Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Part 3.
Course Reference WIS 20
Copyright 2004 TWI Ltd
M.S.Rogers
Radiographic Techniques
M.S.Rogers
Radiographic Techniques
Single Wall Single Image (SWSI)
- film inside, source outside
Film
Film
M.S.Rogers
Film
IQIs are placed on the film side Source inside film outside (single exposure)
Copyright 2004 TWI Ltd
M.S.Rogers
Film IQIs are placed on the film side Source outside film outside (multiple exposure) This technique is intended for pipe diameters over 100mm
Copyright 2004 TWI Ltd
M.S.Rogers
Identification Unique identification IQI placing Pitch marks indicating readable film length
Copyright 2004 TWI Ltd EN W10
A
ID MR11
Radiograph
M.S.Rogers
Radiograph
Copyright 2004 TWI Ltd
M.S.Rogers
Film
IQIs are placed on the source or film side Source outside film outside (multiple exposure) A minimum of two exposures This technique is intended for pipe diameters less than 100mm
Copyright 2004 TWI Ltd
M.S.Rogers
Identification Unique identification IQI placing Pitch marks indicating readable film length
Copyright 2004 TWI Ltd
4
EN W10
1
ID MR12
Shot A Radiograph
M.S.Rogers
Elliptical Radiograph
Copyright 2004 TWI Ltd
M.S.Rogers
Film IQIs are placed on the source or film side Source outside film outside (multiple exposure) A minimum of three exposures Source side weld is superimposed on film side weld This technique is intended for small pipe diameters
Copyright 2004 TWI Ltd
M.S.Rogers
Intensifying Screens
Radiographic film is usually sandwiched between two intensifying screens There are three main there are three main types of intensifying screens
High cost
Front screen acts as a filter and intensifier
Order of speed
Lead Fluorescent
3 1
Fluorometallic
None
2
4
An intensification factor of 3 will reduce exposure from six minutes to two minutes
Copyright 2004 TWI Ltd
M.S.Rogers
Radiographic Film
M.S.Rogers
Radiographic Film
Base
M.S.Rogers
Radiographic Film
Subbing
Base
Subbing
M.S.Rogers
Radiographic Film
Supercoat
Emulsion AgBr
Subbing
Base
Subbing
Emulsion AgBr
Supercoat
Copyright 2004 TWI Ltd
M.S.Rogers
Improve contrast
M.S.Rogers
Radiographic Film
Film Types
Grain size Coarse Speed Fast Medium Slow Quality Poor Medium Good V Good Film Factor 10
Medium
Fine Ultra Fine
35
90 200
V Slow
Image Formation
When radiation passes through an object it is differentially absorbed depending upon the materials thickness and any differing densities The portions of radiographic film that receive sufficient amounts of radiation undergo minute changes to produce the latent image (hidden image) 1. The silver halide crystals are partially converted into metallic silver to produce the latent image
Film Processing
Film processing is carried out using the following
Processing Systems
Development
Metallic Silver converted into Black metallic silver 3-5 min at 20OC Main Constituents Developing agent metol-hydroquinone Accelerator keeps solution alkaline Restrainer ensures only exposed silver halides converted Preservative prevents oxidation by air Replenishment
M.S.Rogers
Film Processing
Development
Supplied as a liquid concentrated alkali mixed to 1 part developer to 4 parts water Developer temperatures for manual processing 20oC Development times are 4 to 5 minutes During the development process agitation should take place to avoid bromide streaking Replenishment may be added to maintain development times and the activity of the developer
Copyright 2004 TWI Ltd
M.S.Rogers
Film Processing
Fixer
Supplied as a liquid concentrated acid mixed to 1 part fixer to 3 parts water Fixing temperatures for manual processing 20oC Fixing times are twice the clearing time, clearing time about 3 minutes, fixing time about 6 minutes During the fixing process agitation should take place to avoid light spots on the radiograph
When fixing times exceed 10 minutes the fixer should be replaced, replenishment is not normally added
Copyright 2004 TWI Ltd
M.S.Rogers
Film Processing
Washing / Drying
After washing in running water the films may be placed in a wetting agent to reduce surface tension this results in even drying, preventing black streaky marks on the radiograph Before drying excess water should be removed with the use of a squeegee
