Optsim

OptSim
Models Reference

Volume II Block Mode

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OptSim Models Reference: Block Mode Contents iii
Contents
Chapter 1: Signal Generators 15
PRBS Pattern Generator .......................................................................................................... 16
PreBits and PostBits .................................................................................................. 16
Properties................................................................................................................... 16
Electrical Signal Generator ...................................................................................................... 18
Properties................................................................................................................... 19
Optical Signal Generator ......................................................................................................... 21
Optical Parameters..................................................................................................... 22
Polarization................................................................................................................ 22
Multi-Line Output ..................................................................................................... 22
Properties................................................................................................................... 22
Custom Signal Generator......................................................................................................... 24
Properties................................................................................................................... 25
Analog Sine Generator............................................................................................................. 27
Properties................................................................................................................... 29
Sawtooth Generator ................................................................................................................. 31
Properties................................................................................................................... 31
Frequency Sweep Generator .................................................................................................... 32
Properties................................................................................................................... 32
Expression Signal Generator ................................................................................................... 34
Properties................................................................................................................... 34
Chapter 2: Electrical Modules 37
1x1 Expression Signal Operator .............................................................................................. 38
Properties................................................................................................................... 38
2x1 Expression Signal Operator .............................................................................................. 39
Properties................................................................................................................... 39
Summer.................................................................................................................................... 40
Properties................................................................................................................... 40
Mixer ....................................................................................................................................... 41
Properties................................................................................................................... 41
Electrical Filter ........................................................................................................................ 42
Definitions of filter types........................................................................................... 42
Noise filtering............................................................................................................ 44
Test display................................................................................................................ 44
Properties................................................................................................................... 45
Feed-Forward Equalization Filter ............................................................................................ 47
Properties................................................................................................................... 47
Decision-Feedback Equalizer for Electronic Dispersion Compensation with Minimum Mean
Square Error Optimization (MMSE DFE-EDC)...................................................................... 48
References ................................................................................................................. 49
Properties................................................................................................................... 49
Standard S-Parameter Block.................................................................................................... 50
Properties................................................................................................................... 51
iv Contents OptSim Models Reference: Block Mode
Modulator-Driving S Block..................................................................................................... 52
Properties................................................................................................................... 52
Electrical Gain ......................................................................................................................... 54
Properties................................................................................................................... 54
Electrical Amplifier ................................................................................................................. 55
Properties................................................................................................................... 56
Electrical Noise Adder............................................................................................................. 58
Properties................................................................................................................... 59
Crosstalk Block........................................................................................................................ 61
Properties................................................................................................................... 61
Electrical Integrate And Dump................................................................................................ 62
Properties................................................................................................................... 62
Chapter 3: Special Functions and Logical Models 65
Shift Signal .............................................................................................................................. 66
Properties................................................................................................................... 68
Boolean Operator..................................................................................................................... 69
Properties................................................................................................................... 69
D Flip-Flop .............................................................................................................................. 70
Properties................................................................................................................... 70
T Flip-Flop............................................................................................................................... 71
Properties................................................................................................................... 71
DQPSK Precoder ..................................................................................................................... 72
Properties................................................................................................................... 72
Electrical Signal Resampler..................................................................................................... 73
Properties................................................................................................................... 73
Optical Signal Resampler ........................................................................................................ 74
Properties................................................................................................................... 74
Chapter 4: Optical Sources and Modulators 75
Direct Modulated Laser ........................................................................................................... 76
Driving Source .......................................................................................................... 76
Parasitics.................................................................................................................... 77
Laser Cavity .............................................................................................................. 77
Polarization................................................................................................................ 80
Numerical Settings .................................................................................................... 81
Test Parameters ......................................................................................................... 81
Compatibility with LinkSIM version 2.1 VCSEL Model........................................... 83
References ................................................................................................................. 83
Properties................................................................................................................... 83
Mode-Locked Laser................................................................................................................. 87
Polarization................................................................................................................ 88
References ................................................................................................................. 89
Properties................................................................................................................... 89
CW Laser ................................................................................................................................. 91
Linewidth .................................................................................................................. 91
Polarization................................................................................................................ 91
References ................................................................................................................. 93
Properties................................................................................................................... 93
Fabry Perot CW Laser ............................................................................................................. 95
Linewidth .................................................................................................................. 95
OptSim Models Reference: Block Mode Contents v
Polarization................................................................................................................ 95
References ................................................................................................................. 96
Properties................................................................................................................... 96
VCSEL..................................................................................................................................... 99
Driving Source .......................................................................................................... 99
Parasitics.................................................................................................................. 100
VCSEL Cavity......................................................................................................... 100
Polarization.............................................................................................................. 104
Multi-Line Output ................................................................................................... 104
Numerical Settings .................................................................................................. 104
Test Parameters ....................................................................................................... 104
References ............................................................................................................... 105
Properties................................................................................................................. 105
Light Emitting Diode (LED).................................................................................................. 109
LED Optical Response ............................................................................................ 109
Linewidth ................................................................................................................ 110
LED Electrical Model.............................................................................................. 110
Driving Source ........................................................................................................ 110
Polarization.............................................................................................................. 111
Test Functions ......................................................................................................... 111
References ............................................................................................................... 112
Properties................................................................................................................. 112
Modulator .............................................................................................................................. 115
Mach-Zehnder ......................................................................................................... 115
Ideal ......................................................................................................................... 116
Amplitude................................................................................................................ 116
Phase........................................................................................................................ 116
Properties................................................................................................................. 117
Electroabsorption Modulator ................................................................................................. 119
Properties................................................................................................................. 121
Chapter 5: Optical Fibers 123
Nonlinear Fiber...................................................................................................................... 124
Background ............................................................................................................. 124
Complete model ...................................................................................................... 127
Noise........................................................................................................................ 138
Skew........................................................................................................................ 139
Interior Property Maps ............................................................................................ 139
Simulation Features and Settings ............................................................................ 139
Test functions .......................................................................................................... 140
References ............................................................................................................... 141
Properties................................................................................................................. 142
Appendix: File formats............................................................................................ 146
Bi-directional Nonlinear Fiber (Raman Amplifier) ............................................................... 149
Introduction ............................................................................................................. 149
Background ............................................................................................................. 150
Model Operation...................................................................................................... 151
User-Specified Profiles............................................................................................ 153
Power Solution Equations and Calculation ............................................................. 153
Coherent Solution Calculation................................................................................. 157
Internal Plots............................................................................................................ 158
References ............................................................................................................... 160
Properties................................................................................................................. 160
Fiber Delay ............................................................................................................................ 167
vi Contents OptSim Models Reference: Block Mode
Properties................................................................................................................. 167
Chapter 6: Optical Amplifiers 169
Black Box Optical Amplifier ................................................................................................. 170
Defined Gain Model ................................................................................................ 170
Custom Gain Model ................................................................................................ 170
Defined ASE Noise Models .................................................................................... 170
Custom ASE Noise Model ...................................................................................... 171
References ............................................................................................................... 171
Properties................................................................................................................. 171
Physical EDFA...................................................................................................................... 173
Background ............................................................................................................. 173
Model Implementation ............................................................................................ 175
References ............................................................................................................... 184
Properties................................................................................................................. 184
Physical EYCDFA................................................................................................................. 194
Background ............................................................................................................. 194
References ............................................................................................................... 207
Properties................................................................................................................. 207
Semiconductor Optical Amplifier (SOA) .............................................................................. 218
Model Description................................................................................................... 218
Noise Treatment ...................................................................................................... 220
Simulation Techniques ............................................................................................ 221
Additional Notes...................................................................................................... 221
References ............................................................................................................... 222
Properties................................................................................................................. 222
Controlled SOA..................................................................................................................... 224
Properties................................................................................................................. 224
Semiconductor Optical Amplifier (SOA) Comprehensive Model ...................................... 226
Model Description................................................................................................... 227
Test Functions ......................................................................................................... 232
