providing specialty care services to rural
areas and provides more efficient use of medical resources which may lessen the amount of travel
time for both patients and the specialist. Continuity of patient care is enhanced when the patient,
primary care physician, specialist and family members are involved during a consultation. Should
the patient be required to be transferred to an urban facility, they have already met the physician
who will be caring for them. Physicians and on-site care providers benefit as they receive quick
and efficient consultations. The sense of isolation experienced by rural physicians is also reduced.
The formation of health care networks between rural and urban facilities provides benefits to both.
Urban based facilities provide accessibility of health care to rural areas. However, there are
telemedicine networks where the excess capacity of rural facilities can be tapped into to benefit
urban patients. It is possible that during peak times rural physicians may be accessed via
telemedicine to provide more timely care to patients waiting in congested urban emergency
rooms.
An artificial environment created with computer hardware and software. To "enter" a virtual
reality, a user wears special gloves, earphones, goggles and/or full-body wiring. In addition to
feeding sensory input to the user, the devices also monitor the user's actions. The goggles, for
example, track how the eyes move and respond accordingly by sending new video input.
Virtual reality is well known for its use with flight simulators and games. However, these are only
two of the many ways virtual reality is being used today.
Medicine: A prototype surgical assistant for simulation of paranasal surgery has been
developed. During a simulated operation the system provides vocal and visual feedback to
the user, and warns the surgeon when a dangerous action is about to take place. In
addition to training, the expert assistant can be used during the actual operation to
provide feedback and guidance. This is very useful when the surgeon's awareness of the
situation is limited due to complex anatomy.
Architecture: There is virtual reality program has applications in the area of architecture
and light engineering. With light simulation architects can examine how outdoor light will
fall inside and outside their building before it is built. If the lighting needs to be
redesigned, the architect can redesign the building on the computer and examine the new
outdoor light effects. In addition to outdoor light, lighting engineers use virtual reality to
examine the effects of point lights, spotlights and other indoor light sources. An interior
designer could examine how light will affect different room arrangements.
Weather Simulation: There is a system for weather forecasting which accepts data from
meteorological services such as satellite data, statistically corrected forecast data,
precipitation data and fronts information. It then analyzes this data and uses fractal
functions to create projections of storm systems. Using this system to visualize artificial
clouds, meteorologists can predict weather with increased accuracy.
Chemistry: Real Mol is a program that uses virtual reality to show molecular models in an
interactive, immersive environment. The scientist who uses the program wears a
cyberglove and a head mounted display to interact with the molecular system. Using
RealMol scientists can move molecules or protein chains to create new molecules. This is
useful in fields such as drug design. RealMol displays molecules in three ways: ball and
stick model, stick model and CPK model. The molecules are rendered through a molecular
dynamics simulation program.
Other Applications of Virtual Reality include Flight Simulator; Museums and Cultural Heritage;
Financial Data and Training and Hubble Telescope
13.7.5 IP Television
With the advent of high speed networks resulting in high bandwidth, it is now possible to watch
television channels using the internet on either a computer or a television. The IP refers to a
method of sending information over a secure, tightly managed network that result in a superior
entertainment experience. IPTV allows the service provider to deliver only those channels that the
consumer wants at any given time -- unlike traditional television broadcasting, where every
channel is delivered to every home on the network. For the first time, it will be economical to
deliver a college football game to everyone who wants to see it, for example, rather than just a
particular local community. IPTV gives the viewer access not just to an event but to the
information related to it. Since the network is a secure data network, it allows the viewer the
ability to look up player-specific information right on the TV while watching a game. It also enables
the viewer to send photos or home movies from the computer right onto the television, message
his/her friends while the viewer watches a show "together" across great distances, and receive
caller ID information on the TV. It also allows the flexibility of watching the programs according
the convenience of the user or uses a cell phone to manage his/her children's TV viewing when
he/she is away from home. This service is being provided by Mauritius telecom in Mauritius to the
ADSL subscribers.
Figure 13-16 IP Television
The basic setup to use IPTV includes the venerable set-top box. The box will connect to the home
DSL line and is responsible for reassembling the packets into a coherent video stream and then
decoding the contents. This enables the users to view the channels on the television rather than on
the computer.
Digital library is a collection of digital objects. A collection of research papers is a typical example.
When this collection gets sufficiently large, users of the digital library cannot examine each paper
individually to find if its subject interests them. To address this problem, digital librarians create an
interface to stand between the content of the collection and the user. In a traditional library, an
example of this would be a card catalog - a collection of small cards that represent the larger
objects contained in the collection. These cards are more manageable than the books that they
represent.
In a digital library, there are a number of ways that we can present the digital collection to the
user. The first thing that we need to do is to describe each object in a manageable way. This
description is called metadata - data (the description) about data (the digital object). This
metadata is more manageable than the digital objects that it represents. Metadata is written in a
standard format. This allows the metadata to be manipulated using automated tools.
A digital library is like a “regular” library except: contents digitized, services computerized, and
clientele delocalized. A digital library also has mechanisms and policies for forming/managing
combinations of contents, services, and clientele computationally automated/enhanced. The
purpose of a digital library is to provide access to digital content in a variety of formats.
Figure 13-17 Google’s Digital Library
Exercises
2. Which devices are most likely to cause health problems to a computer user?
4.________ is concerned with finding ways to adapt a task to an individual rather than forcing the
person to adapt to the task.
(a) Regulations for safe transactions among consumers and suppliers over networks
(b) Rules that govern the capture, transmitting, manipulating, recording and storage of data
relating to individuals
(c) Specific legislation for penalties involving cyber crimes
(d) provide the appropriate legal framework for the protection of intellectual property rights
(e) None of the above
7. Which of the following will prevent someone from using materials you published over the
Internet without your permission?
(a) Patent
(b) Trademarks
(c) Copyright
(d) Plagiarism
(e) None of the above
8. Ethics in general
9. _________ is a professional organization that sets out ethical guidelines for its members
(a) ACN
(b) BCC
(c) IIEE
(d) BCS
(e) ACC
(a) Copying the power point assignment of your friend without his consent
(b) Copying the power point assignment of your friend with his consent
(c) Not using a computer that is running a simulation for a final year project in the university
computer lab.
(d) Randomly deleting files on a university computer lab.
(e) Downloading and saving illicit materials on university computer labs.
Exercises
1. Computer use is associated with various health hazards. List and describe some of them.
2. Explain what ergonomics is and provide for recommendations related to a healthy and
productive environment for using computers.
3. What is the importance of taking short breaks when working for long periods on computers?
5. Explain the need for a legal framework in relation to IT use. List and describe some common IT
laws that exist in Mauritius.
6. What is copyright?
7. Describe what ethics relate to. Provide short examples of ethical behavior regarding computer
use.
9. Explain the term wearable technology. List and describe a few examples of wearable
technology.
Learning Objectives
2. Understand how these different components work individually and how they integrate with each
other.
Overview
What is a computer? It is a device that processes data and converts it to meaningful information.
So, it needs to acquire the data, process it and then output information – which means it needs
input devices, output devices and a processing unit (and backing storage devices to store
additional information).
To process that data, there needs to be a sort of brain that can analyse information; this brain is
found inside the system unit which contains many pieces of electronics among which the most
important are arguably the processor, motherboard, memory and graphics card.
Input
Process
Output
Backing Storage
Does all this mess appear scary? To the uninitiated yes, but the apparently chaotic world is
precisely ordered as we will see in the next sub-sections.
2.2.1 Processor
The processor is the brain of the computer; it processes data and converts it into meaningful
information. Arguably it is the most important component of the computer. It is jam packed with
electronic components called transistors and it operates at very high speeds. The speed of the
processor will normally determine how fast data is processed by the computer – a 3 Ghz processor
means that 3 billions operations are being performed per second (this is sometimes referred to as
the clock speed of the computer).
Computer Speeds
The number of calculations that a computer can perform is normally a good indicator of the
power of a computer:
1 Mhz (Megahertz) means that the processor can do 1 million operations per second
1 Ghz (Gigahertz) means that the processor can do 1 billion operations per second
However, it is important to note that speed is not everything when evaluating the performance
of a computer!
There are two major manufacturers of processors for Personal Computers: AMD
(AdvancedMicro Devices) and Intel (Integrated Eletronics).
A processor is a very compact device. It contains millions of transistors arranged compactly, very
very close to each other. For example, a Pentium 4 processor contains 55 millions transistors 1 .
These transistors will work together to allow the CPU (Central Processing Unit – another name for
processor) to process information.
In addition to those, the processor contains registers, which are small memory units located inside
the processor itself. These store intermediate results of calculations.
Decode:
o the add instruction is then decoded - this is done by the Control Unit which sends
appropriate signals
Execute:
o the ALU will then perform the addition operation
2.2.1.1 Data representation
Data inside the computer is represented as a series of 0's and 1’s, which are called bits. A
bit is either a 0 or a 1. Bits can be grouped into bytes; a byte consists of 8 bits and bytes
can then be grouped into Kilobytes (KB) – 1 KB = 1024 bytes.
Note: KB means 1024 bytes while kB means 1000 bytes
This grouping hierarchy is best shown in the Table 2-1 below:
1 Byte 8 Bits
The computer does not have any fingers; it uses digital electrical signals which can only be On
(1) or Off (0). So the latter can only count in sets of two and so uses the binary system (0, 1).
Another number representation system is the hexadecimal system. Here we count in sets of 16
(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F)
Dual Core
A Dual-Core processor physically has two processors into one packing for a processor. So, this
time, two operations can be really executed at the same time.
64-Bit processors
Previously micro-processors were referred to as 32 bits - the 32 bits refers to the size of the
registers (small memory units) in the processor. Recently Intel and AMD have introduced 64-bit
processors – the registers are now 64 bits long instead of 32 bits long. Thus more data can be
accessed directly from memory and also accessing the data is faster.
So CPUs are normally equipped with a heat sink and a fan on top of the heat sink. The heat sink
will be placed on top of the CPU and normally some thermal paste is spread over the processor to
increase heat conductivity between the latter and the heat sink.
Figure 2-6 Processor with thermal paste applied on top
2.2.2 Memory
Whenever software is installed on a computer, the latter is placed on the hard disk of the
computer. However, when that software is run (e.g. when you double-click on its icon), the latter
has to be transferred to the memory of the computer for the CPU to be able to execute it.
Memory in a computer is in the form of RAM (Random Access Memory) modules. RAM can be
purchased in the form of RAM sticks and it is normally measured in terms of its size (256 MB,
512MB, 1 GB,...). RAM is said to be volatile, meaning that, information stays here as long as the
computer is on but as soon as it is turned off, the information inside the RAM disappears.
RAM Performance
The performance of a RAM module does not depend only on its size. There are other factors like
the speed at which the data can be transferred from the RAM to the processor (the frequency).
There's also the speed at which the data can be accessed inside the RAM.
Figure 2-7 SD, DDR and DDR2 RAM
L1 Cache ~ 16 KB
L2 Cache ~ 512 KB – 2 MB
Another domain where the term cache is often used is the web. Connecting to the Internet
(especially on a 56 KB modem) is very slow and also the data that we are trying to access might
be for example in Hawaii – making data retreival an even slower process. So to try to improve the
speed of accessing the page, that page can be stored in a web server in Mauritius the first time it
is accessed and the next time another user wants access to the same page, the latter’s browser
will not have to fetch the page from Hawaii but can instead get it directly from the web server in
Mauritius, thus speeding up data access.
2.2.3.9 Bus
What is a bus?
Bus lines are what connect the different components found on the motherboard together. Data is
going to flow along these lines. So the size of the bus and speed at which data can flow is a good
indicator of the performance of the motherboard – the processor needs data to work and it needs
to get that data very quickly. Having a very fast processor and a very narrow and slow bus is
useless - the processor will be idle while waiting for data to arrive.
Graphics cards are manufactured by two main companies nowadays: nVidia and ATI. Graphics card
used to come with AGP connectors but the current trend is to have PCI Express graphics card.
Figure 2-14 ATI Radeon 9800 Pro
2.2.6 CMOS
The Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor is a type of memory that works with the BIOS; it
stores configuration information for the computer. A small battery is required since the CMOS
needs a small source of power so that it does not lose any information.
The CMOS is what you can access on pressing the “Delete” key (or some other key on the
keyboard) when the computer is started. It is usually a blue screen arranged into menus that will
allow changes made to the configuration of the computer.
2.2.7 Ports
These are sockets that allow devices like keyboard, joystick, mouse and printer to be connected to
the computer. Different types of ports exist, each operating at different speeds and meant for
different devices.
Port Use
USB ports are connectors which are often used to connect digital cameras, scanners, printers,... to
the computer. The USB (Universal Serial Bus) 2.0 allows transfer speeds of up to 480 Mbps.
A technology similar to the USB is the FireWire which supports speeds of up to 800 Mbps.
Figure 2-16 FireWire (left) and USB (right) cables
2.2.8.1 Modem
A modem is a device that allows a computer to be connected to the Internet. The modem can be
an expansion card inserted on the motherboard of the computer or it can exist as an external
device (external modem).
56 Kb modems are typically used for dial-up access in Mauritius. If faster connection is required,
ADSL modem or the recently introduced WiMax (wireless) modem can be used.
2.2.8.3 TV Card
This is an interesting option to add to a computer. Basically it will allow you to listen to radio and
watch TV on your computer. It will contain a few plugs where an antenna can be connected for the
radio and the TV. A software associated with the card will allow for tuning of the different radio
and video channels.
