Austronesian Speakers and the Nusantao Communities

The most widely accepted reconstruction of ancestral Malayu origins is the Bellwood-Blust synthesis. It dates the initial settlement of proto-Austronesian speakers in Taiwan between 4000 and 3000 BCE. Proto-Austronesian either developed in Taiwan or in a subsequent move to the northern Philippines c. 3000 BCE. With the dispersal of these peoples throughout the rest of the Philippines, protoMalayo-Polynesian emerged about 2500 BCE. By about 2000 BCE the protoMalayo-Polynesian language began to break up as migration resumed to the southern Philippines, Sulawesi, Maluku, and Borneo, with settlement in western Borneo dated between 1500 and 500 BCE. 7 In the proto-Austronesian family tree reconstructed by linguists, a sub-group called Malayo-Chamic forms part of the Western MalayoPolynesian languages. Working from this basis, Graham Thurgood lists two branches of Malayo-Chamic: one is Malayic languages, from which derived proto-Malayu and the various Malayu dialects, including Minangkabau; and the other is proto-Chamic, which gave rise to coastal Cham and Acehnese.8 Linguists believe that the homeland of Malayo-Chamic was in western Borneo and that several hundred years BCE there was a move outward through the Tambelan and Riau islands to the Malay Peninsula. From the Malay Peninsula, one group crossed over to southeast Sumatra and became the ancestors of the Malayu speakers, while another group proceeded to the coasts of Vietnam and became the ancestors of the Cham language speakers.9 Sometime before 1000 CE a northerly Cham group left central Vietnam and became the Acehnese speakers of northern Sumatra.10 From very early on, therefore, the Acehnese in northern Sumatra formed a different branch of the Malayo-Chamic subgroup from the Malayic speakers in the southern part of Sumatra. Resulting from a back-migration to Sumatra, the Acehnese language contains clear borrowings from interaction with non-Austronesian speakers.11 Contact between the Acehnese and the Chams may have been maintained through the centuries.12 Early Malayo-Polynesian communities developed in a subtropical coastal and riverine environment where the economy was based on cereal, tubers, and domesticated animals. In the process of adapting to specific ecological niches, their descendants began to embrace differing lifestyles. Some foraged the rain forests and the seas for products in great demand in the international marketplace; others engaged in various forms of irrigated and rain-fed cultivation of cereals, fruits, and tubers; while still others specialized in the exploitation of the sago palm.13 Archaeological records for island Southeast Asia indicate that during these migrations the best coastal sites were occupied first. Only when or if there were no suitable coasts to settle did migrants move into the interior. A feature Peter Bellwood terms founder rank enhancement played an important part in this process. Because founders of new settlements and their descendants were elevated to almost godlike status, there was strong motivation for members of a junior branch to seek an empty area and establish a new senior line with priority over resources.14 Less well known is a theory advanced by Wilhelm Solheim over a number of years. This ambitious conception incorporates the story of the Austronesian speakers into a wider network of Nusantao communities. Instead of positing a monodirectional Austronesian movement, Solheim proposes a multidirectional flow from the different

lobes that formed the Nusantao network. He believes that the Nusantao homeland (calculated simply in terms of the earliest dates known for the existence of a group) is in the Early Central Lobe in eastern coastal Vietnam and dates it to c. 8000 BCE, much earlier than Bellwoods reconstruction for the ancestors of the Austronesian speakers. He suggests that in c. 5000 BCE the people in the Late Central Lobe involved in this network began moving by water and developed a trade communication network. It was these maritime trading people who developed Austronesian as a lingua franca from preand proto-Austronesian to facilitate communication among the communities forming this network. As the Nusantao network expanded out of Taiwan, it was Malayo-Polynesian languages rather than Austronesian that developed with it. Solheim emphasizes that the expansion of Malayo-Polynesian was not the result of migrations but of the interaction occurring within the network. He also emphasizes the important role of maritime people in the dispersal of the Nusantao community.15 In discussing these two major theories regarding the antecedents of the Malayu, it is important to stress that Austronesian and Nusantao are not synonymous. The former is linguistic, the latter cultural, and neither refers to a genetic group. Solheim, however, uses a gene marker identified among the Southeast Asians but not found in China as an argument for rejecting the view that the origin of the Austronesian speakers is in southern China. He believes that ancestors of the Southeast Asians had been living in the region since 5500 BP, after the retreat of flood waters following the end of the Ice Age some eight thousand years ago. Solheim also disagrees with linguists regarding the route taken by the Austronesian speakers from southern China to Taiwan, the Philippines, and then down to Southeast Asia and out into the Pacific. Instead, he suggests that a trade language in the form of Austronesian developed in coastal south China, northern Vietnam, Taiwan, and northeast Luzon, and evolved through ongoing contact among the Nusantao communities. The notion of interacting communities moving in multiple directions allows for local variations and adaptations to specific geographic conditions.16 Although Solheims dates are generally regarded as being too early, the appeal of his model is the idea that the spread of a culture, including a lingua franca, evolved as a by-product of the trade and communications network of a large number of different communities in a widely dispersed area. In the historical period the Malayu language and culture were developed and sustained in very much the same fashion. Linguistic reconstruction of the migration of the Austronesian speakers does not emphasize the trade aspect, but for Solheim trade was the major feature and basis for the creation of this Nusantao maritime trading and communication network. While Bellwood explained the spread of the Austronesian migration by the phenomenon of rank enhancement, Solheim points to the long-standing existence of many maritime populations who became part of this extensive trade network. Nusantao culture was not associated with a single ethnic group, but with a style of life and a trade language comprehensible throughout an interactive region. This particular aspect of Solheims model is helpful in understanding the formation of an early network of communities I call the Sea of Malayu