References ............................................................................................................... 233
Properties................................................................................................................. 234
Optical Noise Adder .............................................................................................................. 238
Direct addition of noise ........................................................................................... 238
Normalization.......................................................................................................... 239
Stochastic representation of noise ........................................................................... 239
Properties................................................................................................................. 240
Linewidth Adder.................................................................................................................... 243
References ............................................................................................................... 243
Properties................................................................................................................. 243
Liekki LAD Interface ............................................................................................................ 245
Properties................................................................................................................. 245
Chapter 7: Optical Components 247
Optical Attenuator ................................................................................................................. 248
Properties................................................................................................................. 248
Optical Power Normalizer ..................................................................................................... 249
Properties................................................................................................................. 249
Optical Phase Shift ................................................................................................................ 250
OptSim Models Reference: Block Mode Contents vii
Properties................................................................................................................. 250
Optical Phase Conjugator ...................................................................................................... 251
Properties................................................................................................................. 251
Polarization Transformer ....................................................................................................... 252
Properties................................................................................................................. 253
Ideal Frequency Converter..................................................................................................... 255
Properties................................................................................................................. 255
Sagnac Effect model for Interferometric Fiber Optic Gyroscope (I-FOG)............................ 257
References ............................................................................................................... 257
Properties................................................................................................................. 257
Chapter 8: WDM Components 259
Optical Splitter (1xN) ............................................................................................................ 260
Properties................................................................................................................. 260
Optical Coupler (2x2) ............................................................................................................ 261
Properties................................................................................................................. 261
Controlled Optical Coupler (2x2) .......................................................................................... 263
Properties................................................................................................................. 263
Optical Filter.......................................................................................................................... 264
Carrier shifting ........................................................................................................ 265
Test Parameters ....................................................................................................... 266
Properties................................................................................................................. 266
Fiber Bragg Grating Filter ..................................................................................................... 268
Properties................................................................................................................. 271
Optical Multiplexer (Nx1 MUX) .......................................................................................... 272
Properties................................................................................................................. 272
Optical DeMultiplexer (1xN DEMUX) ................................................................................ 274
Properties................................................................................................................. 274
Optical Add Multiplexer ........................................................................................................ 276
Properties................................................................................................................. 276
Optical Drop Multiplexer....................................................................................................... 278
Properties................................................................................................................. 278
Optical Add/Drop Multiplexer............................................................................................... 280
Properties................................................................................................................. 281
General Multiport Optical Device (NxM and WDM)............................................................ 283
Properties................................................................................................................. 284
Jones Matrix Transfer Function............................................................................................. 286
Theoretical Background .......................................................................................... 286
Using the Model ...................................................................................................... 287
Test Features............................................................................................................ 287
File Formats............................................................................................................. 287
Properties................................................................................................................. 290
Chapter 9: Optical Receivers 291
Compound Optical Receiver.................................................................................................. 292
Model Parameters.................................................................................................... 293
Noise Representation and Effects............................................................................ 293
Calibrating Receiver Sensitivity.............................................................................. 296
Test Function........................................................................................................... 297
References ............................................................................................................... 297
Properties................................................................................................................. 297
Photodetector ......................................................................................................................... 302
Detection Process .................................................................................................... 302
Test function............................................................................................................ 305
viii Contents OptSim Models Reference: Block Mode
References ............................................................................................................... 305
Properties................................................................................................................. 305
Chapter 10: Analyzers 309
Interior Property Map ............................................................................................................ 311
Model Usage............................................................................................................ 311
Available Maps........................................................................................................ 312
Scanning.................................................................................................................. 313
Display Parameters.................................................................................................. 313
Properties................................................................................................................. 313
Property Map ......................................................................................................................... 315
Model Usage............................................................................................................ 315
Scanning Behavior................................................................................................... 316
Limitations............................................................................................................... 316
Properties................................................................................................................. 316
Electrical Monitor .................................................................................................................. 318
Model Use ............................................................................................................... 318
Support for Scanning............................................................................................... 318
Measurement Definitions ........................................................................................ 318
Properties................................................................................................................. 319
Optical Monitor ..................................................................................................................... 320
Model Use ............................................................................................................... 320
Property Definitions ................................................................................................ 320
References ............................................................................................................... 323
Properties................................................................................................................. 323
Gain/NF Analyzer.................................................................................................................. 325
Model Use ............................................................................................................... 325
Gain/NF Definitions ................................................................................................ 325
References ............................................................................................................... 326
Properties................................................................................................................. 326
Polarization Monitor .............................................................................................................. 327
Model Use ............................................................................................................... 327
Property Definitions ................................................................................................ 328
Poincar Sphere Plot................................................................................................ 329
Properties................................................................................................................. 330
Optical Eye Analyzer............................................................................................................. 332
Properties................................................................................................................. 333
Bit Error Rate Tester.............................................................................................................. 335
BER Estimation Techniques.................................................................................... 335
Confidence Limits for the BER and Q .................................................................... 341
Complete BER Estimation Algorithm..................................................................... 342
Additional BER Features......................................................................................... 345
Forward Error Correction........................................................................................ 345
Performance Budget ................................................................................................ 347
NON-BER facilities................................................................................................. 348
Eye Mask................................................................................................................. 349
Scanning Facilities .................................................................................................. 350
Validation: 10 Gbps Example.................................................................................. 351
References ............................................................................................................... 359
Properties................................................................................................................. 360
Karhunen-Loeve BER Estimator ........................................................................................... 364
OptSim Models Reference: Block Mode Contents ix
Model Use ............................................................................................................... 364
Model of the Direct-Detection Optical Receiver ..................................................... 365
Model of Optical Binary Differential Receiver ....................................................... 366
Model of DQPSK Receiver ..................................................................................... 367
Brief Description of the Semi-Analytical Technique .............................................. 367
Karhunen-Loeve Technique (KLT)......................................................................... 368
Filter Data File Formats........................................................................................... 370
References ............................................................................................................... 370
Properties................................................................................................................. 371
Monte Carlo DPSK BER Estimator....................................................................................... 376
MC DPSK BER Estimation Technique................................................................... 376
Model Inputs............................................................................................................ 377
Scanning Facilities .................................................................................................. 379
References ............................................................................................................... 379
Properties................................................................................................................. 379
XY-Plotter ............................................................................................................................. 381
Properties................................................................................................................. 383
Signal Analyzer ..................................................................................................................... 384
Properties................................................................................................................. 384
Constellation Diagram Analyzer............................................................................................ 386
Properties................................................................................................................. 386
Eye Diagram Analyzer........................................................................................................... 387
Properties................................................................................................................. 387
Signal Spectrum Analyzer ..................................................................................................... 389
Properties................................................................................................................. 389
Optical Frequency/Wavelength Chirp Analyzer.................................................................... 392
Properties................................................................................................................. 392
Optical Autocorrelator Analyzer............................................................................................ 395
Properties................................................................................................................. 395
Multiplot ................................................................................................................................ 397
Usage....................................................................................................................... 397
Properties................................................................................................................. 399
Transfer Function Analysis Tool ........................................................................................... 403
Properties................................................................................................................. 405
Chapter 11: Data Storage and Meta Blocks 407
Save and Load Signal To/From File ...................................................................................... 408
File Formats............................................................................................................. 408
Properties................................................................................................................. 412
Repeat Loop and Typed Repeat Loop ................................................................................... 413
Properties................................................................................................................. 413
Delay Block ........................................................................................................................... 415
Properties................................................................................................................. 415
Fork........................................................................................................................................ 416
Properties................................................................................................................. 416
Typed Fork ............................................................................................................................ 417
Properties................................................................................................................. 417
Hierarchical Input Signal Port Block..................................................................................... 418
Properties................................................................................................................. 418
Hierarchical Output Signal Port Block .................................................................................. 419
Properties................................................................................................................. 419
Write Once Read Many (WORM) Block .............................................................................. 420
Properties................................................................................................................. 420
Null Signal Block .................................................................................................................. 421
x Contents OptSim Models Reference: Block Mode
Properties................................................................................................................. 421
Chapter 12: Transient Modules 423
Transient Pulse Generator...................................................................................................... 424
Properties................................................................................................................. 424
Compact Transient EDFA ..................................................................................................... 425