Exercises
(a) 8 bits
(b) 1000 bits
(c) 1024 bits
(d) 8192 bits
(e) 1048576 bits
(a) Socket
(b) Port
(c) Bus
(d) PCI slot
(e) Memory slot
(a) USB cables can be used to connect printers and cameras to a computer
(b) A network port allows computers to be connected to a network
(c) Parallel ports allow monitors to be connected to a computer
(d) PS/2 ports allow keyboard and mouse to be connected to the computer
(e) FireWire can be used to connect camcoders and hard disks to the computer
(a) 26
(b) 1A
(c) 11010
(d) 10
(e) A1
(a) PROM
(b) EPROM
(c) EAPROM
(d) EEPROM
(e) None of the above
9. Which of the following gives a list of memory in ascending order of speed access?
Exercises
Open-Ended questions
1. Describe the importance of cache in a computer.
2. Compare and contrast the features of the latest Intel Processor and the AMD Processor.
3. Compare and contrast among the PCI, AGP and PCI Express slots.
5. Identify the different ports on a computer and give an example of a use for each of them.
6. What components would be most important in building a PC that would allow you to play the
latest games? Discuss (Note: games are very greedy in terms of graphics resources)
7. Why is heat bad for the computer? What can be done to cool down the computer and the
processor?
8. Suppose you want to assemble a PC to allow you to play the latest 3D games. What minimal
configuration would be required for such a computer?
9. What is the Front Side Bus? How can it be used to overclock a computer?
10. What expansion card would you require for each of the following?
(a) Allow you to watch TV on the computer
(b) Allow you to connect to the Internet
(c) Allow you connect to a network
Chapter 3
Learning Objectives
1. Understand the importance of current input and output devices in a computer system.
2. Explain the functionality and mechanisms of several input and output devices.
3. Identify other areas of application for specific input and output devices.
Overview
Computer input and output devices have undergone remarkable development since their
existence. This chapter covers the different types of computer input and output devices.
The primary function of input devices is ‘getting’ data and instruction into the computer. Popular
input devices are keyboard, mouse, scanner, microphone and webcam. An Output device is any
hardware component that can convey information to a user. Common output devices are monitors,
printers and sound speakers
3.1.1 Keyboard
Most modern computer keyboards are based on the QWERTY layout, and resemble a typewriter
keyboard except that they have extra keys for certain special functions, such as:
Function keys: located at the top of the keyboard with prefix F, example F1, F2 and so on.
However, these shortcuts on depends on the specific software used.
Numeric keypad: located on the right corner of the keyboard, is a separate set of number keys,
like that of a calculator, for quick input of numbers and arithmetic operators.
Arrow keys or navigation keys: located between the main keypad and the numeric keypad, are
used to move the cursor up, down, left, and right.
Insert, delete, page up, page down keys: located above the arrow keys, are used in word
processing for performing insert, delete, page up, and page down.
In recent years, so called “Internet keyboards” have also become popular. These include extra
buttons for specific applications or functions like e-mail client or browser.
Ergonomic keyboard have features designed to reduce the effects of occupational overuse
syndrome (formally known as Repetitive Strain Injury). An example is the split keyboard,
illustrated in Figure 3-2, which offers infinitely adjustable positioning.
The trend now is wireless keyboard design that offers more freedom for the user. Rather than
being tied to a computer, forced to sit perhaps in an uncomfortable position for hours sometimes,
wireless keyboard can be placed comfortable anywhere on the table or on the lap
3.1.2 Mouse
A mouse is a pointing device, as shown in Figure 3-3. It is used to move an electronic pointer
called a cursor around the screen or click on an object or option on the screen to trigger it to
respond. The mouse is now present in virtually every office environment because of the
predominance of graphical user interface (GUI).
Figure 3-3 A mouse
Types of mouse
A mechanical mouse has a rubber or metal ball on its underside. When the ball rolls in a certain
direction, electronic circuits in the mouse translate the movement into signals that are sent to the
computer.
An optical mouse has gained widespread adoption by eliminating the need for a special mouse
pad. It has no moving parts; instead it uses light emitting diodes and photodiodes, that emit and
sense light to detect the mouse’s movement. An optical mouse can be used on nearly all surfaces,
is more precise than a mechanical mouse, and does not require cleaning.
A cordless mouse, or wireless mouse, is a battery-powered device that transmits data using
wireless technology, such as radio waves or infrared light waves. A cordless mouse uses
technology very similar to that of a wireless keyboard.
Apart from the regular mouse that is operated by the hands, other mouse variants exist. These
cater for people who may feel uncomfortable with traditional designs
The trackball is sometimes called an upside-down mouse. While a mouse employs a rolling ball on
its underside, a trackball uses an exposed ball that the user manipulates with his or her fingers.
Unlike a traditional mouse, a trackball does not require a horizontal pad on which to move.
Trackballs are a good choice for those with limited desk space, large monitors or poor gripping
ability.
Foot mouse (also called no hands mouse) is a mouse variant for those whose hands are injured
due to Carpal Tunnel Syndrome or mouse overuse fatigue. It can eliminate stress related to the
wrist, elbow and shoulder.
These innovative “no hands” mouse uses two interchangeably foot pedals; one to move the cursor
and the other one to click, drag and drop objects on the computer desktop. It is also a more
productive mouse since users can keep typing without having to jump between the keyboard to
the mouse and back.
Figure 3-5 Foot Mouse
3.1.3 Touchscreen
A touchscreen is an intuitive computer input device that works by simply touching the display
screen, either by a finger, or with a stylus, rather than typing on a keyboard or pointing with a
mouse. A stylus is a "pen" that does not write! The stylus point is made of a firm but non-
scratching plastic to "write" on screen. Touchscreen is a pointing input device that allows the user
to select actions and commands with the finger. It consists of a special type of visual display unit
(VDU), which has a grid of light beams or fine wires criss-crossing the screen. When the screen is
touched (usually to choose an on-screen option), the computer senses where on the screen it has
been pressed to respond. The touch-sensing mechanisms can use optical, electrical or acoustical
methods to determine the co-ordinates of the touch.
a touchscreen sensor panel, that sits above the display and which generates appropriate
voltages according to where, precisely, it is touched.
a touchscreen controller, that processes the signals received from the sensor and
translates these into touch event data which is passed to the PC's processor, usually via a
serial or USB interface.
a software driver, provides an interface to the PC's operating system and which translates
the touch event data into mouse events, essentially enabling the sensor panel to "emulate"
a mouse.
The touchscreen interface is simple, intuitive, and easiest to learn of all PC input devices. It is fast
becoming the interface of choice for a wide variety of applications, such as Public Information
Systems, Information kiosks, tourism displays, and other electronic displays are used by many
people that have little or no computing experience. The user-friendly touchscreen interface can be
less intimidating and easier to use than other input devices, especially for novice users, making
information accessible to the widest possible audience.
One disadvantage of touchscreen is that using the finger to point is not always suitable for
accurate selection of small regions and it can leave greasy marks on the screen.
.1.4 Touchpad
A touch pad feels less mechanical than a mouse or trackball because the user simply moves a
finger on the pad. A touch pad has two parts. One part acts as a button, while the other emulates
a mouse pad on which the user traces the location of the cursor with a finger and striking over the
surface. People with carpal tunnel syndrome find touch pads and trackballs easier to use than
mice. Many portable computers have built-in trackballs or touch pads as input devices. However,
even experienced users continue to report problems, if another finger accidentally touches the pad
causing motion detection to become confused and the cursor to jump across the screen.
3.1.7 Scanner
A scanner is a device which scans documents containing text or graphics and converts them into a
bitmap (digital picture image).
Most scanners today are variations of the desktop or flatbed scanner that allows documents to be
placed on a flat scanning surface.
Figure 3-10 A Flatbed Scanner
A light source illuminates the paper, and light is reflected off the paper down onto the
scanning mechanism.
A motor moves the scanning head underneath the page along its length.
As the scan head moves down the page, it captures the reflected light bounced off the
page.
The light captured from the page is reflected through a series of mirrors.
A lens assembly focuses the light beam from the mirrors onto a light sensitive array that
converts the light into electrical signals.
The electrical signals are converted into corresponding dots. In a colour scanner, the light
is passed through red, green and blue filters in order to extract colour information.
The converted dots is sent to the computer for storage.
A hand held scanner is held with the hand and is moved slowly down the document or object,
scanning it as it moves. The scanner should be moved at a constant speed without starting or
stopping or jerky movements in order to obtain best results.
Modern scanners can generate large volume of data in a matter of seconds. Therefore, fast
connection between scanner and PC is required, such as USB connections.
A web camera (or webcam) is a real-time camera whose images can be accessed using the PC
video software application. The images can be uploaded to a web server, either continuously or at
regular intervals. Videoconferencing applications can use a webcam connected directly to a PC.
Today there are thousands of webcams that provide views of homes, offices and other buildings as
well as providing panoramic views of cities. Special webcams are used to monitor traffic, weather
and even volcanoes. The video feeds obtained from webcams are uploaded to a computer where it
can be processed using appropriate software.
(a) (b)
The fundamental task in computer input is to transfer information from the brain of the user to
the computer. Progress in this discipline attempts to develop better human-computer interface
by seeking faster, more natural and, convenient means for a user to transmit information to a
computer.
Monitors come in various sizes, commonly starting at 14 inch, then 15 inch, as well as 17 and 19
inch. This is the size of the viewable screen measured across the diagonal from corner to
corner. Resolution of the monitor screen refers to the number of dots, called pixels, displayed in
the horizontal and vertical display area. Typical screens are capable of displaying 640 x 480 or
1024 x 768 pixels. The greater the pixel density, i.e. the number of pixels per unit area on the
monitor screen, the better the resolution. Hence, higher resolution produces higher display quality.
Another term used with monitors is refresh rate. This refers to the number of times per second
that the image is redrawn on the monitor screen. A refresh rate of 60Hz means the images is
redrawn 60 times a second. Higher refresh rates are required for larger resolutions, else the
viewer tend to see the image on the screen flicker. The images on the screen have to be refreshed
at a reasonable rate (greater than 50Hz); otherwise the human eye perceives the image as
flickering.
Another measurement of resolution is the dot pitch, the distance in millimeters between pixels.
The smaller the dot pitch the better the resolution. The signal to a display screen comes from
a video card or graphics card. This card converts digital output to analogue signals for the
display. The Video Electronics Standards Association (VESA) develops standards for video
displays. Most monitors are at least SVGA (Super Video Graphics Array) with 1280 x 1024
resolution and laptops with XGA (Extended Graphics Array) for higher resolution.
The number of colours that a video card can display is determined by its bit depth or colour
depth. This is how many bits it uses to store the colour of one pixel. An 8-bit card will only allow
256 colours. Most cards today are at least 24-bit and can display 16.7 million colours.
3.2.2 Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD) and Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
Monitors
There exist two types of monitors: Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) and Liquid Crystal Display (LCD).
Modern laptop computers use LCDs similar to those used in calculators and watches. This type of
display has also become popular in larger formats with desktop computers because of their
compactness. They take up less space and are lighter than most CRT monitors. LCDs can be used
in many places where a larger CRT monitor cannot fit. Other advantages of LCDs are the absence
of electromagnetic waves, lower heat emission and power savings over the CRT. LCD monitors
exist in monochrome or colour. The screen is perfectly flat, with no distortions due to a curved
screen like CRTs. Most new LCDs connect to standard video cards, although a few require their
own graphics adapters. Disadvantages of the LCD monitor are the higher cost, image dimness,
small viewing angle and slower response times. All of these disadvantages are being addressed as
new technology is applied.
LCD display is based on a totally different technology than CRTs. An electric current is passed
through a liquid crystal solution between two sheets of polarizing material. As the current passes
through, it causes the crystals to align so that light cannot pass through them. The image appears
as some crystals allow light to pass through and others do not.
(a) (b)
3.2.3 Printers
By far, paper is the single largest output from computers. A printer is a device that produces a
hardcopy (permanent human-readable text and graphics, usually on paper or transparencies) from
data stored in a computer connected to it. Modern printers come in a variety of types, with many
capabilities.
Printer outputs are produced by impact or non-impact methods. Impact printers, such as dot-
matrix, rely on the forcible impact of pins that presses against an inked ribbon onto paper to form
a character or symbol, like a typewriter. Non-impact printers, like inkjet, laser and thermal
printers, do not involve physical contact of mechanical device striking on the paper. Instead, they
use ink spray or toner powder.
Dot-matrix printer
Dot Matrix printers rely on a matrix of pins or dots and they have survived the market changes in
technology, due to their application as impact printers. This means that they are able to print on
multipart paper using carbonless copy paper, which is used extensively in the accounting and
auditing sector, and other businesses that need to keep accurate records and legal copies of
documents. However, even for sales invoices or receipts printing, dot-matrix printers are now
rapidly being superseded by other types of printers. Figure 3-16 shows a dot matrix printer used
in office.
Figure 3-16 Dot Matrix Printer.
It has a mechanical print head that travels across the paper. The head has a
set of pins which are pushed out to form the shape of each character. The
Mechanism
pins hit an ink ribbon against the paper as the print head moves along.
Different coloured-ink ribbons can be used.
Limited to situations where carbon copies are needed and the quality is not
Uses too important. Typical uses might be for very high volume applications like
invoice printing.
The purchase cost is low and the running costs are very low. They can
print fairly quickly, when multiple copies are being printed in one print run.
Advantages They are robust and can operate in harsh environments. If several sheets
of self-carbonating paper are placed into the printer then the impact will
produce multiple copies.