Penceramah Austronesia dan Komuniti Nusantao

Pembinaan semula yang paling diterima secara meluas daripada asal-usul nenek moyang Malayu adalah Bellwood-Blust sintesis.Ia bermula penyelesaian awal proto Austronesia penceramah di Taiwan antara 4000 dan 3000 BCE. ProtoAustronesia sama ada dibangunkan di Taiwan atau langkah berikutnya ke utara Filipina c.3000 BCE. Dengan penyebaran orang-orang ini di seluruh negara lain di Filipina, proto-Malayo-Polynesian muncul kira-kira 2500 BCE. Oleh kira-kira 2000 BCE bahasa proto-Malayo-Polynesian bermula untuk memecahkan sebagai penghijrahan kembali ke selatan Filipina, Sulawesi, Maluku, dan Borneo, dengan penyelesaian di barat Borneo bertarikh antara 1500 dan 500 BCE. 7 Dalam pokok proto Austronesia keluarga yang dibina semula oleh ahli bahasa, sub-kumpulan dipanggil Malayo-Chamic sebahagian bentuk Western MalayoPolynesian bahasa.Bekerja dari dasar ini, Graham Thurgood menyenaraikan dua cawangan Malayo-Chamic: satu adalah bahasa Malayik, dari mana diperolehi protoMalayu dan Malayu pelbagai dialek, termasuk Minangkabau; dan lain-lain protoChamic, yang menimbulkan pantai Cham dan Aceh. 8 Linguists percaya bahawa tanah air Malayo-Chamic adalah di barat Borneo dan bahawa beberapa ratus tahun SM ada adalah satu langkah yang keluar melalui Tambelan dan pulau-pulau Riau ke Semenanjung Tanah Melayu.Dari Semenanjung Tanah Melayu, satu kumpulan berpindah ke tenggara Sumatera dan menjadi nenek moyang oleh orang Malayu pembesar suara, manakala kumpulan lain menuju ke pantai Vietnam dan menjadi nenek moyang penutur bahasa Cham. 9 Kadang-kadang sebelum 1000 CE kumpulan Cham utara kiri tengah Vietnam dan menjadi penceramah Aceh di utara Sumatra. 10 Dari awal-awal lagi, oleh itu, Aceh utara Sumatera membentuk satu cabang yang berbeza subkumpulan Malayo-Chamic dari speaker Malayik di bahagian selatan Sumatera.Akibat daripada penghijrahan kembali ke Sumatra, bahasa Aceh mengandungi pinjaman yang jelas dari interaksi dengan penceramah bukan Austronesia. 11 Contact antara Aceh dan Chams mungkin telah dikekalkan sepanjang abad 12. Awal Malayo-Polynesian komuniti dibangunkan di pantai subtropika dan persekitaran sungai di mana ekonomi berdasarkan bijirin, ubi, dan haiwan ternakan.Dalam proses menyesuaikan diri dengan ekologi tertentu niche, keturunan mereka mula memeluk gaya hidup yang berbeza.Sesetengah foraged hutan hujan dan laut bagi produk dalam permintaan besar di pasaran antarabangsa, yang lain terlibat dalam pelbagai bentuk pengairan dan hujan makan penanaman bijirin, buah-buahan, dan ubi; sementara masih lain khusus dalam eksploitasi sagu kelapa. 13 rekod Arkeologi untuk pulau Tenggara Asia menunjukkan bahawa semasa migrasi laman web yang terbaik pantai diduduki pertama.Hanya apabila atau jika tidak ada pantai yang sesuai untuk menyelesaikan melakukan langkah pendatang ke kawasan pedalaman.Satu ciri Peter Bellwood istilah "peningkatan pangkat pengasas" memainkan peranan penting dalam proses ini.Kerana pengasas penempatan baru dan keturunan mereka telah dinaikkan status hampir tahyul, terdapat kuat motivasi untuk anggota cawangan junior mencari kawasan kosong dan tugas inilish satu garis baru kanan dengan keutamaan ke atas sumber 14.