Background ............................................................................................................. 425
References ............................................................................................................... 432
Properties................................................................................................................. 433
Transient EDFA..................................................................................................................... 442
Background ............................................................................................................. 442
References ............................................................................................................... 452
Properties................................................................................................................. 452
Static Optical Switch (2x2).................................................................................................... 460
Properties................................................................................................................. 460
Transient Optical Switch (2x2).............................................................................................. 462
Properties................................................................................................................. 462
Dynamic Optical Switch (2x2) .............................................................................................. 464
Properties................................................................................................................. 464
Transient Plotter..................................................................................................................... 466
Properties................................................................................................................. 466
Chapter 13: Multimode Modules 469
Spatial Adder ......................................................................................................................... 471
General Options....................................................................................................... 471
Mode-Attachment Styles ......................................................................................... 471
Mode Types............................................................................................................. 472
Multimode File Format............................................................................................ 473
Test Parameters ....................................................................................................... 474
Properties................................................................................................................. 474
Spatial Direct Modulated Laser ............................................................................................. 478
Driving Source ........................................................................................................ 478
Parasitics.................................................................................................................. 479
Laser Cavity ............................................................................................................ 479
Polarization.............................................................................................................. 483
Spatial Effects.......................................................................................................... 483
Test Parameters ....................................................................................................... 486
Compatibility with OptSim version 2.1 VCSEL Model .......................................... 487
References ............................................................................................................... 488
Properties................................................................................................................. 488
Spatial Mode-Locked Laser................................................................................................... 495
Polarization.............................................................................................................. 496
Spatial Effects.......................................................................................................... 496
Test Parameters ....................................................................................................... 499
References ............................................................................................................... 500
Properties................................................................................................................. 500
Spatial CW Laser ................................................................................................................... 505
OptSim Models Reference: Block Mode Contents xi
Linewidth ................................................................................................................ 505
Polarization.............................................................................................................. 505
Spatial Effects.......................................................................................................... 506
Test Parameters ....................................................................................................... 509
References ............................................................................................................... 509
Properties................................................................................................................. 510
Spatial VCSEL....................................................................................................................... 514
Driving Source ........................................................................................................ 514
Parasitics.................................................................................................................. 515
VCSEL Cavity......................................................................................................... 515
Polarization.............................................................................................................. 519
Spatial Effects.......................................................................................................... 519
Test Parameters ....................................................................................................... 522
References ............................................................................................................... 523
Properties................................................................................................................. 524
Spatial Light Emitting Diode (LED)...................................................................................... 530
LED Optical Response ............................................................................................ 530
Linewidth ................................................................................................................ 531
LED Electrical Model.............................................................................................. 531
Driving Source ........................................................................................................ 531
Polarization.............................................................................................................. 532
Spatial Effects.......................................................................................................... 532
Test Functions ......................................................................................................... 535
References ............................................................................................................... 536
Properties................................................................................................................. 536
Thin Lens............................................................................................................................... 541
Numerical Effects.................................................................................................... 541
References ............................................................................................................... 541
Properties................................................................................................................. 541
Vortex Lens ........................................................................................................................... 543
Numerical Effects.................................................................................................... 543
References ............................................................................................................... 543
Properties................................................................................................................. 544
Spatial Coupler ...................................................................................................................... 545
References ............................................................................................................... 548
Properties................................................................................................................. 548
Spatial BeamPROP Interface................................................................................................. 549
Properties................................................................................................................. 549
Multimode Fiber .................................................................................................................... 550
Library Configuration.............................................................................................. 550
Parabolic Configuration........................................................................................... 557
Numerical Configuration......................................................................................... 559
Step-Index Configuration ........................................................................................ 561
Differential Mode Attenuation ................................................................................ 561
Corrections to the Modal Delay Due to Dispersion................................................. 562
Linear Configuration ............................................................................................... 563
General .................................................................................................................... 564
Test .......................................................................................................................... 564
References ............................................................................................................... 568
Properties................................................................................................................. 569
Appendix: Library Generation................................................................................. 573
Spatial Aperture..................................................................................................................... 577
xii Contents OptSim Models Reference: Block Mode
Properties................................................................................................................. 578
Spatial Compound Optical Receiver...................................................................................... 579
Noise Representation and Effects............................................................................ 580
Test display.............................................................................................................. 584
References ............................................................................................................... 584
Properties................................................................................................................. 584
Spatial Photodetector ............................................................................................................. 588
Spatial Effects.......................................................................................................... 588
Detection Process .................................................................................................... 588
Frequency Response................................................................................................ 589
Noise Response ....................................................................................................... 590
Test display.............................................................................................................. 591
References ............................................................................................................... 591
Properties................................................................................................................. 592
Spatial Analyzer..................................................................................................................... 594
Properties................................................................................................................. 597
Encircled Flux Analysis Tool ................................................................................................ 598
References ............................................................................................................... 601
Properties................................................................................................................. 601
Differential Mode Delay Analysis Tool ................................................................................ 603
References ............................................................................................................... 605
Properties................................................................................................................. 606
Signal Band Converter........................................................................................................... 607
Properties................................................................................................................. 607
Spatial Gridded Field Converter ............................................................................................ 609
Properties................................................................................................................. 609
Chapter 14: Predefined Compound Components 611
Dual-Arm Mach-Zehnder Modulator .................................................................................... 613
Properties................................................................................................................. 613
Mach-Zehnder Delay Interferometer (MZDI) ....................................................................... 615
Properties................................................................................................................. 615
Tunable Mach-Zehnder Interferometer (Tunable_MZI)........................................................ 616
Properties................................................................................................................. 616
Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ) Transmitter (NRZ_TX) ............................................................. 618
Properties................................................................................................................. 618
Return-to-Zero (RZ) Transmitter (RZ_TX)........................................................................... 620
Properties................................................................................................................. 620
Chirped Return-to-Zero (CRZ) Transmitter (CRZ_TX)........................................................ 621
Properties................................................................................................................. 621
Carrier-Suppressed Return-to-Zero (CSRZ) Transmitter (CSRZ_TX).................................. 623
Properties................................................................................................................. 623
Soliton Transmitter (Soliton_TX).......................................................................................... 625
Properties................................................................................................................. 625
Duobinary Transmitter (Doubi_TX)...................................................................................... 627
Properties................................................................................................................. 627
Differential Phase-Shift-Keying Transmitter (DPSK_TX).................................................... 628
Properties................................................................................................................. 628
Return-to-Zero DPSK Transmitter (RZ-DPSK_TX) ............................................................. 629
Properties................................................................................................................. 629
Differential Phase-Shift-Keying Transmitter Advanced (DPSK_TX_adv) ........................ 631
Properties................................................................................................................. 632
Return-to-Zero Differential Phase-Shift-Keying Transmitter Advanced
(RZ_DPSK_TX_adv) ............................................................................................................ 633
OptSim Models Reference: Block Mode Contents xiii
Properties................................................................................................................. 634
Differential Quadrature Phase-Shift-Keying Transmitter (DQPSK_TX) .............................. 636
Properties................................................................................................................. 637
Return-to-Zero Differential Quadrature Phase-Shift-Keying Transmitter (RZ_DQPSK_TX)639
Properties................................................................................................................. 640
WDM Transmitters................................................................................................................ 642
Properties................................................................................................................. 643
Fiber Link 1 ........................................................................................................................... 645
Properties................................................................................................................. 645
Fiber Link 2 ........................................................................................................................... 647
Properties................................................................................................................. 647
Fiber Link 3 ........................................................................................................................... 649
Properties................................................................................................................. 649
Free-Space Optical Channel (Weak Turbulence) .................................................................. 651
Properties................................................................................................................. 651
Differential Phase-Shift-Keying Receiver (DPSK_RX) ........................................................ 653
Properties................................................................................................................. 653
Differential Phase-Shift-Keying Receiver Gaussian, Advanced (DPSK_RX_gauss_adv). 655
Properties................................................................................................................. 655
Differential Phase-Shift-Keying Receiver Raised Cosine, Advanced (DPSK_RX_rcos_adv)657
Properties................................................................................................................. 657
Differential Quadrature Phase-Shift-Keying Receiver Gaussian (DQPSK_RX_gauss) ..... 659
Properties................................................................................................................. 660
Differential Quadrature Phase-Shift-Keying Receiver Raised Cosine (DQPSK_RX_rcos)661
Properties................................................................................................................. 662
WDM Receivers .................................................................................................................... 663
Properties................................................................................................................. 664
Index 665
OptSim Models Reference: Block Mode Chapter 1: Signal Generators 15
Chapter 1: Signal Generators
Models in this chapter generate binary, optical or electrical signals:
PRBS Pattern Generator
generate binary signals
Analog Sine Generator
generate electrical sine waves
Electrical Signal Generator
convert binary to electrical signals
Optical Signal Generator
convert binary to optical signals
Custom Signal Generator
specify an electrical or optical signal with a data file.
Sawtooth Generator
generate sawtooth electrical signals
Frequency Sweep Generator
generate chirped electrical signals
Expression Signal Generator
specify an electrical signal with a mathematical function
16 Chapter 1: Signal Generators OptSim Models Reference: Block Mode
PRBS Pattern Generator