The printing quality is low - these printers produce low to medium quality
Disadvantages black and white printing, and can only print low resolution graphics. These
printers can be quite noisy.
Table 3-1 Dot Matrix Printer Features
Inkjet printers
The print head contains tiny nozzles through which different coloured inks
can be sprayed onto the paper to form the characters or the graphic images.
Mechanism
The ink is forced out by heat or by tiny piezoelectric crystals which change
shape when an electric current is applied across them.
Uses A popular choice for home and school use where small amounts of printing
are done and colour printing is only occasionally needed.
These printers are relatively inexpensive and produce high quality black
Advantages and white or colour printing. Relatively quiet printing and better output
compared to dot matrix.
Laser printers
These print in the same way as photocopiers. The powdered ink (toner), is
transferred to the paper and then fixed by heat and pressure.A school or
Mechanism
business printer would have a typical speed of 10 to 20 pages per minute
(ppm).
They are quiet and fast and produce high quality printouts.
Advantages Running cost are low because although toner cartridges are expensive to
replace, they last a long time.
Laser printers are more expensive than ink-jet printers (but the difference is
narrowing). Toner cartridges are expensive to replace.
Disadvantages
(but their speed and high quality output means they are becoming more
popular).
Table 3-3 Laser Printer Features
When buying a printer, users should evaluate relative purchase costs, running costs, quality and
speed of different types of printers.
3.2.4 Plotters
Plotters are devices, used by artists, designers or architects for producing multi-colour, high
quality drawings such as architectural plans, charts and maps.
Pen plotters print their output by moving a pen across the surface on paper larger in size than
used for printers. They can draw precise and complex line art, including text, but very slowly
because of the mechanical movement of pens. Thermal and laser plotters are faster and produce
high density images. Plotters are used primarily in technical drawing and CAD (computer aided
design) applications, where they have the advantage of working on very large paper sizes while
maintaining high resolution.
3.2.6 Projectors
The function of these devices is mainly to reproduce images or video frames on white screen.
Some common types of projectors are video projectors, LCD projectors and handheld projectors.
Video projectors accept a video signal as input, and the output is a corresponding picture frame on
a projection screen using a lens system. They are commonly used in conference room
presentations, classroom training as well as home cinema applications. LCD projectors, use liquid
crystal display technology to produce images. In the trend of projector development there is a
new craze of making it miniature. A pocket or handheld projector would enable projection of
images whenever and wherever desired. The idea is to incorporate projectors in mobile phones,
PDA’s (Personal Digital Assistant) and digital cameras.
Voice recognition software can be used as another means to supplement data input to the
computer. A combination of voice, keyboard and mouse operations can be used for entering text
information efficiently.
With the emergence of virtual reality, the computer input and output is becoming more like
interacting with the real world. For input, this means attempting to make the user’s input actions
as close as possible to the user’s thoughts that motivated those actions. Graphics, animations,
audio, and other media can output large amounts of information rapidly.
1. A device that allows one to enter data into the computer in the form of text is:
(a) keyboard
(b) mouse
(c) printer
(d) modem
(e) scanner
2. A device used for producing multi-colour, high quality drawings such as architectural plans,
charts and maps is:
3. In situations where carbon copies are needed and the quality is not too important, such as
invoice sheets, we use:
5. One advantage of the dot matrix printer over the laser printer is :
6. A device used for 3-D positional information in virtual reality systems is the:
7. The choice of input device for an application such as tourism or public information system is:
(a) keyboard
(b) touchscreen
(c) lightpen
(d) mouse
(e) touchpad
Exercises
Open-Ended Questions
1. Describe the characteristics of CRT monitor and the factors that affect its quality.
4. State two applications where touchscreen interface is used and outline the advantages of using
touchscreen.
6. What are the factors you would consider before buying a printer?
7. Explain the importance and functionality of mechanical, optical and cordless mouse types.
10. Discuss input and output systems that can assist physically challenged people.
Chapter 4
Secondary
Storage
Learning Objectives
7. Explain briefly the operation of the Hard Disks, Floppy Disks and Optical Disks.
Overview
A computer needs a storage space or medium to save its data either temporarily or permanently.
This chapter will give an overview of the various ways that exist to store data permanently on
special devices which are often referred to as secondary storage devices. Students will have an
overview of various commonly used secondary devices like hard disks, floppy disks and optical
disks. Other devices like magnetic tapes and flash drives will also be described.
Secondary Storage
4.0 Introduction
In Chapter 1, we saw that one component of computer hardware refers to storage devices. In fact
these devices can be further classified as primary and secondary storage devices. They are both
used to store information that need to be processed by the computer. However primary storage
devices (e.g. RAM) are only used as long as the computer is turned on. Once power goes off, all
information present in the RAM of the computer is lost (volatile memory).
Secondary storage devices on the other hand allow the permanent storage of information as long
as required by the user. For instance, you may want to save an assignment that you will edit or
print at a later time (Figure 4-1). Organizations may wish to keep records of their employees and
use these details to calculate salaries at the end of each month. With primary storage devices, the
user would have to enter the same information every time the computer is turned on. Imagine for
instance the disappointment that you will face if you need to re-enter the phone number of a
friend or relative each time you switch on your mobile phone and to lose it again when the phone
goes off! Fortunately this is not the case since in secondary storage devices, the information
stored is non-volatile, i.e., information stored is still present even if power is turned off. Also
most secondary devices will provide a number of benefits, some of which are:
Security: sensitive information can be copied (backups) and kept in safe places
High capacity: secondary devices store practically most operating systems now and other
bulky applications software.
Space: large volume of electronic information can be stored easily alleviating space
required for huge filing cabinets in organizations to store paper works.
This chapter will further help you in better understanding the concept of secondary storage devices
as they are used in computers.
Floppy disks
Hard disks
Optical Disks
Magnetic Tapes.
Understanding the characteristics of each of them would help you choose the most appropriate
storage device to hold your data.
They are very easy to use and are portable. They consist of a flat Mylar plastic disk that rotates
within a hard plastic casing. Data is stored as electromagnetic charges on a metal oxide film
coating the Mylar plastic. Floppy disks also contain a write protect notch that can prevent writing
to the disks. There exist several types of floppy disks but the most common one is the 3.5 inch
floppy that can store data up to a capacity of 1.44 megabytes, something like 400 typewritten
pages. A floppy drive is required to access a floppy disk.
When the floppy is inserted in the floppy drive, the sliding metal shutter is opened exposing the
Mylar plastic and a read-write head moves across the exposed disk to either store or retrieve
data. Data is recorded on the disk in closed concentric circles known as tracks.
Locating the (logical) hard disk of a computer is very easy and all you have to do is to double click
on the “My computer” icon that you see on the start up (desktop) screen of your computer. You
should get a window similar to the one shown in Figure 4-5. In contrast to floppy disks, data is
stored on a metal platter in the form of magnetic spots. The metal platter is sealed inside a disk
drive that protects the platter and as well enables reading and writing to the disk. Sometimes
some hard disk may fail due to a head crash, resulting in loss of data and this is due to various
reasons such as: improper handling of hard disks, voltage surge, malfunctioning of read/write
head and more.
Figure 4-6 The inside of a typical hard disk
Similar to floppy disks, data is stored in closed concentric circles called tracks on the platters and a
hard disk may contain several platters forming hard disk packs that increase the capacity of data
that can be stored by the device.
An interesting feature about hard disks apart from their large data holding capacity is their access
time. Hard disks provide fast access both for reading and writing. That is why, it is always faster to
open a document present on a hard disk rather than on a floppy.
They come in the form of a thin plastic disk, with a printed label layer on one side and a reflective
layer (Figure 4.9) on the other side onto which a high laser beam will read or write data
depending on the type of optical disk being used. Computer systems usually have access to these
storage media via CD drives that contain a special lens to read and/or write data on the disks.
An interesting characteristic about CD drives is the speed of rotation. Typical speeds range from
12X to 52X. Actually the rotating speed determines the rate at which data is transferred from the
computer to the disk and vice versa. A 32X drive will transfer 4.8 MB of data per second compared
to 3.6MB of data transfer per second for a 24X drive. The faster the drive therefore, the faster
data can be read from the CD and used by the computer. Currently there exist three basic types of
CDs that you will surely make much use of: CD-ROM, CD-R, and CD-RW. Basically all of them have
the same storage capacity except that they differ from their read-write capability.
4.4.1 CD-ROM
CD-ROM stands for compact disk read-only memory. They are like commercially available music
CDs that allows you to only listen (read) to music without altering the contents of the CD. They are
used mostly for selling of music, movies and also for distribution of software packages like
Microsoft Office.
4.4.2 CD-R
CD-R stands for CD-Recordable that can be written on only once. These are special optical disks
that typically come with no data at all in them such that a user can choose to add whatever
contents he/she may wish to. Some example applications include creating a back up of your hard
disk, creating your own music CD or saving your family album. To do so however, you will need a
special CD-RW (read write) drive and appropriate CD burning software.
Figure 4-10 portion of disk that has got data written on it
4.4.3 CD-RW
Also known as erasable disks, CR-RW (rewritable) can be used to save data several times. Their
reflective layer is made up of a special coating that is not permanently altered when data is saved
onto them such that they can be erased to accommodate new data. This type of optical disk is
particularly useful to save large files that need to be updated regularly. Here as well, special CD-
RW drive and appropriate burning software is required.
4.4.4 DVD
DVD stands for Digital Versatile Disk or Digital Video Disk. They are now commonly used for the
distribution of movies since they offer high capacity storage medium with good quality. DVD and
CD are very similar in that both make use of light energy to read or write data on their reflective
surfaces. However the technology behind DVD allows larger amount of data to be stored compared
to CD (4.7-17 Gigabytes of data). Here as well, you will need a special DVD drive for your
computer to access the data present inside a DVD.
DVD-ROMs are commercially available DVDs for which the contents cannot be altered. For
example, movies are available on DVDs.
DVD-R comes initially as blank DVDs that allow the user to write only once though any
useful data, he/she may wish to save. Here as well special DVD-RW drive is required with
appropriate DVD burning software.
DVD + RW are very similar to CD-RW as they allow the user to save and erase the disk
several times. With the decrease in cost and availability of DVD–RW drives in most
computers, these high capacity disks will surely represent a safe and efficient means of
saving data.
Figure 4-12 Reflective surface of a DVD
Store them in their casing – any scratch makes it difficult to read through the reflective
coating.
Do not write on the reflective coating of the CD/DVD and use only recommended marker
for any labelling on the label side.
Clean the CD/DVD with a soft cloth in an outward direction from the centre of the disk
avoiding circular movements.
Magnetic tapes provide a very effective means for back up purposes of large amount of data (5
Gigabytes). However the main limitation is that data stored is in a sequential mode, that is,
you may have to wait for several inches of tape to play before you can reach the data that is
of interest to you. Consequently access to the required data is slow. Direct access on the
other hand allows the user to go directly to the piece of information without having to wait for
any prior information to be accessed. A clear example of direct access is when you want to
play a track on a music CD and that you only need to select the song you want to listen
to. Magnetic tape cartridges or streamers are used mainly by micro computers
whereas magnetic tape reels which offer much higher back up capacity are used by
mainframes.
Capron H.L., Johnson J.A., “Computers, Tools for an information age” eighth edition,
Prentice Hall, 2004.
Exercises
(a) Pen-drive
(b) Internal hard disk
(c) Magnetic reels
(d) Floppy disk
(e) Random Access Memory (RAM)
(a) Portability
(b) Price
(c) Technology used
(d) Size
(e) All of the above
(a) Disk
(b) Tracks
(c) Metal platters
(d) Magnetic spots
(e) Stacks
4. ________ is more appropriate to store a 600MB file that needs frequent updating.
(a) CD-RW
(b) CD-R
(c) CD-ROM
(d) DVD ROM
(e) Floppy disk
5. Which one of the following lists the components in increasing storage capacity?
(a) Bite
(b) Kg
(c) 1.44MB
(d) 42X
(e) GB
9. Which of the following does an Optical disk use to read and write data?
Exercises
3. Why would a floppy disk not be appropriate to store a movie file? Explain your answer and
propose an alternative storage device.
5. What are the most common optical disks available on the market? Give a short description
for each of them
8. List some rules for taking care of a floppy disk and an optical disk.
10. What is a flash drive and compare it with other storage devices like hard disks, floppy
disks and optical disks.
Chapter 5
Programming
Learning Objectives
3. Describe the evolution of common characteristics of, and differences among, programming
languages.
Overview
This chapter introduces students to the fundamental concepts and terminology of computer
programming and software development. The chapter assumes no programming background and
provides an overview of the software development process in addition to introducing important
programming practices and methodologies. The chapter covers the following topics:
2. The six main steps of the programming process which the programmer has to follow in order to
develop good programs that will solve real-life problems.
3. The generations of programming languages where the evolution of the different programming
languages are discussed,
Programming
5.0 Introduction
This chapter introduces the fundamental concepts of computer programming and discusses how
programming is used as a tool for problem solving. Often, computer programming is perceived as
mystical to students who are beginners to computer discipline, or who are of non-computer-related
disciplines. It is a great challenge for students to comprehend the process of writing a computer
program. Writing software, computer programs, is a lot like writing down the steps it takes to do
something.
You are already familiar with some types of programs. As will be discussed in Chapter
7application programs are widely used to accomplish a variety of different types of tasks. For
example, we use word processors to create documents and spreadsheets to analyze data. System
programs as will be discussed in Chapter 6, on the other hand, focus on tasks necessary to keep
the computer running smoothly.