Kurang terkenal ialah teori yang diajukan oleh Wilhelm Solheim sepanjang beberapa tahun.Ini konsep yang bercita-cita tinggi menggabungkan kisah penceramah Austronesia ke dalam rangkaian yang lebih luas "Nusantao" komuniti.Sebaliknya positing pergerakan Austronesia monodirectional, Solheim mencadangkan aliran multidirectional dari "lobus" yang berbeza yang membentuk rangkaian Nusantao.Beliau percaya bahawa Nusantao "tanahair" (dikira hanya dari segi tarikh terawal yang diketahui untuk kewujudan kumpulan) adalah di Pusat Awal Lobus di pantai timur Vietnam dan tarikh ia c.8000 SM, lebih awal daripada Bellwood pembinaan semula untuk nenek moyang penceramah Austronesia.Beliau menunjukkan bahawa dalam c.5000 SM orang dalam lobus Lewat Tengah yang terlibat dalam rangkaian ini mula bergerak oleh air dan membangunkan komunikasi perdagangan rangkaian.Ia adalah orang-orang perdagangan maritim yang dibangunkan Austronesia sebagai lingua franca dari pra-dan proto-Austronesia untuk memudahkan komunikasi di kalangan masyarakat yang membentuk rangkaian ini.Sebagai rangkaian Nusantao berkembang daripada Taiwan, ia adalah bahasa-bahasa Malayo-Polynesian bukannya Austronesia yang dibangunkan dengan ia.Solheim menekankan bahawa pengembangan MalayoPolynesian tidak adalah hasil daripada migrasi tetapi interaksi yang berlaku dalam rangkaian.Beliau juga menekankan peranan penting orang maritim dalam penyebaran masyarakat Nusantao. 15 Dalam membincangkan kedua-dua teori utama mengenai latar belakang daripada Malayu, ia adalah penting untuk menekankan bahawa "Austronesia" dan "Nusantao" tidak sinonim.Bekas adalah linguistik, kebudayaan kedua, dan tidak merujuk kepada kumpulan genetik.Solheim, bagaimanapun, menggunakan penanda gen yang dikenal pasti di kalangan Tenggara Asia tetapi tidak ditemui di China sebagai hujah untuk menolak pandangan bahawa asal penceramah Austronesia adalah di selatan China.Beliau percaya bahawa nenek moyang orang Asia Tenggara telah hidup di rantau ini sejak 5500 BP, selepas berundur air banjir berikutan berakhirnya Zaman Ais kira-kira lapan ribu tahun dahulu.Solheim juga tidak bersetuju dengan ahli bahasa mengenai laluan diambil oleh penceramah Austronesia dari selatan China ke Taiwan, Philippines, dan kemudian turun ke Asia Tenggara dan keluar ke Pasifik.Sebaliknya, dia mencadangkan bahawa bahasa perdagangan dalam bentuk Austronesia dibangunkan di pantai selatan China, utara Vietnam, Taiwan, dan timur laut Luzon, dan berkembang melalui hubungan yang berterusan di kalangan masyarakat Nusantao.The tanggapan masyarakat berinteraksi bergerak dalam pelbagai arah membolehkan variasi tempatan dan penyesuaian kepada keadaan geografi tertentu 16. Walaupun tarikh Solheim secara amnya dianggap sebagai terlalu awal, rayuan model adalah idea bahawa penyebaran budaya, termasuk lingua franca, berkembang sebagai produk oleh perdagangan dan rangkaian komunikasi sebilangan besar masyarakat yang berbeza dalam kawasan secara meluas tersebar.Dalam tempoh sejarah Malayu bahasa dan budaya telah dibangunkan dan dikekalkan dalam sangat fesyen sama.Pembinaan semula Linguistik penghijrahan penceramah Austronesia tidak menekankan aspek perdagangan, tetapi untuk Solheim perdagangan adalah ciri-ciri utama dan asas bagi penciptaan ini "perdagangan maritim Nusantao dan rangkaian komunikasi."Walaupun Bellwood

menjelaskan penyebaran penghijrahan Austronesia oleh fenomena peningkatan pangkat, Solheim mata kepada kewujudan lama banyak populasi maritim yang menjadi sebahagian daripada rangkaian perdagangan ini luas. Budaya Nusantao tidak dikaitkan dengan kumpulan etnik tunggal, tetapi dengan gaya hidup dan bahasa difahami perdagangan di seluruh rantau interaktif.Ini aspek tertentu model Solheim adalah membantu dalam memahami pembentukan rangkaian awal komuniti yang saya panggil "Laut Malayu