This model generates a binary sequence of several different types. A single model instance may be used to
provide multiple pattern outputs, optionally offset from each other, to drive different channels of a WDM
or parallel optical bus simulation. Or, each channel may have its own model instance configured to provide
a different pattern than the other model instances. The different pattern types are described according to
their name in the user parameter list:
PRBS
Produces a maximal length pseudo-random binary sequence.
Alternating
Produces a series of bits alternating between 0 and 1.
Single
Produces a single 1 bit in the center of a series of 0 bits.
One
Produces a series of 1 bits.
Zero
Produces a series of 0 bits.
Custom
Produces a bit sequence as specified by the user in a data file. This file is to be placed in the
directory in which the simulation will be performed, which is the directory in which the
topology data file is located. This data file must be formatted as follows: Each line must
contain 8 binary numbers separated by spaces. Each bit is represented as either 0 or 1.
There must be as many bits in the data file as are specified to be generated by the model.
PreBits and PostBits
The bit sequence can be modified such that the first few bits (prebits) and the last few bits (postbits) are set
to 0. This is useful in simulations because it increases the accuracy of the FFT when the begin and end of
the sequence match. The default values should be sufficient for most applications.

Properties
Inputs
None.
Outputs
#1-N: Binary signal
Parameter Values

Name Type Default Range Units
patternType enumerated PRBS PRBS, alternating,
single, one, zero,
custom

filename string
custompattern
bitRate double 10e9 [ 1, 1e15 ] bps
patternLength integer 7 [ 0, 18 ] 2^x_bits
startTime double 0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] sec
offset integer 0 [ 0, 262144 ] bits
shift integer 0 [ 0, 262144 ] bits
preBits integer 2 [ 0, 1024 ] bits
postBits integer 3 [ 0, 1024 ] bits

Parameter Descriptions

patternType The type of bit pattern to be generated.
filename The name of the file containing the custom binary sequence
bitRate The bit rate of the binary sequence generated
patternLength The number of bits in the generated bit sequence is 2
x
where x is the parameter value
offset The number of bits to offset the first signal output vs. the standard binary sequence. The
sequence is rotated by the number of bits specified.
shift The number of bits to shift each successive outputs binary sequence relative to the previous
output. This applies to the second and subsequent output ports.

startTime The start time of the bit sequence
preBits
The number of zero bits at the start of the sequence
postBits The number of zero bits at the end of the sequence


Electrical Signal Generator

This model converts an input binary signal into an output electrical signal. The output signal may be
specified as either voltage or current. The user parameters are used to configure the electrical signal output.
Four different electrical drive types are modeled, as described below.
On_off
A square wave electrical signal is generated. No jitter is included in this square wave. For
each bit period, the output signal data is set according to the value of the input bit and the
voltage levels specified by the user: Vmax for a 1 bit, and Vmin for a 0 bit. After generation
of this signal, it may optionally be passed through a ringing generation filter according to the
user parameter setting for filterType.
On_off_exp
A square wave electrical signal is generated using the specified timing jitter. After the signal
is generated, it is optionally passed through a ringing generation filter according to the user
parameter setting for filterType with specified rise time.
On_off_ramp
An electrical signal is generated using the specified rise time, fall time, and timing jitter. The
signal rise and falls are ramped between the high and low levels. After the signal is generated,
it is optionally passed through a ringing generation filter according to the user parameter
setting for filterType.
RaisedCosine
An electrical signal is generated using a raised cosine shape to represent the binary signal.
This signal includes the timing jitter, but does not include the user-specified rise and fall times
because the signal shape is specified as a raised cosine. This signal type is not passed through
the ringing generation filter. The duty cycle of the pulse may be varied from nearly 0% to
50% using the alpha parameter. The raisedCosine electrical signal is genenerated using the
following formula:
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
B
T
t
A t A
cos 1
2
1
) (
max

where is the pulsewidth parameter ( = 1 for T
P
= 0.5 T
B
), T
P
is the pulse width and T
B
is
the bit period.
Three different modulation formats are also available. These are the NRZor non-return to zero format, the
RZ or return to zero format, and Manchester format.
A real electrical signal is usually not a pure square on-off or ramped on-off waveform. Most of the time
there is ringing on both the leading and the trailing edges. This ringing effect is modeled by letting the
ideal on-off signal pass through ringing generating filters for on_off type signals. The transfer function of
the ringing generating filter is,

+
+
+
=
RCFilter' '
2 1
1
' RingFilter '
2 / 2 1
1
) (
2 2
0
2
0
RC f j
f j f f
f
RC f j
f H

where f
0
is the resonant frequency, is the damping factor, while RC is the RC time constant corresponding
to the rise time, RC = t
r
/ln(9).
Properties
Inputs
#1: Binary signal
Outputs
#1: Electrical signal
Parameter Values

driveType enumerated on_off_ramp on_off, on_off_ramp,
on_off_exp,
raisedCosine

signalType enumerated VOLTAGE VOLTAGE,
CURRENT

modulationType enumerated NRZ RZ, NRZ, Manchester
pointsPerBit integer 5 [ 1, 27 ] 2^x_points
Vmax double 1 [ -1000, 1000 ] volts or amps
Vmin double 0 [ -1000, 1000 ] volts or amps
tr double 10e-12 [ 0, 100 ] sec
tf double 10e-12 [ 0, 100 ] sec
timeJitter double 0 [ 0, 1 ] sec
filterType enumerated None None, RCFilter,
RingFilter

f0 double 1e18 [ 0, 1e18 ] Hz
gamma double 0.0 [ 0, 1e18 ] rad/sec
alpha double 0.5 [ 1e-32, 0.5 ] none


driveType The type of model used for generating the signal
modulationType The type of modulation (RZ, NRZ, or Manchester)
pointsPerBit Number of sampling points per bit in electrical signal
signalType Whether the output value is specified as voltage (volts) or current (amps)
Vmax Maximum value of the output electrical signal (binary one value)
Vmin Minimum value of the output electrical signal (binary zero value)
tr Rise time of the output electrical signal
tf Fall time of the output electrical signal
timeJitter Timing jitter to add to output electrical signal
filterType Filter type for ring generator
f0 Resonant frequency of the ring filter
gamma Damping frequency of the ring filter
alpha Duty cycle for raisedCosine signal pulse
Optical Signal Generator

This model converts an input binary signal into an output optical signal, specified in Watts. The user
parameters are used to configure the optical signal output. Four different drive types are modeled, as
described below.
On_off
A square wave optical signal is generated. No jitter is included in this square wave. For each
bit period, the output signal data is set according to the value of the input bit and the power
levels specified by the user: Pmax for a 1 bit, and Pmin for a 0 bit. After generation of this
signal, it may optionally be passed through a ringing generation filter according to the user
parameter setting for filterType.
On_off_exp
A square wave optical signal is generated using the specified timing jitter. After the signal is
generated, it is optionally passed through a ringing generation filter according to the user
parameter setting for filterType.
On_off_ramp
An optical signal is generated using the specified rise time, fall time, and timing jitter. The
signal rise and falls are ramped between the high and low levels. After the signal is generated,
it is optionally passed through a ringing generation filter according to the user parameter
setting for filterType.
RaisedCosine
An optical signal is generated using a raised cosine shape to represent the binary signal. This
signal includes the timing jitter, but does not include the user-specified rise and fall times
because the signal shape is specified as a raised cosine. This signal type is not passed through
the ringing generation filter. The duty cycle of the pulse may be varied from nearly 0% to
50% using the alpha parameter. The raisedCosine optical signal is genenerated using the
following formula:
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
B
T
t
A t A
cos 1
2
1
) (
max

where is the pulsewidth parameter ( = 1 for T
P
= 0.5 T
B
), T
P
is the pulse width and T
B
is
the bit period.
Three different modulation formats are also available. These are the NRZor non-return to zero format, the
RZ or return to zero format, and Manchester format.
A real signal is usually not a pure square on-off or ramped on-off waveform. Most of the time there is
ringing on both the leading and the trailing edges. This ringing effect is modeled by letting the ideal on-
off signal pass through ringing generating filters for on_off type signals. The transfer function of the
ringing generating filter is,

+
+
+
=
RCFilter' '
2 1
1
' RingFilter '
2 / 2 1
1
) (
2 2
0
2
0
RC f j
f j f f
f
RC f j
f H

where f
0
is the resonant frequency, is the damping factor, while RC is the RC time constant corresponding
to the rise time, RC = t
r
/ln(9).
Optical Parameters
The wavelength of the output signal is specified via the parameter wavelength. The initial output phase
may be set via the parameter initial_phase, or can be determined stochastically by setting
randomInitialPhase to yes, and selecting an appropriate seed value (phaseSeed). The signal RIN is
specified via the parameter RIN.
Polarization
By default, the signal generator emits an output field polarized along the X axis, with no corresponding Y-
polarized component. A zero-valued Y-polarized component may be included in this case by setting the
parameter force_Ey to yes. The field polarization itself may be changed via the parameters azimuth and
ellipticity. These parameters correspond to the azimuth and ellipticity angles of the polarization ellipse,
respectively.
Multi-Line Output
It is frequently necessary to produce several signals with similar properties but different wavelengths. In
DWDM simulations especially, a series of regularly spaced optical sources is common. The Optical Signal
Generator provides a number of convenient facilities so that many or all required lines can be generated
from a single icon. To produce a series of lines spaced equally in wavelength or frequency, set the
parameter mode=LambdaGrid or mode=FreqGrid, respectively. The number of sources is controlled by
the number of binary inputs, and in both modes the parameter wavelength specifies the first line in a series
of ascending wavelengths or ascending frequencies, respectively. The source separation in wavelength or
frequency is specified with deltaFreq.
Properties
Inputs
#1-#512: Binary signal
Outputs
#1-#512: Optical signal
Parameter Values