4. Program test: The program is tested or debugged by looking for syntax and logic errors.
In the program-design step, a solution to the computer problem is planned using structured
programming techniques. Two common ways of planning the solution to a problem are to draw a
flowchart and to write pseudocode, or possibly both.
Flowchart
Essentially, a flowchart is a graphical representation of a step-by-step solution to a problem. It
consists of arrows representing the direction the program takes, and boxes and other symbols
representing actions. It is a map of what a program is going to do and how it is going to do it. The
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) has developed a standard set of flowchart symbols.
Note that a computer does more than arithmetic. It also makes comparisons, for example,
whether something is greater than or less than, equal to or not equal to something else. Figure 5-
2 is an example of a flowchart.
Pseudocode
Pseudocode is an English-like non-standard language that lets you state your solution with more
precision than you can in plain English but with less precision than is required when using a formal
programming language as illustrated in Figure 5-3. Pseudocode permits you to focus on the
program logic without having to be concerned about the precise rules of a particular programming
language. However, pseudocode is not executable on the computer.
Sequences
In the sequence structure, one program statement follows another. Here the program
flows from one step to the next in strict sequence as shown in Figure 5-4.
Selection
The selection structure occurs when a decision must be made. This structure is also known
as IF-THEN-ELSE because this is how one can formulate the decision.
Figure 5-5 Selection logic Structure
In Figure 5-5 the program reaches a decision point and if the result of the test is true
then the program performs the instructions in Path 1, and if false it performs the actions
in Path 2. This is also known as a conditional construct because the program flow is
dependent on the result of a test condition.
Loops
The loop structure describes a process that may be repeated as long as a certain condition
remains true. The structure is called a “loop” or iteration” because the program loops
around (iterates or repeats) again and again.
In this construct, as shown in Figure 5-6, the program steps are repeated continuously until some
test condition is reached, at which point control then flows past the loop into the next piece of
program logic.
Writing the program is called coding. The next step in the programming process is to code the
program – that is, to express the solution that has been planned in the program design step in a
programming language. That is the logic from the flowchart or pseudocode will be translated to a
programming language. A programming language uses a collection of symbols, words, and phrases
that instruct a computer to perform specific operations. There are many programming languages:
Pascal, FORTRAN, C, and Java are some examples. The different types of languages will be
discussed in detail later in this chapter.
Although programming languages operate grammatically, somewhat like the English language,
they are much more precise. To get a computer program to work, one has to follow exactly the
rules, the syntax, of the language being used. Of course, using the language correctly is no
guarantee that the program will work, any more than speaking grammatically correct English
means you know what you are talking about. The point is that correct use of the language is the
required first step. The program will be keyed as it is it composed, using a terminal or personal
computer. Programmers usually use a text editor, which is somewhat like a word processing
program, to create a file that contains the program. However, as a beginner, you will probably
want to write your program code on paper first.
Syntax errors
A syntax error is a violation of the rules of the programming language. For example, in C++,
each statement must end with a semicolon (;). If it is omitted, the program will not run due to a
syntax error. The compiler automatically detects syntax errors at the translation time. Modern
compilers detect syntax errors and indicate their possible locations within the program. The
programmer thus debugs the syntax errors without too much effort.
Logic errors
A logic error occurs when the programmer uses an incorrect calculation procedure. The compiler
cannot detect logic errors, hence the latter are more difficult to debug. There are several testing
steps for detecting logic errors.
Desk checking: When doing desk checking, a programmer sits at a desk and checks a printout of
the program. The programmer goes through the listing line by line looking for syntax and logic
errors. However it is much easier to detect all syntax errors at translation time.
Manual testing with sample data: Both correct and incorrect data are run through the program
manually, to test for processing results. The program should produce some expected results. If
this is not the case, then there is something wrong in the code.
Testing sample data on the computer: After all syntax errors have been corrected, the
program is tested for logic errors. Sample data are used to test the correct execution of each
program statement.
Testing by a selected group of potential users: This is sometimes called beta testing. It is
usually the final step in testing a program. Potential users try out the program and provide
feedback.
Documentation is a detailed written description of the programming cycle and specific facts about
the program. Typical program documentation materials include:
data-record descriptions,
testing results.
Comments in the program itself are also considered an essential part of documentation.
Documentation is important for people who may be involved with the program in the future. These
people may include the following:
Users
Users need to know how to use the software. Some organizations may offer training courses to
guide users through the program. However, other organizations may expect users to learn a
package just from the written documentation. Two examples of this sort of documentation are the
manuals that accompany the software and the help option within most microcomputer
applications.
Operators
Documentation must be provided for computer operators. For instance, if the program sends them
error messages, they need to know what to do about them.
Programmers
As time passes, even the creator of the original program may not remember much about it. Other
programmers wishing to update and modify it (that is, perform program maintenance) may find
themselves frustrated without adequate documentation. This kind of documentation should include
text and program flowcharts, program listings, and sample output. It might also include system
flowcharts to show how the particular program relates to other programs within an information
system.
The last step in the programming process is program maintenance. The purpose of program
maintenance is to ensure that a program is free from errors and is functioning efficiently, and
effectively. Activities in this area fall into two categories: operations and changing needs.
Operations
Operations activities concern locating and correcting operational errors, making programs easier to
use, and standardizing software using structured programming techniques. For properly designed
programs these activities should be minimal.
Changing Needs
During the lifecycle of a program, changes are unavoidable. All organizations change over time,
and their programs must also change accordingly. Programs need to be adjusted for many reasons
e.g. change in information needs, change in business rules and change in government policies.
It is important to note that a large proportion of the cost of programming is spent in maintaining a
program.
Perform tests to find and eliminate syntax and logic errors from
4. Program test
the program
In the past, programs were developed as giant entities, from the first line of code to the last. This
has been compared to building a car from scratch. Object-oriented programming is like building a
car from prefabricated parts – carburettor, alternator, fenders, and so on. Object-oriented
programs use objects that are reusable, self-contained components. Programs built with these
objects assume that certain functions are the same. For example, many programs, from
spreadsheets to database managers, have an instruction that will sort lists of names in
alphabetical order. A programmer might use this object for alphabetizing in many other programs.
There is no need to invent this activity anew every time. C++ and Java are the most widely used
object-oriented programming languages.
a. machine language
b. assembly languages
c. procedural languages
d. problem-oriented languages
e. natural languages.
When engineers designed and built the first computers, the only people who could program these
computers were the engineers themselves. This was a tedious job, even for the engineers, as the
language used to communicate with the computer was in terms of binary signals (machine
Language). To perform a simple task such as adding two numbers, the engineer had to enter a
series of binary codes.
A compiler or interpreter is itself a computer program that accepts a high-level program as input
data, and generates a corresponding machine-language program as output. The original high-level
program is called the source program, and the resulting machine-language program is called
the object program. Every high-level language must either have a compiler or an interpreter.
COBOL, COmmon Business Oriented Language, was designed to write business programs.
BASIC, Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Codes, was designed to allow the
layman to write a computer program. It was meant to be as simple as possible. In fact
many institutions used to teach BASIC as the first programming language.
Pascal was originally developed by Niklaus Wirth in Zurich, Switzerland in the 1970's. It
was named after the French scientist Blaise Pascal. The purpose was to develop a
disciplined high-level language for teaching structured programming.
HTML which stands for HyperText Markup Language, is not strictly a programming
language like Pascal or C. It consists of statements or tags that are saved in document
files. Browsers interpret these HTML documents to display web pages and provide links to
other web pages or related audio, video, and graphic files.
C++ is one of the most popular object-oriented languages, which is an enhanced version
of the C language. C++ includes everything that is part of C and adds support for object-
oriented programming. In addition, C++ also contains many improvements and features
that make it a "better C," independent of object oriented programming.
Problem-oriented Languages were designed to solve specific problems e.g. querying databases
and allowed the programmer to concentrate more on the problem rather than spending time
learning the complex syntax of the language. Some of these fourth-generation languages are
used for special applications as described below.
Query Languages enable users, who are not programmers, to use certain easily-
understandable commands to search and generate reports from a database. An example would
be the commands used by clerical officers to look for specific information on a personnel
database-like date of first appointment or job title.
Application Generators contain a number of modules, which are logically related program
statements that have been pre-programmed to accomplish specific tasks. An example would
be a module that calculates value-added tax (VAT) on products. The programmer can simply
state which task is needed for a particular application. The application generator creates the
program code by selecting the appropriate modules.
5.5.5 Natural Languages and Visual Programming Languages: The
Fifth Generation
As they have evolved through the generations, computer languages have become more
humanlike. The fifth generation language refers to using natural languages, such as English,
French or Japanese, to communicate with computers. These languages are still under
development. They aim at providing people with a more natural interface to communicate with
computers. Users, therefore, will not require special training for writing programs. Researchers
also hope that natural languages will enable a computer to learn to "remember" information, as
people do, and to improve upon it.
The standard definition of a fifth generation language (5GL) is a computer language that
incorporates the concepts of artificial intelligence to allow direct human communication.
Additionally, these languages would enable a computer to learn and to apply new information as
people do. Rather than coding by keying in specific commands, we would communicate more
directly to a computer using natural languages.
Fifth: Natural and Visual If patient is dizzy, then check temperature and blood pressure.
STROUSTRUP B., The C++ Programming Language, Third Edition, Pearson Education.
Exercises
1. Which one of the following steps of software development process involves keying statements
into a computer?
2. In which step of the programming process a solution is created using programming techniques
such as pseudocode and flowchart.
(a) loop
(b) direct
(c) calculation
(d) design
(e) syntax
5. Which one of the following is carried out throughout all the programming steps?
(a) Coding
(b) Design
(c) Beta testing
(d) Documentation
(e) Desk checking
6. How are languages that can run on more than one kind of computer called?
(a) machine languages
(b) portable languages
(c) assembly languages
(d) problem-oriented languages
(e) query languages
7. The structured programming technique that graphically presents the detailed steps needed to
solve a problem is known as:
(a) Testing tools are used by the programmer to identify logic errors.
(b) The programmer sits at a desk and checks a printout of the program.
(c) Both correct and incorrect data are run through the program manually by the programmer, to
test for processing results.
(d) The programmer uses sample data to test the correct execution of each program statement.
(e) Potential users try out the program and provide feedback.
9. In which step of the programming process are the objectives, outputs, inputs, and processing
requirements determined?
10. What is the purpose of the program maintenance step in the programming process?
(a) To code the program, that is, to express the solution in a programming language.
(b) To write descriptions and procedures about a program.
(c) To ensure that a program is free of errors and is operating efficiently, and effectively.
(d) To determine the objectives, the outputs, and the inputs of the program.
(e) To plan a solution to the computer problem using structured programming techniques.
Exercises
Open-Ended Questions
1. What are the six steps of programming? What part does coding play in program development?
2. Describe CASE tools and OOP. How does CASE assist programmers?
3. What is meant by “generation” in reference to programming languages? What is the difference
between low-level and high-level languages?
4. What is the difference between a compiler and an interpreter? What role would these tools have
in programming with natural languages?
5. Explain what occurs during the program specification step of program development.
7. Several methods have been devised for finding and removing both syntax and logic errors. List
and explain three such methods.
8. Discuss the importance of having appropriate documentation for a program. Who will be using
the documentation and for what purpose?
9. Explain, using appropriate examples, the difference between assembly languages and high-level
procedural languages.
10. Suppose you have to write a program to output the electricity bill for a consumer.
(a) List the output data.
(b) List the input data required.
(c) Identify and explain the processes involved for producing the electricity bill.
Chapter 6
Systems
Software
Systems Software
6.0 Introduction
To be able to use a computer, we need software – a computer without any software is like an
empty shell and is totally useless.
We can group software into two categories:
Systems Software
o This is software required to start the computer and do general household jobs like
copying files, renaming files, providing access to the networks and provide service to
applications software.
Applications Software
o This is software like Microsoft Word, Internet Explorer that allows the user of the
computer to do some specific tasks, word processing and surfing the web for example.
Systems Software can be considered as being a layer between the hardware and applications
programs.
BIOS
Drivers
Process management
Memory management
Disk management
I/O Management
Communications management
What is a process?
The OS won't deal directly with application programs but rather with processes. An application
program can be a process but a process needs not be an application program. A process might just
another small program that has been started by an application program – for example, Norton
antivirus might be a process but to check for updates to that software on the Internet, it has to
launch a communication module (for example, the dialup window that appears on a PC when
connecting to the internet) that will allow it to connect to the Internet. That communication
module is a process as well.
So only saying that the CPU manages application programs is incomplete.
However, we still have the same problem; there's one (or two) CPUs and many processes to
manage. The OS tries to solve this problem by sharing the CPU among the different processes
needing it. It uses what is known as scheduling algorithms to decide which process should be
allowed to use the CPU and for how long.
When there are many programs requesting the CPU, the OS will allocate a small amount of time to
each process and cycle between the processes until the process has been executed.
In Linux systems, part of the hard disk is reserved for virtual memory when the Operating System
is being installed on the system – this part is called swap space.
The hard disk space is a very dynamic environment; it houses programs and files. The programs
are quite static but files are constantly being created (for example, creating a new Word
document), growing (adding a picture into that document), shrinking(removing some text from
that document), moving(from hard disk to memory) and being erased.
So the hard disk needs to find sufficient space to house files and take care of them while they are
shrinking and especially growing.
It is also common for the files to be arranged into a hierarchy – files will be placed into folders
(directories).