Drying should take place in a dust free environment
Density (Log)
3.0
2.5 2.0
1.0
M.S.Rogers
Density
A B C D E
M.S.Rogers
M.S.Rogers
The position of the curve on the exposure axis gives information about the films speed
The gradient of the curve gives information on the films contrast
M.S.Rogers
Density (Log)
M.S.Rogers
The position of the curve on the exposure axis gives information about the films speed
The gradient of the curve gives information on the films contrast The position of the straight line portion of the curve against the density axis will show the density range within which the film is at its optimal
M.S.Rogers
Density (Log)
M.S.Rogers
The position of the curve on the exposure axis gives information about the films speed
The gradient of the curve gives information on the films contrast The position of the straight line portion of the curve against the density axis will show the density range range within which the film is at its optimal A new exposure can be determined for a change of film type
Copyright 2004 TWI Ltd
M.S.Rogers
Changing Density
Density achieved 1.5 Density required 2.5 Density
2.5
Determine interval between logs 1.8 - 1.3 = 0.5 Antilog of 0.5 = 3.18 Therefore multiply exposure by 3.18
(measured density is lower than the required density)
1.5
1.3 1.8
Original exposure 10 mA mins New exposure Ltd Copyright 2004 TWI 31.8mA mins
Changing Film
Obtain Logs for Films A and B at required density Density
2.5
A B
14.2 mA mins
Determination of Exposure
Wavelength - Gamma fixed, X-ray variable
Material type
Material thickness
Copyright 2004 TWI Ltd
M.S.Rogers
Determination of Exposure
Gamma exposures are calculated by the use of a gamma calculators/slide rule Gamma calculators take into consideration Film density to be achieved Source type Activity of the source Film speed Source to film distance Material type Material thickness
Copyright 2004 TWI Ltd
M.S.Rogers
Determination of Exposure
X-ray exposures are less straight forward because the wavelength and intensity are variable
X-ray exposures are determined by the following By using exposure charts By reference to previous exposure records
M.S.Rogers
Exposure Chart
Kilo Volts
100 120 150 180 200 220 250 6.5 5.5 280 300
Milli Amps
Density = 2.0
Material thickness
Density Required 1.50 5.00 2.60 1.75 2.00 7.50 3.90 2.50 2.50 10.00 4.90 3.33 3.0 12.00 6.00 4.00
1.50
2.00 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.50 3.75 4.00
1.00
0.75 0.55 0.50 0.45 0.38 0.36 0.35
1.40
1.00 0.80 0.70 0.60 0.55 0.53 0.50
1.90
1.25 1.00 0.95 0.80 0.70 0.65 0.60
2.40
1.60 1.20 1.10 1.00 0.86 0.80 0.75
Multiply 1st
Exposure Chart
Kilo Volts
100 120 150 180 200 220 250 6.5 5.5 280 300
Milli Amps
4.5
Chart based on
35
40
45 50
M.S.Rogers
Material thickness
0.6
1
0.6
1
0.5
0.12 0.45 1.6 1 1.4
0.08
0.08 0.35 1.4 1 1.3 1.4 1 1.3
M.S.Rogers
Zi
Copyright 2004 TWI Ltd
Exposure Chart
Kilo Volts
100 120 150 180 200 220 250 6.5 5.5 280 300
Milli Amps
Material C/S
Film Type
35
40
45 50
M.S.Rogers
Material thickness
Agfa
CX
D7
D5
D4
Kodak
150
AX
MX
Fuji
100 3 3.5 4 5 6
80 7 8 10 12 14
M.S.Rogers
2 2.5
Copyright 2004 TWI Ltd
New Exposure = New film type X original exposure original film New Exposure = 10 x 4 = 16mins 2.5
Copyright 2004 TWI Ltd
M.S.Rogers
Exposure Chart
Kilo Volts
100 120 150 180 200 220 250 6.5 5.5 280 300
Milli Amps
4.5
Chart based on
Philips 300kV Screen = pb Dev = to spec Density = 2.0 Material C/S Film Type FFD = 900
35
40
45 50
M.S.Rogers
Material thickness
Exposure Calculation
Exposure = intensity x time example 3 mA at 2 minutes = 6 mA minutes 1 mA at 6 minutes = 6 mA minutes
Exposure formula old exposure = old distance2 new exposure new distance2 E1 = D12 E2 D22
Copyright 2004 TWI Ltd
M.S.Rogers
Exposure control
For FFD/SFD change
T1 D1 2 = T2 D2 2
T1 = New exposure time T2 = Original exposure time D1 = New FFD D2 = Original FFD
Copyright 2004 TWI Ltd
M.S.Rogers
Exposure control
For FFD/SFD change Example: Calculate new exposure time for FFD = 600 mm
T1 =
(600) 2 (500)
2
10 = 14.4 mins
M.S.Rogers
Any Questions
M.S.Rogers