wavelength double 850e-9 [ 0, 1e32 ] m
mode enumerated FreqGrid FreqGrid,
LambdaGrid

deltaFreq double 100e9 [ 0, 1e18 ] meters or Hz
randomInitialPhase enumerated no no, yes
initial_phase double 0 [ -180, 180 ] degrees
phaseSeed integer 0 [ -1e8, 1 ] none
RIN double -150.0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] dB/Hz
azimuth double 0 [ -90, 90 ] degrees
ellipticity double 0 [ -45, 45 ] degrees
force_Ey enumerated no yes, no
driveType enumerated on_off_ramp on_off,
on_off_ramp,
on_off_exp,
raisedCosine

modulationType enumerated NRZ RZ, NRZ,
Manchester

pointsPerBit integer 5 [ 1, 27 ] 2^x_points
Pmax double 1 [ 0, 1e32 ] W
Pmin double 0 [ 0, 1e32 ] W
tr double 10e-12 [ 0, 100 ] sec
tf double 10e-12 [ 0, 100 ] sec
timeJitter double 0 [ 0, 1 ] sec
alpha double 0.5 [ 1e-32, 0.5 ] none
filterType enumerated None None, RCFilter,
RingFilter

f0 double 1e18 [ 0, 1e18 ] Hz
gamma double 0.0 [ 0, 1e18 ] rad/sec

wavelength Signal wavelength
mode Type of wavelength grid
deltaFreq Frequency or wavelength grid spacing for multi-line output
randomInitialPhase Select randomization of initial phase
initial_phase Initial optical phase
phaseSeed Seed for phase randomization
RIN Signal RIN value
azimuth Polarization azimuthal angle
ellipticity Polarization ellipticity
force_Ey Force Y-polarization
driveType The type of model used for generating the signal
modulationType The type of modulation (RZ, NRZ, or Manchester)
Pmax Maximum value of the output electrical signal (binary one value)
Pmin Minimum value of the output electrical signal (binary zero value)
tr Rise time of the output electrical signal
tf Fall time of the output electrical signal
timeJitter Timing jitter to add to output electrical signal
filterType Filter type for ring generator
f0 Resonant frequency of the ring filter
gamma Damping frequency of the ring filter
alpha

Duty cycle for raisedCosine signal pulse
Custom Signal Generator

This model creates either an electrical or optical signal and corresponding binary signal according to the
user input signal waveform. The binary signal is provided for use as an input for the BER Tester block in
the link. If the binary signal output is not desired, it may be left unconnected. For the BER Tester, it is
usually best to specify the exact bit sequence the data file represents explicitly by supplying a data file
containing the bit sequence to the PRBS block and setting it to use the data file as a custom bit sequence.
When using the PRBS to supply the bit sequence this way, the output binary signal from the custom signal
generator block is unnecessary.
The user must specify the waveform in a data file. This file is to be placed in the directory in which the
simulation will be performed, which is the directory in which the topology data file is located. The data file
must conform to the following format:
The first line must specify the number of data points in the custom waveform.
Each subsequent lines entries depend upon the signalType parameter of the model. These are described
below.
VOLTAGE
Contains two numerical entries in scientific notation which specify the real value of one data
point. The first entry on this line is the time of the data point in units of seconds, and the
second entry is the value of the data point in units of V.
CURRENT
second entry is the value of the data point in units of A.
OPTICALWATT
second entry is the value of the data point in units of W.
OPTICALDBM
second entry is the value of the data point in units of dBm.
OPTICAL_REAL_IMAG
Contains three numerical entries in scientific notation which specify the complex value of one
data point. The first entry on this line is the time of the data point in units of seconds, and the
second and third entries are the values of the real and imaginary portions of the data point,
respectively, in units of sqrt(W).
OPTICAL_AMP_PHASE
data point. The first entry on this line is the time of the data point in units of seconds, the
second entry is the value of the amplitude magnitude of the data point in units of sqrt(W), and
the third entry is the value of the phase of the data point in units of degrees.
OPTICAL_AMP_PHASE_RAD
second entry is the value of the amplitude magnitude of the data point in units of sqrt(W), and
the third entry is the value of the phase of the data point in units of radians.
OPTICAL_POWER_PHASE
second entry is the value of the power magnitude of the data point in units of W, and the third
entry is the value of the phase of the data point in units of degrees.
OPTICAL_POWER_CHIRP
second entry is the value of the power magnitude of the data point in units of W, and the third
entry is the value of the frequency chirp of the data point in units of Hz.
OPTICAL_CHIRP_POWER_FMT2
This uses a different format for the data altogether compared to the other formats. This data
format is as follows: The first line of the file starts with the keyword "POINTS:" followed by
a space and the number of data points in the file. The second line of the file starts with the
keyword "WAVELENGTH:" followed by a space and the wavelength of the optical signal in
units of meters. The third line of the file starts with the keyword "DATE:" followed by a
space and the time and date the data was taken in an arbitrary format. The actual data begins
on the fourth line, and consists of the following columns separated by commas: The first
column is the time in units of seconds. The second column is the frequency chirp in units of
Hz. The third column is the power in units of watts. This is the format produced by the
Agilent 86146B Optical Spectrum Analyzer (OSA) time-resolved chirp (TRC) test solution.
The user must specify the appropriate bit rate (bitRate), number of samples per bit (pointsPerBit), and
total number of bits in the signal (patternLength). The model then takes the signal data from the data file,
and interpolates it to fill the models output signal with appropriately sampled data. Note that if the input
data does not contain enough data points to fill the output signal, the last data entry in the data file will be
used to fill in the missing data points through to the end of the signal. For example, if you specify that the
output signal is to have 2
7
bits, with 2
5
samples per bit, and at a bit rate of 10
9
bps, then the data file should
contain at least 128 bits at a data rate of 10
9
bps which cover a time period of 12.8 ns. There are no
requirements on the sampling rate in the data file, but it is generally best to have a reasonably large number
of samples.
Properties
Inputs
None
Outputs
#1: Electrical or Optical Signal
#2: Binary Signal
Parameter Values

CURRENT,
OPTICALDBM,
OPTICALWATT,
OPTICAL_REAL_IM
AG,
OPTICAL_AMP_PH
ASE,
OPTICAL_AMP_PH
ASE_RAD,
OPTICAL_POWER_
PHASE,
OPTICAL_POWER_
CHIRP,
OPTICAL_CHIRP_P
OWER_FMT2
filename string
bitRate double 10e9 [ 1, 1e15 ] bps
pointsPerBit integer 5 [ 1, 27 ] 2^x_pointsPerBit
wavelength double 1550e-9 [ 1e-15, 1e-5 ] m


filename File name of the custom waveform data file
signalType Signal type: VOLTAGE (V), CURRENT (A), OPTICALDBM (dBm), OPTICALWATT
(W), OPTICAL_REAL_IMAG (sqrt(W)), OPTICAL_AMP_PHASE (sqrt(W), degrees),
OPTICAL_AMP_PHASE_RAD (sqrt(W), radians), OPTICAL_POWER_PHASE (W,
degrees), OPTICAL_POWER_CHIRP (W, Hz), OPTICAL_CHIRP_POWER_FMT2 (Hz,
W)
bitRate Bit rate of the signal, bit/sec
pointsPerBit Number of data points used to represent each bit in output signal
patternLength Total number of bits in output signal
wavelength Wavelength of output optical signal (only for OPTICAL types)