Another very important job of the OS is file protection. When many users are sharing the same
computer, their files will be stored on the same hard disk/s. So the OS must provide a way of
ensuring that a user does not have access or rather has restricted access to the files of his/her
colleague.
The different types of access usually provided for a file are:
read access – when a file can only be read and cannot be modified
So the solution that the OS provides is to have a temporary storage location called the buffer that
stores data temporarily to cope with the speed difference that exists between devices operating at
different speeds.
An improvement to having one buffer is to have two buffers. When we have only one buffer, we
can only read or write to it at any time. When two are available, we can do reading and writing
simultaneously, that is, read from one while data is being written to another.
Spooling
Spooling is an acronym for Simultaneous peripheral operations online and it is just another way of
viewing a buffer. More specifically, in spooling, we have a buffer for a device that can be shared by
many users.
For example, many different users might want to print different documents at the same time or a
user might want to print several document and launch them at the same time. The printer is
however quite slow and is able to print only one job at any time and so the other jobs must wait in
a queue. The printer will remove each of them from the queue as it is ready to print them.
This technique is quite useful as it helps to accommodate devices operating at different speeds.
The most common spooling is for printers but we also have mail spooling where mails awaiting
sending are stored in a temporary location and are sent only when a computer connects to the
Internet.
Single User Single Tasking: refer to OS that can support only one user at a time and only one
program being run at any time. This is characteristic of old Operating Systems like MS-DOS.
Single User Multi Tasking: refer to OS that can support many programs running at a time but
allow only one user to use the system. An example is Windows 98; it will allow a user to listen to
music while burning a CD for example.
Multi User Multi Tasking: refer to OS that in addition to being multi tasking can support more
than one user working on the computer at any time. How is this possible? The users will connect to
the computer through a network and from there launch applications that are executed by the
computer. Examples would be Linux, Unix and Windows 2000 Server.
GUI – are they equipped with a Graphical User Interface or are they simply command line.
Most current OS are GUI.
RTOS – Real Time Operating Systems are OS found in industrial machines where tight
control on what is happening is crucial. It does not have a GUI. It is mostly concerned with
I/O management.
6.2.4.1 Microsoft
Most personal computers around the world are running a version of the Windows Operating
System. Initially, Microsoft started with MSDOS, a command line Operating System. It was a
single tasking OS developed for single user. In DOS, we had the famous C prompt “C:\>” where
users would type in commands on a black screen.
For some time, this was good but the whole set up was not at all user friendly. Eventually, after
some time, an OS with a Graphical User Interface (GUI) was introduced by Microsoft bearing the
name Windows. Windows 3.1 was one of the first versions released and it had very crude graphics
(compared to modern OS) but at that time, hardware was not powerful and it would have been
hard to support elaborate graphics.
Eventually Microsoft moved to Windows 95 which was quite a revolution in terms of GUI and user
friendliness – no more would the computer start to a black screen; now a nice graphical user
interface would welcome the user.
From then onwards, we have witnessed many changes being brought to the OS (but no revolution)
and we have moved through Windows 98, Windows Millennium, Windows 2000 to eventually reach
Windows XP.
The next release of Windows, initially code named Longhorn will eventually be released as
Windows Vista.
Figure 6-2 Microsoft WindowsXP
6.2.4.2 Linux
Linux is the alternative to Windows available for PCs and compared to Windows, it is free and
Open-source meaning that anyone has access to the Linux source code and the latter can be freely
modified.
Linux was originally developed by a Linus Torvalds, at that time, a student at the University of
Helsinki and Linus is still responsible for the development of the Linux kernel, the central part of
the Operating System. However, other companies have taken up the development of additional
software that come with the kernel and these are bundled together and are known as the
distributions of Linux.
There are many several distributions available, most of them free, among which the most common
are Red-Hat , Suse, Debian, Ubuntu, Mandrake,...
Universities very often have labs where the PCs have only the Linux OS installed (no
Windows).
in Web servers – many big companies like Google have Linux running on their servers
6.2.4.3 Unix
Unix was originally developed between 1960 and 1970 at AT&T Bells lab by Thomson, Ritchie and
McIIroy. It was designed to be a portable and multiuser Operating System.
The original Unix Operating System is not in use anymore. What exists is a document that
specifies a set of guidelines that an Operating Systems should have to be called Unix compliant.
“The present owner of the UNIX trademark is The Open Group, while the present claimants on the
rights to the UNIX source code are The SCO Group and Novell.”
Many different variations exist like BSD Unix from Berkeley University, AIX from IBM and Solaris
from Sun.
Unix is rarely found on PCs, though it is going to work there. It is frequently used on Web servers
and machines for high-end computing.
6.2.4.4 Mac OS X
Mac OS X is the latest Operating System released by Apple for Macintosh computers. Due to the
MAC's different architecture (Apple has been using the Power PC architecture rather than the Intel
architecture), it could not run Windows and so has stayed Windows free up to now. But Apple has
now adopted the Intel architecture and we can now install Windows XP on Apple computers.
Figure 6-4 Mac OS X
The BIOS will look for a device to boot from. A computer will normally boot from the hard disk but
that setting of the BIOS can be changed to allow booting to take place from a floppy disk or
CD/DVD Drive instead.
If the hard disk is the selected device data from track 0 and sector 0 from the hard disk is loaded
into the RAM – this is where the Master Boot Record (MBR) is stored. It will look at the same
address on a floppy disk or any other bootable media.
On finding that, the code in the MBR takes over and the Operating System is eventually loaded.
6.4 Drivers
To be able to talk to the different peripherals like keyboard, printer, graphics card that are
attached to a computer, the Operating System needs an interface. That interface is what is known
as a device driver.
That interface is needed because the processor and peripherals are built by different
manufacturers who use different standards and thus they do not inherently understand each other.
In old Apple computers drivers were not needed because everything was manufactured by Apple;
the printer, screen, … However in new PCs, this is not the case and we do need drivers.
Yet, most drivers for standard peripherals like the keyboard and mouse are now already available
in the Operating System and do not need to be installed. The new peripheral is simply connected
and it is immediately recognized – this is what is called Plug and Play.
6.6 Translators
The computer understands only 0s and 1s. This is called the machine language. So when giving
instructions to a computer, (when we are writing a program, we are basically giving the
computer a series of instructions to execute) we should talk to it in terms of 0s and 1s.
However, humans are not very good at that and so we write programs in “High Level languages”
which resemble English. But having done so, we need to convert these instructions to 0s and 1s
and this is where the translators come into play.
Compilers
Interpreters
6.6.1 Compilers
A compiler takes a whole program (source code) written in a High Level Language and converts
it into an Object code, which is basically machine code. The object code can then be processed
by a linker which will link the object code with some other object file to allow it to execute
independently.
If there are any errors during the compilation process, a list of errors are generated, else the
program is available for the linker to make an executable file out of it.
6.6.2 Interpreters
An Interpreter will convert each line of a program, as needed, into machine code form as it is
being run. So the program will require the interpreter to be present on the machine at all times
when it is going to be run.
Moreover, since each line is being converted to machine code as the program is being run, it
usually takes longer to execute a program with an interpreter compared to compiling it in one
go.
DISTROWATCH.COM, http://distrowatch.com/
Exercises
3. Which type of Operating System allows several users to work at the same time and also allows
each user to have many applications open at the same time?
4. When several people are launching printouts at the same time and a single printer is available,
a technique known as _________________ is used.
(a) Spooling
(b) Communication
(c) Buffering
(d) Single tasking
(e) Scheduling
5. Which function of the Operating System ensures that someone is not illegally manipulating a file
not belonging to him?
6. How is part of the Hard Disk that is reserved for Virtual Memory called in Linux?
(a) Drivers
(b) Translators
(c) Utilities
(d) Operating Systems
(e) None of the above
(a) RAM
(b) ROM
(c) Hard Disk
(d) CD
(e) Floppy disk
Exercises
Open-Ended Questions
2. The Linux Operating System is available under a lot of distributions. Name at least 10different
distributions.
Applications Software
Learning Objectives
Overview
Applications software is a subclass of computer software that employs the capabilities of a computer directly
to a task that the user wishes to perform. This should be contrasted with System Software which is involved
in managing a computer's various capabilities, but typically do not provide software that benefits tasks of
users. The term application refers to both the Application Software and its implementation.
This chapter introduces some typical examples of Application Software namely word processors, spreadsheets,
presentation graphics software, Database Management Systems, email packages and web browsers.
Applications Software
7.0 Introduction
Applications Software is a kind of computer software that employs the capabilities of a computer directly to a
task the user wishes to perform. This should be contrasted with Systems Software which is involved in
managing the computer's various capabilities (refer to Chapter 6).
General purpose Applications Software handles tasks such as word processing, spreadsheets,
databases, graphics and integrated programs.
Special purpose Applications Software handles the specific needs of a particular profession or
business. For example, a company might use special purpose Applications Software such as a payroll
system to prepare payslips for its employees.
Multiple applications bundled together as a package are sometimes referred to as an Application Suite.
Examples are Microsoft Office and OpenOffice.org, which bundle together a word processor, a spreadsheet, and
several other discrete applications. The separate applications in a suite usually have user interfaces that have
some commonality making it easier for the user to learn and use each application. Often they may have some
capability to interact with each other in ways beneficial to the user. For example a spreadsheet might be
embedded in a word processor document even though it had been created in the separate spreadsheet
application.
A word processor is a computer application used for preparing documents for viewing and printing purposes. A
word processor helps the user in writing, modifying, formatting and printing of text.
The earliest versions of word processing applications solely focused on simple text processing tools. But with
the advancements made in the field of desktop publishing, it is very difficult to distinguish between word
processing and desktop publishing.Some of the features of a word processor are:
Annotation – This feature enables the users to add comments in certain sections of the document. It
enhances the edit and review process of the documents. The owner sends the document to the
reviewers who review it and in the process add annotations. They send it back to the owner who can
now make the required changes. The annotations can also be in the audio format.
Background –This feature allows the user to define the background layout for the document.
Borders and Shading – This feature allows the user to define borders for the page, paragraph or
sentence according to his / her requirement.
Bullets and Numbering – Using this feature the user can enable automatic numbering or bulletting
a set of sentences.
Font Case – this feature allows the user to change the case of the selected text. The user can change
the selected text to either uppercase, lowercase, sentence case, title case or toggle case.
Font Specification – This feature helps the user to change the font specifications of portions of text
within the document. The user can specify the appearance of the font like bold, font size and font
typeface.
Graphics – This feature enables the user to embed pictures from files and cliparts, and graphs from
spreadsheets. Many word processors come with an in-built drawing tool which enables users to create
line art in their documents and a Word Art tool which helps them in generating various forms of text.
Headers, Figuress and Page Numbering – This feature enables the users to place text that will
appear on all pages. Any text placed in a header or footer will automatically repeat itself when a new
page is added to that document. The word processor allows the automatic numbering of pages.
Language Translation – This feature enables users to translate text from one language to another.
Letter Assistant – Most word processors assist the users in creating letters through the use of
standard templates.
Macros – This feature enables the users to define macros which allow them to record a series of
actions and repeat these by invoking the macro name. A macro is a character or string which
represents a series of keystrokes or actions.
Mail Merge – This feature uses two input files, a data file and a form file and combines or merges
them to produce a single output file. It enables the generation of letters based on a template. For
example, an invitation letter may be sent to many people, whose names and addresses are
automatically retrieved from an address book. The power and flexibility of this feature varies from one
word processor to another.
Footnotes and cross-references – Automates the numbering and placement of footnotes and
enables you to easily cross-reference other sections of the document.
Page Layout – This feature allows the users to specify different margins in the document. It also
allows the users to define page sizes and page layouts. The word processor automatically adjusts the
text according to the layout.
Search and Replace – This feature allows the user to search for the occurrence of a word or phrase
and replace one or all occurrences with another word or phrase.
Spelling and Grammar Checker – This feature helps to detect typing errors and misspellings.
However, the semantics of a sentence cannot be verified. On completion of a sentence or a phrase
this feature checks for grammatical mistakes and provides suggestions to the users.
Speech Recognition – This feature enables the users to create documents by dictating the text.
Most of the current word processors support this feature.
Table of contents – This feature enables automatic construction of a table of contents for a
document.
Thesaurus – This feature enables the user to search for the synonyms (alternate words with the
same meaning) for a word the user wants in the document.
Print Preview – This feature enables the user to view the document in the print copy format. This
concept is referred to as ‘What You See Is What You Get’ (WYSIWYG).
Text Alignment and Line Spacing – This feature enables the user to change the alignment of the
text with reference to the margins. The text can be left aligned, right aligned; centre aligned; or
justified. It also provides facility of customizing the paragraph indentation and specifying the type of
tab stops. The facility of customizing the line spacing is also provided by the word processor. A user
can edit a document with single line spacing which is the default setting or double line spacing.
Text Manipulation – This feature allows the users to select a set of characters, cut, copy or paste
them in another location of the document. This helps the user to reorganize the text in the document.
Word Wrap – This feature ensures that the word processor automatically moves the cursor to the
next line when the margin of the page has been reached, and will readjust the text if the margins are
changed.
Among the open source word processing applications, Writer (www.openoffice.org), Jarte (www.jarte.com) and
AbiWord (www.abisource.com) are some of the popular applications.
Figure 7-1 Open Office Writer
Among the commercially available word processing applications, Microsoft Word and WordPerfect are some of
the well known applications.