Analog Sine Generator

This model creates an analog electrical signal representing a sine wave. It may be used to create a single
sine wave, or a frequency comb of sine waves. In general, the output signal of this block can be described
by the following equation:
+ + =
N
o n n pp o
V t f V t s
1
) ) 2 sin(( ) (
where s
o
is the output signal value (whether it be in units of volts or amps depends on the setting of the
signalType parameter). V
pp
is the peak to peak value of each sine wave in the frequency comb. N is the total
number of frequencies summed together in the frequency comb. f
n
is the frequency of each of the individual
sine waves present in the frequency comb. t is the time.
n
is the phase offset for the n
th
element in the
frequency comb. V
o
is the offset value, which is added to the total signal after all sine waves in the
frequency comb have been summed together.
Single sine wave generator
When used as a single sine wave generator, the numChannels parameter is set to 1. The parameters in the
Comb tab of the component parameters editing window are then unused.
There are several ways in which this sine wave may be specified: as a Periodic sine wave, in which the
signal start and end meet to produce a continuous periodic sine wave; or as an Aperiodic sine wave, in
which the signal start and end do not necessarily meet to produce a continuous periodic sine wave.
The primary difference between these approaches is how the time step (or alternatively, the sampling rate)
and the number of data samples representing the signal are determined. The Periodic sine wave must be
specified by setting the number of samples per period and number of periods. These settings along with the
frequency determine the time step and the number of data samples. The Aperiodic sine wave must be
spcified by setting the time step, and number of data samples to represent the output signal. The number of
periods which appear in the signal are then determined by the specified frequency, and the number of
periods may be a fractional amount.
The Periodic approach is most convenient except in cases where the signal will interact with other signals
in the simulation which may have different frequencies and number of periods, resulting in different time
steps and number of data samples. In these cases, the Aperiodic approach is most convenient because it
allows the time step and number of data samples to be specified explicitly to match the other signals. When
the Periodic approach is used, the user may easily view eye diagrams as the sine wave is mapped to a
digital signal with a bit rate of twice the sine wave frequency and a number of bits equal to twice the
number of periods specified. To override this behavior and set the bit rate equal to the frequency and the
number of bits equal to the number of periods, set the parameter halfBitRate to Yes.
Frequency comb generator
When used as a frequency comb generator, the numChannels is set to a number greater than 1.
The sine wave may be specified as a Periodic or Aperiodic sine wave, however, it should be noted that it
will not be truly periodic when specified as a Periodic sine wave. This is because the time step and number
of samples will be determined based on the first frequency of the comb, but the additional frequencies may
not be periodic with these settings. To create a truly period signal, you will need to experiment or calculate
the necessary time step and number of samples manually. It is best to use a periodic signal to minimize
numerical artifacts in the simulation.
The frequency comb starts with the frequency value specified in parameter frequency, and continues up to
frequency+(numChannels-1)*frequencyStep. Up to three channels in the frequency comb may be
omitted, as specified by integer values of n (see equation at top of this model description) in parameters
deleteChannel1, deleteChannel2, and deleteChannel3. This is a useful way to remove channels from the
frequency plan to evaluate distortions such as composite second order (CSO), composite triple beat (CTB),
and various orders of intermodulation (IM) distortions in the system at those frequencies.
The phases of each of the sine waves in the frequency comb may be identical (set to the value in parameter
phase) or statistically determined according to the settings of the randomPhase and phaseSeed
parameters. The settings of the phaseSeed parameter are according to the standard OptSim seed convention,
defined below for reference: 1e8 <= seed <= 1 with the following behavior:

seed < 0
The generator is seeded with the actual value of seed on every run of the simulation. This is
useful for obtaining repeatable results.
seed = 0
The generator is seeded with an integer hashed from the string value of the components
name.
seed = 1
The generator is seeded with a random number obtained from the system clock. This is
essentially unrepeatable.

Notes on sampling rates
Setting an appropriate sampling rate is very important, especially when evaluating a system utilizing a
frequency comb with narrow channel spacing. You want to choose a sampling rate and total number of
samples that will provide good resolution of the frequency spectrum as well as the time domain waveform.
You want to make sure you have a sufficient number of samples between the frequencies in the frequency
comb to evaluate distortions. An equation to keep in mind when choosing your sampling rate and total
number of samples are the following:
imeWindow simulatedT T s noPo
s
f
1
int
1
=
=
This equation says that the frequency resolution (
f
) is inversely proportional to the simulated time
window. If you want a high frequency resolution, you need a large simulated time window.
You also need to be careful to have sufficient simulation bandwidth for your time domain signal resolution.
The simulated bandwidth should be 3 times the total signal bandwidth. For example, if your highest sine
wave frequency is 1 GHz, you should have 3 GHz simulated bandwidth. The following equation defines
the simulated bandwidth:
sPerPeriod po
s
sim
frequency
T
BW
int
2
1
= =
where BW
sim
is the simulated bandwidth, T
s
is the time step, frequency is the sine wave frequency, and
pointsPerPeriod are the number of sampled points per period of the sine wave.
Properties
Inputs
None
Outputs
#1: Electrical Signal
Parameter Values

numChannels integer 1 100000
none
CURRENT

mode enumerated Periodic Periodic, Aperiodic
Vpp double 1.0 [ -1e10, 1e10 ] Volts or Amps
Voffset double 0.5 [ -1e10, 1e10 ] Volts or Amps
frequency double 10e9 [ 1e-15, 1e15 ] Hz
phase double -90 [ -1e10, 1e10 ] degrees
noPeriods integer 0 [ 0, 27 ] 2^x_noPeriods
ptsPerPeriod integer 5 [ 1, 27 ] 2^x_ptsPerPeriod
noSamples integer 1 [ 1, 27 ] 2^x_samples
timeStep double 0.0 [ 0, 1 ] seconds
timeStart double 0.0 [ 0, 1e32 ] seconds
halfBitRate enumerated No Yes, No
randomPhase enumerated FALSE TRUE, FALSE none
phaseSeed integer [ -1e8, 1 ] none
deleteChannel1 integer [ 0, 100000 ] none
frequencyStep double [ 1e-15, 1e15 ] Hz

numChannels Number of channels in frequency comb
signalType Whether the output value is specified as voltage (Volts) or current (Amps)
mode Determines how sine wave is specified
Vpp Peak to peak value, in Volts or Amps
Voffset Offset value, in Volts or Amps
frequency Frequency of the sine wave, in Hz.
Phase Phase of the sine wave, in degrees
noPeriods Total number of periods in output signal
ptsPerPeriod Number of data points used to represent each period in output signal
noSamples Determines number of data samples in Aperiodic mode
timeStep Determines time step of sampled signal in Aperiodic mode
timeStart Determines the start time of the output signal
halfBitRate Determines how the signal bit rate and pattern length are calculated
randomPhase Whether each channel in comb has a random phase or not
phaseSeed Seed for random phase
deleteChannel1 First channel to delete in frequency comb
deleteChannel2 Second channel to delete in frequency comb
deleteChannel3 Third channel to delete in frequency comb
frequencyStep Frequency difference between channels in frequency comb (Hz)
Sawtooth Generator

This model creates an analog sawtooth signal. The signals sampling rate and duration are specified by
setting the number of samples per period and number of periods. These settings along with the frequency
determine the time step and the number of data samples. The output values may be either in voltage (Volts)
or current (Amps). The Voffset parameter defines the midpoint output value. The Vpp parameter defines
the output value difference between the maximum and minimum values in the sawtooth signal. The phase
parameter is used to set the relative times when the signal wraps from its high to its low point. The
frequency determines the slope of the sawtooth signal waveform.
Properties
Inputs
None
Outputs
Parameter Values

CURRENT

Vpp double 1 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] V or A
Voffset double 0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] V or A
frequency double 1e9 [ 0, 1e32 ] Hz
phase double 0 [ -180, 180 ] degrees
timeStart double 0 [ 0, 1e32 ] seconds

frequency Frequency of sawtooth signal, in Hz.
Phase Phase of the sawtooth signal, in degrees
Vpp Peak to peak voltage, in Volts
Voffset Offset voltage, in Volts

Frequency Sweep Generator

This model creates an analog frequency sweep signal. This is a periodic signal which chirps its frequency
from a start frequency to a stop frequency value. In addition, the chirp itself can be specified to be periodic
at a particular frequency. The signals sampling rate and duration are specified by setting the number of
samples per period and number of periods. These settings along with the frequency (of the chirps)
determine the time step and the number of data samples. The output may be specified to be in voltage
(Volts) or current (Amps). The Voffset parameter defines the output midpoint value. The Vpp parameter
defines the output value difference between the maximum and minimum values in the frequency sweep
signal. The phase parameter is used to set the relative times when the signal wraps from its start to its end
frequency point. The frequency determines the frequency of repetition of the chirp.
Properties
Inputs
None
Outputs
Parameter Values

CURRENT

Vpp double 1 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] V or A
Voffset double 0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] V or A
freqStart double 1e9 [ 0, 1e32 ] Hz
freqStop double 1e10 [ 0, 1e32 ] Hz


frequency Frequency of repetitions of the swept signal, in Hz.
Phase Phase of the swept signal, in degrees
Vpp Peak to peak voltage, in Volts
Voffset Offset voltage, in Volts
freqStart Start frequency of the swept signal
freqStop Stop frequency of the swept signal
noPeriod Total number of periods in output signal