Spreadsheet applications (sometimes referred to simply as spreadsheets) are computer programs that allow
the creation and manipulation of spreadsheets electronically. A spreadsheet program can be used to perform
calculations, analyse and present data. Spreadsheet programs include tools for organising, managing, sorting
and retrieving data and testing "what if" statements. The chart feature displays numerical data as a graph.
Examples of spreadsheet applications include Microsoft Excel, Lotus 1-2-3 and Quattro Pro. Microsoft Excel
is a spreadsheet program written and distributed by Microsoft for computers using the Microsoft Windows
Operating System. It features an intuitive interface and capable calculation and drawing tools which, along with
strong marketing, have made Microsoft Excel one of the most popular microcomputer applications to date. Not
too long ago, Lotus 1-2-3 was considered the "standard" spreadsheet. Microsoft Excel now holds that
distinction, with a clearly dominating market share.
The worksheet area of the spreadsheet has letters for column headings across the top, ranging from A
through Z and AA through IV (i.e. 256 columns). Furthermore it has numbers for row headings down on the
left side, ranging from 1 to 65536. The intersection of a row heading and a column heading is known as a cell.
The cell can hold a single unit of information and its position in the worksheet area is called a cell address.
The cell address is denoted by its column and row position e.g. C8 in Figure 7-3. The current cell address is
displayed in the address box. While working with a spreadsheet, the cell pointer points to the cell where data
is to be changed or entered. The selected cell is known as the active cell and the data entry bar shows the
data as it is being entered in the cell. The cell pointer can be moved using the tab, arrow keys or the mouse, in
the same way as in a word processor.
Values – A number in a cell is known as a value and it may be used in mathematical calculations. The
type of data to be stored and displayed in each cell can be defined. For example, the value can be of
type text, number, currency or date. A value can be formatted to show decimal places, dollars (if the
type defined is currency) or percentage. An example of a value shown in Figure 7-3 is “$4.49”.
Labels – Labels are usually texts that are used as headings for columns. They are used to identify
information in a worksheet. In Figure 7-3, “PRICE” is a label. A label can be formatted in various
ways, for example, it can be made boldfaced and centered.
Formulae – Formulae are instructions for calculations. They compute results using the values in
referenced cells e.g. in the example shown in Figure 7-4, the cell F6 has the formula "=B6*C6"
(shown at the top of the Excel Sheet in Figure 7-4) which multiplies the content of B6 (i.e. 5.00) to
the contents of C6 (i.e. 6) to give 30.00 as displayed.
Graphs and Charts – Graphs can be used to visualise the information found in spreadsheets. These
are used when people are not really interested in the actual values, but would like to have an overall
idea of the general trend. Many spreadsheets provide the option to present data into various types of
graphs namely bar-chart, pie-chart, column chart and so on. For example the following figure shows a
pie chart generated to show the quantity of each item sold in the pharmacy. Note that any change
made in the values in the worksheet will result in a corresponding change in the chart.
Figure 7-6 Pie-Chart generated using the sample data from Figure 7-4
Dynamic File Links - Some spreadsheet software offer the facility to dynamically link cells in one
worksheet file to cells in other worksheet files. Therefore if there are changes in one worksheet file,
linked cells in the other files are automatically updated.
Presenting information in the form of graphics can help people grasp information more easily. Presentation
software (sometimes called "presentation graphics") is a category of application program used to create
sequences of words, graphics and visuals that tell a story or help support a speech or public presentation of
information. The software also includes functions for creating various types of charts and graphs and for
inserting text in a variety of fonts. Most systems enable import of data from a spreadsheet application to
create the charts and graphs.
Presentation software can be divided into Business Presentation Software and more general Multimedia
Authoring Tools, some products having characteristics of both. Business presentation software emphasizes
ease-of-learning and quickness-of-learning and use. Multimedia Authoring Software enables the creation of a
more sophisticated presentation that includes audio and video sequences. Business presentation software
usually allows images and sometimes audio and video developed with other tools to be included.
Some very popular presentation software, such as Microsoft PowerPoint, and Lotus Freelance Graphics are sold
stand-alone or can come as part of office-oriented suites or packages of software. Other popular products
include Adobe Persuasion, Astound, Asymetrix Compel, Corel Presentations and Harvard Graphics.
Figure 7-7 shows a slide from Microsoft PowerPoint, which includes some text, a table and a chart.
The software can be used to print transparency slides for use on overhead projectors and produce electronic
presentations (known as slide shows) by connecting the computer with an RGB projector. These are support
materials for both the speaker and the audience during a talk or presentation and the message passes more
easily. A slide can include text, sound, art and even movie clips. These tools greatly enhance the quality of
professional presentations.
Links – Links can be easily added to other slides within the presentation (thus allowing easy
navigation through the presentation slides), to other files, or to web pages (thus allowing access to
other files and the web within the presentation).
Slide Show Animation – Animation Schemes give users one-click access to professionally designed
animations. It is possible to control how and when text, graphics, and other objects appear on the
presentation slides. Animation can aid in focusing attention during a presentation and make the slide
show more interesting. Users can easily get a preview of each animation scheme and can try through
various options until they find the animation they want.
Slide Design – This feature gives users an easier way to discover their design options. The user can
choose among a selection of design templates. Design templates contain color schemes, slide and title
masters with custom formatting, and styled fonts, all designed to create a particular look.
Multimedia – Sounds/videos can be inserted as an integral part of a slide show as an object. This is
the most convenient method, but can make the file size very large - a minute of recorded sound can
require up to 10MB of disk capacity. A solution could be to save the whole file onto a CD or other large
memory storage media.
Recording a voice narration or sound in a slide show – Narration can be added to a one or more
slides. Users might want to add narration in the following cases:
- A Web-based presentation.
- For archiving a meeting so that presenters can review it later and hear comments made during the
presentation.
- For individuals who can't attend a presentation.
- For self-running slide shows.
Creating charts, tables and organizational charts – Charts and tables are usually created with
spreadsheets. They can then be easily inserted into the Presentation graphics software using the Copy
and Paste commands. However, simple charts and tables can be directly created in the presentation
graphics software – the advantage is that they will take on the colours and format of the current slide
design.
A database is a collection of data which is stored in an organised fashion so as to ensure that the data is easily
accessed by the application programs. A database can be thought of as an electronic filing system. A database
helps the user to store large amounts of information of various complexities. Thus a database is a collection of
information. Examples of collection of information include: Telephone numbers, Employee Details, Library Book
Details amongst others.
To access the information from a database, a user has to use the Database Management System (DBMS).
DBMS is a collection of computer applications which help the user to store, modify, extract and manage
structured data or information found in the database.
Thus a DBMS helps the user to organise and store the data as well as retrieve the required information and
print the reports according to the requirement.
Some of the examples of the scenarios where DBMS is used are accounting packages, management
information systems and customer support systems
Among the open source Database management systems Base (http://dba.openoffice.org) is well known.
Some of the well-known commercial Database Management Systems include Oracle, Sybase, Microsoft Access,
MySQL and SQL Server.
Figure 7-8 OpenOffice.org Base
Table – This component takes care of storing the data. Each table is made up of rows called records
and columns called fields. In Figure 7-9, Employee and Department are examples of tables. Employee
table contains the fields Ecode, Ename, DOJ and DeptNo. The Department table contains the fields
DeptNo, Dname and MgrCode. Fields are discrete pieces of information and are made up of types of
data which ensures the correct type of information goes into the field. The field can be a text, an
autonumber, a number, a date, a memo, amongst others.
Form – This component enables the user to enter or manipulate data by providing user friendly
interfaces. It is easy for a user to enter data into the database using an interface as shown in Figure
7-10
Figure 7-10 Customised Interface to enter the employee details into the database.
Query – This component allows the user to write instructions for extracting specific information from
the table. The user can search for a particular piece of information by creating and executing the
queries. Figure 7-11 shows a query to retrieve the names of employees working in an Accounting
Department.
Report – This component enables the user to print customized reports based on the criteria specified.
Figure 7-12 shows an example of customized report.
Figure 7-12 A Report generated in Microsoft Access
In most scenarios, there are data or information that are related to each other. These types of data are stored
in a category of databases known as relational databases where the related data is organized in separate
tables. These tables are linked to each other by defining the relationships which help the user retrieve the
required information which is stored in several tables. Figure 7.13 shows the relationship between the
department table and employee table. Both the tables are linked with each other by a common field DeptNo
which know as the Key Attribute.
Figure 7-13 Relationship between Department and Employee Table in Microsoft Access
Amongst the other features, Database Management Systems provide the facility for sorting the data in the
database, performing mathematical calculations and restricting access to the data.
Electronic mail, abbreviated e-mail or email, is a method of composing, sending, and receiving messages over
electronic communication systems.
The term e-mail applies both to the Internet e-mail system based on the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
and to intranet systems allowing users within one company or organization to send messages to each other.
To receive an elesctronic mail, the user must have a mailbox, a storage area, usually on the mail server which
holds the email messages until the user has time to read them. Each mailbox has an address which is the
user’s email address. In addition, the computer used to read and send emails must have some email software.
To be able to access his emails, a user must provide his username and password. There are a number of email
applications available and Table 7-1 gives a list of some of the most common ones.
- Cc is an abbreviation for carbon copy. If you add a recipient's email address to this box in a
message, a copy of the message is sent to that recipient, and the recipient's email address is visible
to other recipients of the message.
- Bcc is an abbreviation for blind carbon copy. If you add a recipient's email address to this box in a
message, a copy of the message is sent to that recipient, and the recipient's email address is not
visible to other recipients of the message. If the Bcc box isn't visible when you create a new message,
you can add it.
Attaching a file to the message – to send some other documents, like a word document, a PowerPoint
presentation, photos etc
Address Book
The address book can be used to keep a list of all contacts and their email addresses. When the user
clicks on either To, Cc or Bcc, he has access to the address book. He simply selects a user from the
list and clicks on either To, Cc or Bcc to select the email receiver and how the email will be sent.
Figure 7-17 illustrates this.
Figure 7-17 Choosing an email address from the address book
A web browser is a software application that enables a user to view and interact with text, images, and other
information typically located on a web page at a website on the World Wide Web or a local area network.
support of various graphical format (for images) including GIF, PNG, JPEG and SVG
Cookies
Digital Certificates
History – list of previously visited URLs (the user has the option to specify the period of time for which he
wants the history)
Caching of web contents – when the user first accesses a page from a website, a copy of the page is kept
locally. The next time he wants access to that web page, the page will be accessed from the cache instead
of accessing the website again.
Support various kinds of media through the use of plug-ins such as Flash player and Quicktime
Exercises
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Which of the following formats will draw a line through selected text?
(a) Subscript
(b) Underline
(c) Outline
(d) Strikethrough
(e) Superscript
2. To create an Outline style numbered list, which of the following dialog boxes would you use?
(a) The Numbering dialog box
(b) The Outline Numbered dialog box
(c) The Bullets and Numbering dialog box
(d) The format dialog box
(e) You do not use a dialog box to create an Outline style numbered list, you would use a Toolbar
button
3. When a word is to be inserted into the middle of an existing paragraph, the user has to
I. Click to position the cursor of the insertion point where you would like to type the word
II. Select the paragraph that you would like to insert a word into
III. Do nothing, Word will automatically insert the word where you want it
(a) I only
(b) II only
(c) III only
(d) I & II
(e) I, II & III
4. In order to modify a page number, you must activate which of the following areas of your document?
(a) The Header or Footer Area
(b) The Page Number Area
(c) The Editing Area
(d) The Text box Area
(e) The Rectangle Area
5. Which of the following page orientations are you able to set a document to use?
(a) Landscape and Horizon
(b) Horizon and Portrait
(c) Portrait and Vertical
(d) Landscape and Portrait
(e) Horizon and Vertical
6. The term given to the words entered on a spreadsheet, which usually name a column:
(a) Value
(b) Cell
(c) Label
(d) Graph
(e) Cell Address
7. In a spreadsheet, a function is
(a) a built in computation which summarizes values in specified cells
(b) a term for a number in a spreadsheet
(c) an intersection of a row and column
(d) a vertical division in a spreadsheet
(e) a horizontal division in a spreadsheet
Exercises
Open-Ended Questions
2. List and briefly explain the main features of word-processing software packages.
3. What are the benefits of using presentation graphics software during a talk or presentation?
4. For what reasons users may wish to add narration to their slide show?
6. One important feature of a spreadsheet is the use of formulae. What are they?
9. One feature of email software is the address book. What is an address book and what is its use?
Systems Development
Learning Objectives
1. Define a system
3. Understand the importance of the different phases in the System Development Life Cycle
OVERVIEW
The chapter will give an overview of Systems Analysis and Design. Learners will understand that Systems
Analysis and Design is a problem-solving procedure for examining and improving an information system.
Moreover they will investigate the need of an organisation for a new system. The chapter will give an overview
of the different phases in the System Development Life Cycle and learners will understand the importance of
each of them. An appropriate case study will be used throughout the chapter to help learners understand each
of the concepts explained.
8.0 Introduction
The need of an organisation for a new computerised system often leads to the process of Systems
Development. This is a problem-solving procedure for examining and improving an information system. This
chapter will investigate each of the different phases making up the System Development Life Cycle.
Many systems perform multiple functions and serve several objectives. Examples of a system include an
educational system, a computer system, the solar system, an economic system, the human body.
An information system (IS) is an arrangement of people, data, processes, communications, and information
technology that interact to
A number of issues have to be addressed before embarking on the process of Systems Analysis and Design.
These are:
Problems - undesirable situations that prevent the organization from fully achieving its purpose,
goals, and/or objectives, and that require corrective action. Some examples are:
- Goals are no longer being met
- Work completed slowly
- Work done incorrectly
- Changes in employee behaviour
A structured approach must be used in order to ensure success in the process of system development. A
Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is a very formal and precise system development process that
defines a set of activities, methods, best practices, deliverables, and automated tools that system developers
and project managers are to use to develop and maintain information systems and software. The SDLC
consists of a series of steps used to manage the phases of development for an information system. The four
main phases are:
Analysis
Design
Implementation and Testing
Maintenance
At any stage, however, we might discover previously unidentified problems and a return to previous stages
may thus prove necessary.
The following figure shows the different phases of the SDLC.
The purpose of viewing system development in this way is to set up a general framework within which system
development can proceed. This technique helps to achieve greater control on the computerization project.
Thus, the amount of time to be allocated to each phase can be agreed upon. Furthermore, the completion of
each phase is a milestone which consists of monitoring the project progress by:
Ensuring that the time frames specified for each phase is being respected as far as possible
Checking that the tasks and activities enumerated for that phase have been completed
Checking that the deliverables/progress reports have been submitted to the appropriate persons
Making a decision about whether we proceed to the next phase
Systems Analysis is the study of the current system functions in order to identify the problems encountered
or needs. As a result, new requirements are specified and alternatives for system improvement are considered.
The new requirements guide the System Design process which consists of modeling the new system and
specifying the hardware and software considerations. During System Implementation, new hardware and
software are acquired, developed and tested. The new information system is installed and people are trained to
use it. System Maintenance is an ongoing phase, whereby the system is periodically evaluated and updated
as needed.
The process of design begins with a statement of the objectives of the desired system. These are made as
explicitly as possible so that the system devised by the designers can be tested to determine whether it meets
the objectives of the people who will use it. When the system can be shown to satisfy its objectives, the design
process may terminate.
4. Design the system according to the existing hardware and software environment
The design is then adjusted to the hardware and system software environment in which it will be executing,
i.e. it is important to keep in mind the existing infrastructure already existing in the organisation.
System Development
Testing
Installation
Acquire the hardware (Personal Computers and other peripherals, including printers, scanners,
speakers, floppy disks, and so on)
Build the database, if the system requires one
Develop the software (coding and testing)
8.4.3 Installation
Any hardware that has been purchased will be delivered and installed. Software, which was designed in the
Design phase, and programmed in the Development phase of the SDLC, will be installed on the PCs that
require it. Any person that will be using the program will also be trained during this phase of the SDLC.
During this phase, both the hardware and the software are tested again in the new environment. Although the
programmer will find and fix many problems, almost invariably, the user will uncover problems that the
developer has not been able to detect.
Since implementing the new system into the organisation involves a transition from an old system to a new
one, users should anticipate some difficulties during system start-up as they learn their new tasks and
procedures. The more these difficulties are minimised through well-designed system interfaces, proper user
training, and cooperation among all the participants, the better the transition will be.
8.5 Maintenance
Software is very often prone to changes once it is delivered to the customer, mostly due to changes in business
policies, or client requirements. The process of changing a system after it has been delivered and is in use is
called software maintenance. Maintenance has two parts: a systems audit and a periodic evaluation.
In the systems audit, the system’s performance is compared to the original design specifications. This is to
determine if the new procedures are actually furthering productivity. If they are not, some further re-design
may be necessary.
After the systems audit, the new information system is periodically evaluated and further modified, if
necessary. All systems should be evaluated from time to time to see if they are meeting the goals and
providing the service they are supposed to.
The changes brought to the system after this phase may involve
Perfective maintenance: Changing a system to make it meet its requirements more effectively
Adaptive maintenance: Changing a system to meet new requirements
Corrective maintenance: Changing a system to correct deficiencies in the way it meets its
requirements
A post implementation review is also carried out so as to evaluate system performance and project
performance.In evaluating system performance, the following issues are addressed:
When evaluating the merit of a system, the evaluation criteria that are usually taken into consideration are:
Goals are concerned with whether the new system meets its intended objectives.
Time criteria encompass various timing aspects associated with the system, such as elapsed time,
transaction time, overall processing time, etc.
Cost criteria encompass various costs aspects associated with the system, such as the annual cost of
the system, per unit cost, maintenance cost, etc.
Reliability is concerned with whether the system suffers from fewer or more breakdowns or crashes
than was previously the case.
Capacity is concerned with whether the system is able to handle average or peak workloads.
Efficiency is concerned with the amount of resources used by the system compared to what was
previously the case.
Productivity is concerned with whether productivity has increased through use of the new system.
Accuracy is concerned with whether the new system produces fewer processing errors than the
previous one.
As we have seen in the chapter, incorporating a new system in an organisation or converting from an old
system to a new one is not a straightforward process. All stages of the System Development Life Cycle have to
be undergone in order to ensure proper analysis, design and implementation of the system. If all guidelines are
correctly followed, the need to go back to previous stages will not arise. Therefore, what is of utmost
importance in such a process is proper project management in order to ensure a good allocation of resources,
in terms of time, budget and human resources to each of the stages of the SDLC.
(a) A system
(b) An information system
(c) A boundary
(d) An environment
(e) A structure
(a) Component
(b) Structure
(c) Function
(d) Objective
(e) Operation
3. Which one of the following is not a task carried out in preliminary investigation?
5. Which Information Gathering technique is a good way of confirming information gathered through other
techniques?
(a) Interviews
(b) Questionnaires
(c) Performance Indicators
(d) Observation
(e) Study of Existing Documents
7. Which phase of the SDLC focuses mostly on input, output and processing?
(a) Analysis
(b) Design
(c) Implementation
(d) Testing
(e) Maintenance
(a) Testing
(b) Training
(c) Systems Audit
(d) Post Implementation Review
(e) Installation
10. If the implementation of the new system has brought about a reduction in the amount of resources used,
then, the new system is said to be more
(a) Productive
(b) Efficient
(c) Costly
(d) Reliable
(e) Accurate
Exercises
Structured Questions
1. In terms of components, structure, function and objective, define the following systems:
(a) An educational system
(b) The human body
(c) A football game
2. Give an example of each of the following which would lead to the systems analysis and design of a company
involved in the production of shoes:
(a) Problem
(b) Opportunity
(c) Directive
3. What is the System Development Life Cycle (SDLC)? List the main phases of the SDLC.
4. At the end of Preliminary Investigation, the system analyst writes a report to management. After discussing
over this report, management will decide either to proceed with or give up the project. Briefly describe the
contents of this report.
5. List the techniques of information gathering. For each of the following, identify which technique should be
used:
(a) To examine recorded operating procedures
(b) To collect quantitative information
(c) To collect qualitative information
(d) To solidify hazy understanding regarding the system
6. What is the purpose of a Data Flow Diagram? Briefly describe each of the components making up a DFD.
8. In software development, programming tools are used to generate code and high level programming
languages are used for coding. Give some examples of each.
Computer Networks
Learning Objectives
4. Differentiate between an Operating System (OS) and a Network Operating System (NOS).
OVERVIEW
In this chapter, the learner will be introduced to some basic concepts of networks. The reasons
why networks are set up and the benefits derived from them have also been exposed. The learner
will understand that the basic computer networks commonly include microcomputers (PCs),
servers and shared resources (such as network laser printers). Also, cables (medium) used to
connect devices on a network, as well as network architectures and topologies have been
thoroughly discussed. To make things clearer, these notions have been seconded by simple
diagrams showing their practical use or application.
This chapter also introduces students to wireless networking. The advantages of wireless networks
over traditional wired networks are discussed. An overview of the different types of wireless
networks and standards is given. Moreover, the use of mobile and wireless computing to provide
the infrastructure for mobile commerce (conducting e-commerce wirelessly, any time and from
any place) is discussed.
For example, a network can connect two or more computers to share resources such as files, a
printer, an Internet connection, applications, or a combination of these in an organisation.
Eventually, with a network, computers can receive emails from each other, send files to each
other, send instant messages to each other and perform a variety of other things, as discussed
later in this chapter.
1. Sharing of data. For example: documents, files, programs (or software) as well as applications
may be stored on the drive of a server (usually on a shared folder/director) and made available to
users who have a connection on the network to that server. Electronic mail (email), the World
Wide Web and distributed databases are common means of sharing information.
2. Sharing of hardware. For example, several computers might be networked together in a wired
(or wireless) network to share a common printer. Modems, fax machines and CD drives can be
shared in a similar way.
3. Reliability. With a network, we can have alternative sources of supply, like replication of data
on different machines. The most crucial thing for a company is its data - a machine can be
replaced but data cannot. If a company like a bank loses its transactions for a single day or even
those of an hour, then it will lose its credentials.
4. Lower costs. The prices of personal computers are affordable nowadays. Hence system
designers have built networks consisting of personal computers, one per user, with data kept on
one or more shared file server and with one (or more) printers accessible to all the users.
5. Better information flow. Networks have enabled the development of mailing list whereby a
single mail can be sent to a group of individuals simultaneously.
6. New Services. Email, video conferencing, E-commerce, newsgroups, chat are now available
due to networks.
Node: A node is any device that is connected to a network. E.g: a computer, printer.
Server: A server is a computer that shares resources with other nodes and clients.
Servers are usually computers with powerful processing capabilities, high disk storage and
high memory capacity.
Client: A computer that requests and uses shared resources available usually from a
server (or from other nodes).
Shared Data: Files, programs which are provided by servers (placed in shared
folders/directories) and which are available to computers (clients) on the network.
Protocol: Defines a common set of rules that specify how computers on a network
communicate. Ethernet and Token Ring are examples of network cabling protocols, whilst
TCP/IP is the predominant network communications protocol.
Today’s technology allows a larger LAN, but practical administration limitations require dividing it
into small, logical areas called workgroups. A workgroup is a collection of individuals (a sales
department, a finance department or a library) who share the same files and databases over the
LAN.
Characteristics of a LAN
Communication channels between computers in a LAN are usually privately owned. That is,
all equipment, cabling and devices belong to the enterprise in which the LAN has been set
up.
LANs are simple and inexpensive. Standard computers, like PCs, can be used as network
servers and workstations. This provides a great deal of design flexibility, relatively easy
maintenance and helps keep costs to a minimum.
Channels in a LAN are of relatively high capacity (10 Mbps to 100 Mbps)
Windows 2000 Server – It can use multiple processors and run on Intel or RISC
computers.
For instance, a university or college may have a MAN that joins together many of their local area
networks (LANs). Then from their MAN they could have several links to Wide Area Networks
(WANs) to other universities or the Internet.
Figure 9.2 Example of a MAN
Characteristics of a MAN
The network size of a MAN falls intermediate between that of a LAN and a WAN. A MAN
typically covers an area of between 5 and 50 km diameter.
A MAN (like a WAN) is not generally owned by a single organisation. The MAN, its
communications links and equipment are generally owned by either a consortium of users
or by a single network provider who sells the service to the users.
The level of service provided to each user in a MAN must be negotiated with the MAN
operator, and some performance guarantees are normally specified.
A MAN often acts as a high speed network to allow sharing of regional resources (similar to
a large LAN).
A MAN is also frequently used to provide a shared connection to other networks using a
link to a WAN.
Telecommunications facilities to link the locations together are usually provided by local
telephone companies or Alternate Service Providers (ASPs).
A WAN is a geographically dispersed collection of LANs. A network device called a router connects
LANs to a WAN.
WANs differ from LANs in several important ways. Like the Internet, most WANs are not owned by
any one organisation but rather exist under collective or distributed ownership and management.
WANs use technology like ATM, Frame Relay and X.25 for connectivity. Most networking
professionals define a WAN as any network that uses routers and public network links.
Characteristics of a WAN
Channels in a WAN are of relatively low capacity (128/256/512 Kbps). However, with the
emergence of new technologies, high capacity WAN channels are today available.
Channels in a WAN are relatively error-prone (a bit error rate of 1 in 100,000 bits
transmitted).
Key Characteristics:
For example, a Web Server will often contain large amounts of memory and disk space, whereas
Web Clients often include features to support the graphic user interface of the browser such as
high-end video cards and large-screen displays.
Key Characteristics:
File Server: A file server holds and distributes files. It is a form of disk storage that hosts files
within a network. File servers do not need to be high-end but must have enough disk space to
incoporate a large amount of data. Many people mistake file servers for a high-end storage
system, but in reality, file servers do not need to possess great power or superfast computer
specifications.
Print Server: A print server controls and manages one or more printers for the network.
Proxy Server: A proxy server is a computer that offers a computer network service to allow
clients to make indirect network connections to other network services. A client connects to the
proxy server, then requests a connection, file, or other resource available on a different server.
The proxy provides the resource either by connecting to the specified server or by serving it from
a cache. In some cases, the proxy may alter the client's request or the server's response for
various purposes.
Web Server: A web server holds and delivers web pages and other web content using the
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).
Mail Server: A mail server hosts and delivers e-mail. It is the electronic equivalent of a post
office.
9.8 Network Hardware Networks are made up of both hardware and software. The
network hardware provides the physical connections between the network's various nodes and
typically includes:
NICs contain connections for either coaxial or twisted pair cables (or both) (see figure below). If it
is designed for coaxial cable, the connection will be a BNC connection. If it is designed for twisted
pair, it will have a RJ-45 connection. Some Ethernet cards also contain an AUI connector. This can
be used to attach coaxial, twisted pair, or fibre optics cable to the card.