Expression Signal Generator

This model creates an analog electrical signal representing a periodic function of time as specified. The output signal
may be specified to be in voltage (Volts) or current (Amps). The signal is assumed to contain no noise. If desired, noise
may be added to the signal by using the expression signal operator block following this block.
The user inputs for this model are the expression, the number of periods in the output signal, the number of data points
used to represent each period, the frequency of repetition of the periods, the phase of the periodic signal, and the start
time of the output signal. The sampling rate and time step are computed from the periodic frequency and the number of
data points per period. The total number of output data points are the number of data points per period times the number
of periods. For compatibility with digital signals and analysis options, the bit period associated with the electrical signal
is half the signal period, the pattern length is twice the number of periods, and the bit rate is twice the signals periodic
frequency. This allows a sine wave to represent alternating one and zero bit values.
The model creates a user variable named t. If this user variable name already exists, it is replaced with the one the model
creates just for the duration of the models execution. Therefore, a user variable named t created outside this model
cannot be used by this model.
The syntax for the expression is described in the Parameter Expressions section of Chapter 4 in the OptSim User Guide.
The value of t in the execution of the formula ranges from zero to the period time (1/frequency) minus the time step, then
subtracts the period time to start the next period. After the signal is generated, the specified start time of the signal is
applied, effectively shifting the signal in time by that amount.
Properties
Inputs
None
Outputs
Parameter Values

CURRENT

expression string sin(360e9*t)

expression Expression which may involve user variables representing the periodic signal
frequency Frequency of periods
phase Phase of output periodic signal
timeStart Start time of signal
OptSim Models Reference: Block Mode Chapter 2: Electrical Modules 37
Chapter 2: Electrical Modules
This chapter describes the electrical models:
1x1 Expression Signal Operator
perform operations on an electrical signal
perform operations on two electrical signals
Summer
add two electrical signals
Mixer
mix two electrical signals
Electrical Filter
filter an electrical signal
Feed-Forward Equalization (FFE) Filter
model a feed-forward (also known as linear) equalization filter
Decision Feedback Equalization (DFE) Filter
model a decision feedback equalization filter
Standard S-Parameter Block
implement an S-parameter
Modulator-Driving S Block
implement two coupled S-parameters.
Electrical Amplifier
amplify electrical signals
Electrical Noise Adder
add electrical noise stochastically
Crosstalk Block
model cross-talk interference between electricals
Electrical Integrate And Dump
implement integrate-and-dump operations

38 Chapter 2: Electrical Modules OptSim Models Reference: Block Mode

This model operates on the input analog electrical signal according to the specified expressions. There is
one expression for the noiseless electrical signal, and another expression which may either be applied to the
standard deviations or the signal to noise ratio of each signal data point.
The user inputs for this model are the expression for the signal, the expression for the noise, and the mode
of the noise expression functionality. The syntax for the expressions are described in the Parameter
Expressions section of Chapter 1 of the user guide.
The model creates user variables named s representing the input electrical signal at each time point, n
representing either the standard deviation or signal to noise ratio of the electrical signal at each time point,
and t representing the time value at each data point. If these user variable names already exists, they are
replaced with the ones the model creates just for the duration of the models execution. Therefore, user
variables with these names created outside this model cannot be used by this model.
Properties
Inputs
Outputs
Parameter Values

expression_sig string s
expression_noise string n
noise_mode enumerated StdDev StdDev, SNR


expression_sig Expression which may involve user variables representing the operation on the input
electrical signal
expression_noise Expression which may involve user variables representing the operation on the noise
of the input electrical signal
noise_mode Whether the noise expression applies to the SNR or the standard deviation of the
input signal


This model operates on two input analog electrical signals according to the specified expressions to
produce a single output signal. There is one expression for the noiseless electrical signals, and another
expression which may either be applied to the standard deviations or the signal to noise ratio of each signal
data point.
The user inputs for this model are the expression for the signal, the expression for the noise, and the mode
of the noise expression functionality. The syntax for the expressions are described in the Parameter
Expressions section of Chapter 3 of this document.
The model creates user variables named s1 and s2 representing the input electrical signals #1 and #2
respectively at each time point, n1 and n2 representing either the standard deviation or signal to noise ratio
of the input electrical signals #1 and #2 at each time point, and t representing the time value each each data
point. If these user variable names already exists, they are replaced with the ones the model creates just for
the duration of the models execution. Therefore, user variables with these names created outside this
model cannot be used by this model.
Properties
Inputs
Outputs
Parameter Values

expression_sig string s1+s2
expression_noise string n1+n2
noise_mode enumerated StdDev StdDev, SNR


expression_sig Expression which may involve user variables representing the operation on the input
electrical signals
expression_noise Expression which may involve user variables representing the operation on the noise
of the input electrical signals
noise_mode Whether the noise formula applies to the SNR or the standard deviation of the input
signals
Summer

This model operates on two input analog electrical signals to produce an output signal consisting of the sum
of the two input signals.
The user inputs for this model are the loss of each of the input signals to be included prior to summing the
signals together.
Properties
Inputs
Outputs
Parameter Values

loss1 double 0 [ 0, 1000 ] dB


loss1 Signal loss to be applied to first input signal prior to summing operation
loss2 Signal loss to be applied to second input signal prior to summing operation

Mixer

This model mixes the two input analog electrical signals to produce an output signal.
The user inputs for this model are the loss of each of the input signals to be included prior to mixing the
signals together
Properties
Inputs
Outputs
Parameter Values



loss1 Signal loss to be applied to first input signal prior to mixing operation
loss2 Signal loss to be applied to second input signal prior to mixing operation

Electrical Filter

This model implements a variety of standard electrical filters Butterworth, Chebyshev, Bessel and Ideal
each in low pass (LP), high pass (HP) and band pass (BP) configurations.
Definitions of filter types
The operation of the filter is performed in the Fourier domain in terms of the amplitude response function
( ) H f :
( ) ( ) ( )
out in
E f H f E f = .
Since the electrical signal is a real quantity, the filter functions are hermitian and need only be defined for
positive frequencies.
The class of filter response is controlled by the parameter type. The 3dB bandwidth B of the filter is set by
the parameter bandwidth, and the filter order N with order. The gain coefficient G is related to the
parameter lossGain by
/ 20
10 G =
lossGain
. The nominal center of a band pass filter is given by
c
f
(geometricCenter).
We provide complete but concise definitions of the filter responses here. The reader is referred to any good
text on filter design to explore the complete theory of these filters. The response functions ( ) H f for
each filter type are defined as follows.

Ideal response
Low Pass:
( )
ideal
,
0 ,
LP
G f B
H f
f B
<=
=

>

High Pass:
( )
ideal
0 ,
,
HP
f B
H f
G f B
<=
=

>

Band Pass:
( )
ideal
,
0 ,
c
BP
c
G f f B
H f
f f B
<=
=

>

Butterworth response
The low pass power response is defined as
( )
( )
2
2
1
1
f
B
H f =
+
.
Defining the filter poles as
( ) exp 2 1
2
k
s j j N k
N
| |
= +
|
\ .
,
for 1 k N = K , we have:
Low Pass:
( )
( )
But
1
1
/
N
LP
k k
H f
jf B s
=
=
.
High Pass:
The transformation ( ) ( ) / / jf B B jf applied to the low pass response gives
( )
( )
But
1
1
/
N
HP
k k
H f
B jf s
=
=
.
Band Pass:
The transformation /
c
f f f f applied to the low pass response gives
( )
( )
But
1
1
/
N
HP
k c k
H f
j f f fB s
=
=

.

Chebyshev response
The low pass power response is defined as
( )
( )
Cheb
2 2
1
,
1 /
N
LP
H f
V f B
=
+

where the Chebyshev polynomials are defined as ( ) ( )
1
cos cos
N
V x N x
= . The passband ripple is

controlled with the parameter passbandRipple. The filters are implemented with the same relations as the
Butterworth filters but with poles defined as
( )
1
1
cos 2 1 sinh
2
k
j
s j k
N N
(
= +
(

Bessel response
The Bessel response is defined in general as:

( )

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
N
k
k
k
Bessel
f s
f H
1
1


( )
( )! ! 2
! 2
k N k
k N
s
k N
k

Where s
k
is derived from the Bessel polynomials [1]. The previously described transformations [2], [3] are
used to obtain the low-pass, high-pass, and band-pass implementations:
Low Pass:

( )

=
(
(
|
.
|
\
|
=
N
k
k
norm k
Bess
LP
B
f
j f s f H
1
1

High Pass:

( )

=
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
N
k
k
norm k
Bess
HP
jf
B
f s f H
1
1

Band Pass:

( )
( )

=
N
k
k
c
norm k
Bess
BP
B
f f f
j f s f H
1
1

The frequency normalization parameter f
norm
is generally represented by:

( ) 1 2 ) 2 ln( = N f
norm

but is more accurately represented internally for values of 10 N [1].
Noise filtering
As discussed elsewhere, noise in electrical signals may be represented in two ways as a stochastic
component to the sampled voltage or current values, or as a companion vector of time-dependent standard
deviations of a Gaussian noise source. In the former case, the noise is of course directly filtered along with
the signal. However, for noise stored as a sequence of standard deviations, there is no phase information
available and it is impossible to convert the noise to the frequency domain. Consequently, the standard
deviation representation of noise is unchanged by this model, and the stochastic representation is generally
a better choice. If the filter is to be used as a part of an optical receiver and a quasi-analytic treatment of
noise is needed, the Compound Receiver model should be used instead.
Test display
The test button for the model displays the spectral response generated by the current filter settings. The
format for display of the complex filter function H(f) is controlled by the parameter test_display. Writing
( ) | ( ) | exp[ ( )] H f H f j f = , the display choices for left and right axes are ( )
2
[| | , ( )] H f f
(norm_phase), ( )
2
[| | , arg ( )] H f H f (norm_phase_wrap), ( )
10
[20log | |, ( )] H f f (dB_phase),
( )
10
[20log | |, arg ( )] H f H f (dB_phase_wrap) and ( ) ( ) [Re ( ) , Im ( ) ] H f H f (real_imag).
References
[1] L. Weinberg, Network Analysis and Synthesis. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Company,
1962.