Most NICs are designed for a particular type of network, protocol, and media, although some can
serve multiple networks. Cards are available to support almost all networking standards, including
the latest Fast Ethernet environment. Fast Ethernet NICs will automatically set to the appropriate
speed.
A NIC is identified by a unique hardware address known as its Media Access Control (MAC)
address. The MAC address of the NIC is usually determined by commands provided by the
Operating System on which the computer is running.
The cable has four pairs of wires inside the jacket. Each pair is twisted with a different
number of twists per inch to help eliminate interference from adjacent pairs and other
electrical devices. The tighter the twisting, the higher the supported transmission rate and
the greater the cost per foot.
9.8.2.2 Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cabling has a single copper conductor at its centre. A plastic layer provides
insulation between the centre conductor and a braided metal shield. The metal shield helps
to block any outside interference from fluorescent lights, motors, and other computers.
The topology refers to the actual physical organization of the computers on the network.
Topologies vary depending on cost and functionality. There are five basic network topologies:
1. Bus
2. Ring
3. Mesh
4. Star
5. Tree
Each of these topologies has their advantages and disadvantages as we will discuss now.
It can easily be expanded to include more nodes by just extending the two end points of
the main bus.
It is simple to install.
It is relatively inexpensive and uses less cable than other topologies.
The entire network goes out of operation if there is a break in the main cable.
It is difficult to identify the problem when the network is down.
The ring topology is relatively easy to troubleshoot. A station will know when a cable fault
has occurred because it will stop receiving data from its upstream neighbour.
It is expensive, because multiple cables are needed for each workstation.
It is difficult to reconfigure.
Not fault tolerant. A single cable fault can bring down the entire network.
Most network designers prefer the star topology, because these topologies make it simple
to add network devices without disruptions to the network.
It is also easy to detect faults and to remove parts as each device has its own cable.
New stations can be added easily and quickly.
A single cable failure won't bring down the entire network.
The star topology is susceptible to bottlenecking and single-point failure because all the
nodes rely on a single connection device (the hub).
Total installation cost can be higher because of the larger number of cables, but prices are
constantly becoming more and more competitive.
Figure 9-12 Star topology
In a full mesh topology, each node is physically connected to every other node. Full mesh is
generally utilized as a backbone where there is a great need for fault tolerance, such as the
backbone of a telecommunications company or Internet Service Provider (ISP). The primary
advantage of this topology is that it is highly fault tolerant, when one node fails, traffic can easily
be diverted to other nodes. It is also not especially vulnerable to bottlenecks. On the other hand,
full mesh topology can require inordinate amounts of cabling if there are more than just a few
nodes. A full mesh is also complex and difficult to set up.
In partial mesh topology, some nodes are organised in a full mesh scheme but others are only
connected to one or two in the network. Partial mesh topology uses fewer connections, and though
less expensive is also less fault-tolerant.
A mesh topology can become quite complex as wiring and connections increase
exponentially.
The payoff for all this work is a more fail-safe, or fault-tolerant network
Computers or network devices can switch between these multiple, redundant connections
if the need arises
Total installation costs can be very high because of the large number of cables and can
quickly become too complex.
A bad link may go unnoticed because network will still operate even if a cable goes wrong.
In this section, we have looked at the physical organization of the network devices in the
topologies. However, we have not looked at how data is transmitted among the network devices.
This part is discussed in the following section and it refers to logical topology, indicating how data
flow in the different physical topologies mentioned above.
Wireless communication is fundamentally the art of communicating information without wires. The
traditional computing environment that requires users to connect to a wired network to use its
resources may be ineffective or inefficient in many situations. The solution is to make computers
small enough that they are easy to carry or even to wear. Such mobile devices can communicate
with traditional systems and infrastructure via wireline or, even better, wireless networks. The
ability to communicate and collaborate any time and from anywhere provides organisations with
strategic advantage by increasing productivity, speed, and customer service. Therefore, wireless
communications represent a huge opportunity but also a challenge to today’s enterprises and
individuals. Properly combined with traditional (wireline) voice and data solutions, wireless
communications can provide productive and economical connectivity to anyone, anywhere, and
anytime.
A wireless network is a flexible data communications system, which uses wireless media such as
radio frequency technology, to transmit and receive data over the air, minimizing the need for
wired connections. Wireless networks are used to augment rather than replace wired networks and
are most commonly used to provide last few stages of connectivity between a mobile user and a
wired network.The widespread reliance on networking in business and the meteoric growth of the
Internet and online services are strong testimonies to the benefits of shared data and shared
resources. With wireless networks, users can access shared information without looking for a place
to plug in, and network managers can set up or augment networks without installing or moving
wires. Wireless networks offer the following productivity, convenience, and cost advantages over
traditional wired networks:
Mobility: provide mobile users with access to real-time information so that they can roam
around in the network without getting disconnected from the network. This mobility
supports productivity and service opportunities not possible with wired networks.
Installation speed and simplicity: installing a wireless system can be fast and easy and can
eliminate the need to fix cable through walls and ceilings.
Reach of the network: the network can be extended to places which cannot be wired.
More Flexibility: wireless networks offer more flexibility and adapt easily to changes in the
configuration of the network.
Reduced cost of ownership: while the initial investment required for wireless network
hardware can be higher than the cost of wired network hardware, overall installation
expenses and life-cycle costs can be significantly lower in dynamic environments.
Scalability: wireless systems can be configured in a variety of topologies to meet the needs
of specific applications and installations. Configurations can be easily changed and range
from peer-to-peer networks suitable for a small number of users to large infrastructure
networks that enable roaming over a broad area.
A Wireless LAN can be built using an Access Point and laptop computers with wireless NICs. The
Access points act as a central transmitter and receiver of WLAN radio signals. The devices in the
WLAN should be equipped with a wireless Network Interface Card (NIC) in order to be able to
communication with the Access Point. This enables the user to travel to various locations –
meeting rooms, hallways, lobbies, cafeterias, classrooms, etc. – and still have access to their
networked data. Without wireless access, the user would have to carry clumsy cabling and find a
network point to plug into.
Beyond the corporate campus, access to the Internet and even corporate sites could be made
available through public wireless hot spots networks. Airports, restaurants, rail stations, and
common areas throughout cities can be provisioned to provide this service. When the traveling
worker reaches his or her destination, perhaps meeting a client at his/her corporate office, limited
access could be provided to the user through the local wireless network. The network can
recognize the user from another corporation and create a connection that is isolated from local
corporate network but provides Internet access to the visiting user.
In all these scenarios it is worth highlighting that today’s standards-based wireless LANs operate
at high speeds – the same speeds that were considered state-of-the-art for wired networks just a
few years ago. This bandwidth is certainly adequate to deliver a great user experience for a
number of applications or services via the PC or mobile device. In addition, ongoing advancements
with these wireless standards continue to increase bandwidth.
IEEE802.11
802.11 is the generic name of a family of standards for wireless networking. 802.11 standards,
developed by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), define rules for
communication on Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs). This standard is also known as Wi-Fi
(wireless fidelity). Below is a brief discussion of the 802.11x standards, including the popular
802.11a, 802.11b and 802.11g.
802.11b: The first practical consumer wireless protocol widely manufactured was 802.11b. It is
limited to 11mbps (mega bits per second), much less performance you can get using a wired
Ethernet connection. The 802.11b standard operates on the 2.4GHz frequency (now a common
frequency for cordless phones).
802.11a: This was the next standard operating in the 5.8 GHz band. It provides 54mbps of
bandwidth (much faster than 802.11b) but it also has limitations. The 5.8GHz frequency has much
less penetration because it is more prone to obstacles (such as trees). But it also has its
advantages, there are much fewer devices using the 5.8GHz frequency making it an ideal standard
for administrators looking for as little interference (or noise from other wireless networks) as
possible.
802.11g: 802.11g is one of the latest wireless networking standard operating on the same
frequency as 802.11b but also providing the speed of 802.11a (54mbps). It is also fully backward
compatible with 802.11b wireless clients. This is the perfect standard to migrate to if someone is
considering a faster wireless network.
Bluetooth
Bluetooth is an alternative wireless network technology that followed a different development path
than the 802.11 family. Bluetooth supports a very short range (approximately 10 meters) and
relatively low bandwidth (1 Mbps). Bluetooth is a simple type of wireless networking that allows
the formation of a small network with up to eight devices being connected at once. Such devices
would include PDAs, Laptops, Mobile Phones and Personal Computers. However, Bluetooth may
also be found in keyboards, mice, headsets and mobile phone hands-free kits, amongst others.
Its key features are robustness, low complexity, low power and low cost. The technology also
offers wireless access to LANs, Public Switched Telephone Networks (PSTN), the mobile phone
network and the Internet for a host of home appliances and portable handheld interfaces.
Bluetooth integration is further fueled by the demand for mobile and wireless access to LANs,
Internet over mobile and other existing networks, where the backbone is wired but the interface is
free to move. This not only makes the network easier to use but also extends its reach. The
advantages and rapid proliferation of LANs suggest that setting up personal area networks, that is,
connections among devices in the proximity of the user, will have many beneficial uses.
HomeRF
HomeRF, short for home radio frequency, was designed specifically for wireless networks in homes
- in contrast to 802.11, which was created for use in businesses. HomeRF networks are designed
to be more affordable to home users than other wireless technologies. The HomeRF allow for the
transmission of voice and data to a speed of up to 16 Mbps over distances of up to 150 feet - too
short a range for most business applications, but suitable for the home market that it was
specifically developed for. HomeRF is said to have better mechanisms in place to deal with
interference (from microwave ovens, for example) and to handle voice, video, and audio data
better than IEEE 802.11 standards. Nevertheless, IEEE802.11 is significantly faster than HomeRF -
albeit more expensive as well.
Mobile computing has two major characteristics that differentiate it from other forms of
computing: mobility and broad reach. These two characteristics, create five value-added attributes
that break the barriers of geography and time: ubiquity, convenience, instant connectivity,
personalisation, and localisation of products and services. A mobile terminal can fill the need for
real-time information and communication, independent of the user’s location (ubiquity). With an
Internet-enabled mobile device, it is easy and fast to access the Web, intranets, and other mobile
devices without booting up a PC or placing a call via a modem (convenience and instant
connectivity). Information can be customised and sent to individual consumers as an SMS
(customisation). And knowing where a user is physically at any particular moment is key to
offering relevant products and services (localisation). Vendors and telecommunication carriers can
differentiate themselves in the competitive marketplace by offering new, exciting, and useful
services based on these attributes. Such services will help vendors attract and keep customers and
increase revenues.
Figure 9-22 M-Commerce Service
An increasing number of online vendors allow customers to shop from wireless devices. For
example, customers who use Internet-ready cell phones can shop at certain sites such as
mobile.yahoo.com or amazon.com. Shopping from wireless devices enables customers to perform
quick searches, compare prices, order, and view the status of their order using their cell phones or
wireless PDAs. Wireless shoppers are supported by services similar to those available for wireline
shoppers. Moreover, a large number of applications exist that provide personal services to
consumers. As an example, consider the situation of a person going to an international airport.
Tasks such as finding the right check-in desk, checking for delayed flights, waiting for lost luggage,
and even finding a place to eat or the nearest restroom can be assisted by mobile devices.
Exercises
1. In which of the following network cable is data (signals) transmitted as pulses of light?
(a) WAN
(b) LAN
(c) Star topology
(d) Client/server architecture
(e) Peer-to-peer architecture
(a) Server
(b) Client
(c) Topology
(d) Protocol
(e) Medium
5. In which of the following network topology does the entire network go out of operation if there
is a break in the main cable?
6. UTP cable has four pairs of wires inside its jacket. Why is each pair twisted with a different
number of twists per inch?
(a) To help eliminate interference from adjacent pairs and other electrical devices
(b) To make each pair of wire stronger
(c) Because signals are carried quicker in twisted wires
(d) So that a pair can be easily distinguished from the other
(e) None of the above
7. Which one of the following mediums the wireless networks use to transmit data?
8. Which type of wireless network would be more appropriate for a small university campus?
(a) 10 meters
(b) 100 meters
(c) 1000 meters
(d) 10000 meters
(e) 100000 meters
Exercises
Open-Ended Questions
1. Consider the setting up of network using a full mesh topology. Suppose that there are m
stations (computers) and that on the average each link (connection) will use n metres of cable.
Derive a formula in terms of m and n for:
(a) The number of links (connections) and the cable length that will be required.
(b) The amount of cable length that will be required.
2. A laboratory has ten computers. The IT Manager is on the way of implementing a corporate
network using a bus topology. Coaxial cable will be used. Explain fully the risks such an option
might entail.
3. In a WAN, data may be transmitted along “public carriers”. Explain what you understand by
“public carriers” and provide one example of such a carrier.
4. What are the fundamental differences between a Local Area Network (LAN) and Wide Area
Network (WAN)?
5. Your advice has been sought for the selection of the transmission media (network cabling) to be
used to connect two LANs in two separate buildings. The available options are: coaxial, fiber optic
(10BaseF) or UTP cable. The distance between the two buildings is 1850 metres. Video, audio and
multimedia files will travel along the link, once it has been established. Justify, giving reasons, the
transmission media which would best suit the above connection.
6. What card should be inserted in the expansion slot of computer for it to gain access to a
network? What characteristic of such cards make them different from other similar cards?
7. Discuss the advantages of wireless networks over traditional wired networks.
9. Differentiate between the Bluetooth and HomeRF wireless technologies. Give an example of the
application of each.
10. Discuss the advantages of mobile commerce. Give two examples of mobile commerce.