[2] A. D. Poularikas and S. Seely, Signals and Systems. Boston, MA: PWS-Kent Publishing
Company, 1991.

[3] M. E. VanValkenberg, Analog Filter Design. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1982
Properties
Inputs
#1: Electrical signal (voltage or current)
Outputs
#1: Electrical signal (voltage or current)
Parameter Values

Name ype Default Range Units
type enumerated LPbessel LPbessel,
LPbutterworth,
LPchebyshev,
LPideal, HPbessel,
HPbutterworth,
HPchebyshev,
HPideal, BPbessel,
BPbutterworth,
BPchebyshev,
BPideal

preserve_alignment enumerated YES NO, YES
bandwidth double 10e9 [ 0, 1e18 ] Hz
order integer 4 [ 0, 128 ] none
lossGain double 0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] dB
passbandRipple double 1e-15 [ 1e-15, 1e32 ] dB
geometricCenter double 0.0 [ 0, 1e32 ] Hz
test_display enumerated norm_phase norm_phase,
norm_phase_wrap,
dB_phase,
dB_phase_wrap,
real_imag


type Filter type
preserve_alignment Preserve alignment of incoming bits
bandwidth Filter 3dB bandwidth
geometricCenter Geometric center frequency for bandpass filters
order Order of the filter
lossGain Filter gain or loss
passbandRipple Passband ripple for Chebyshev filter
type Filter type
bandwidth Filter 3dB bandwidth
geometricCenter Geometric center frequency for bandpass filters
test_display Format for display of complex filter function

Feed-Forward Equalization Filter

This module simulates a Feed-Forward Equalization (FFE) filter (also known as forward-feedback or linear
equalization). This equliazer structure is based on transversal finite-impulse response (FIR) filter. The
signal transformation is described by the following equation:
) ( ) ( T i t x C t y
N
N i
i
=

=

(1)
where x(t) is incoming electrical signal, y(t) - outgoing signal, (2N+1) number of taps, C
i
- weight
coefficients or taps, and T taps delay.
The model takes three parameters: number of taps 2N + 1 (number_of_taps), taps values (taps) specified
as an array {w
1
, w
2
, , w
k
}, and taps delay (taps_delay) specified as fraction of bit period, i.e.
T = T
B
/ 2^( taps_delay )
For example, the taps_delay =1 correspond to delay of half of the bit period - T =1/2 T
B.
Properties
Inputs
Outputs
#1: Electrical l signal
Parameter Values

Name Type Default Range Unit
number_of_taps Integer 5 [ 1, 27 ] None
taps Double Array {0, 0, 1, 0, 0} [ -1, 1 ] None
taps_delay Double 1 [ 0, 27] 2^x_points


number_of_taps Number of taps
taps Taps weights
taps_delay Taps delays as fraction of bit period

Decision-Feedback Equalizer for Electronic
Dispersion Compensation with Minimum Mean
Square Error Optimization (MMSE DFE-EDC)

This block models a Decision-Feedback Equalizer for Electronic Dispersion Compensation (DFE-EDC)
including the coefficient optimization with the Minimum Mean Square Error criterion.
The DFE-EDC is a nonlinear equalizer with two sections; a first Feed-Forward section filters the channel
output y and the noise n with a Finite Impulse Response (FIR) filter with coefficients FeedForward_taps; a
second Feed-Back section filters the decision threshold output with an FIR filter with coefficients
FeedBack_taps. The equalizer structure is depicted in Fig. 1.
Figure 1 depicts the structure of a DFE.

Fig. 1 DFE-EDC structure

Using the past decisions to correct the error at the decision threshold helps the equalizer in compensating
the Inter-Symbolic Interference. For this reason the DFE is widely used in the most modern receiver for
single- and multi-mode electronic dispersion compensation.
This block includes the coefficients optimization with a Minimum Mean Square Error criterion [1]. The
user selects the length of the Feed-Forward and Feed-Back filters using the corresponding parameters
FeedForward_taps_number and FeedBack_taps_number. In case the number of Feed-back taps is set to
zero, the block degenerates in a Feed-Forward Equalizer (FFE) and the optimization finds the optimal FFE.
The model creates an output file containing the values of the Feed-Forward and Feed-Back taps, as well as
the Delay and the Offset. In case of MMSE-optimization this file can be used to know the optimal
coefficient values so to re-use them in some following simulation with some perturbation to analyze the
performance of a non-ideal equalizer.
When the Monte-Carlo technique is used to estimate the BER, the noise samples are mixed together with
the signal. If the MMSE optimization is selected, the DFE-EDC model will optimize its coefficients on the
addition of noise and signal, resulting in an excessive compensation of the noise. In fact, the noise actual
samples are unknown in reality and for this reason they shouldnt be used in the optimization process. For
this reason in case of Monte-Carlo simulation the model should executed a first time with no noise, to only
optimize its coefficients; then these coefficients should be used, the MMSE optimization should be turned
off, and a second simulation including noise should be executed.
References
[1] Paul A. Voois, InKyu Lee, John M. Cioffi, The Effect of Decision Delay in Finite-Length
Decision Feedback Equalization, IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, vol 42, no. 2, March 1996
[2] J. G. Proakis, Digital Communications, New York: McGraw Hill, 4
th
edition (August 15, 2000)

Properties
Inputs
#1: Electrical Signal at the output of the receiver
#2: Binary Signal transmitted

Outputs
#1: Electrical Signal equalized
Parameter Values
FeedForward_taps_number Integer 14 [ 1, 100 ]
FeedBack_taps_number Integer 5 [ 0, 100 ]
MMSE_optimization enumerated yes yes, no
FeedForward_taps Double Array {1.0, 0.0, ..} [ -1e32, 1e32 ]
FeedBack_taps Double Array {1.0, 0.0, ..} [ -1e32, 1e32 ]
Offset Double 0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ]
Delay Integer 0 [ 0 Bit_number) Bit_periods
FeedForward_taps_number Number of taps of the Feed-Forward Finite Impulse Filter
FeedBack_taps_number Number of taps of the Feed-Back Finite Impulse Filter
MMSE_optimization If Yes, the Feed-Forward and Feed-Back taps, the offset and the delay will be
optimized with the Minimum Mean Square criterion
FeedForward_taps Array containing the values of the Feed-Forward taps
FeedBack_taps Array containing the values of the Feed-Back taps
Offset Offset added to the signal before the decision threshold, scaled on the ratio
between the electrical and binary signal power
Delay Delay in number of bit periods before filtering the signal with the Feed-Forward
FIR
Standard S-Parameter Block

This block models a standard S-parameter block shown in the following diagram.

a
1
b
1
a
2
b
2
S S

Where
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
1
a
a
a represents the incident waves and
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
1
b
b
b represents the reflection waves.
, Sa b =
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
22 21
12 11
S S
S S
S .
This model is actually implemented as

a
1
a
2
b
1
b
2
S S

i.e., a represents input signals and b represents the output signals. This model calculates the reflection
signals from the incident signals.
The S parameters are input in a text data file. An example of the data file format is as follows:

! Frequency S11 S21 S12 S22
# HZ S DB R 50
50000000 12.429 164.41 40.377 123.19 50.881 172.86 1.4557 76.855
149750000 14.815 140.64 37.81 26.561 65.337 58.476 1.3314 130.63
249500000 19.546 132.07 36.337 56.143 71.422 175.4 1.3279 21.993
349250000 23.769 167.4 36.412 146.36 75.215 171.29 1.2779 174.28
In this example file, the first line are comments. The comments must follow the symbol !. The line
starting with the symbol # is standard and should not be changed. The remaining lines are data and have
9 columns : col. 1 is frequency (Hz); col. 2 & 3 are the amplitude (dB) and phase (degrees) of S11,
respectively; col. 4 & 5 are the amplitude (dB) and phase (degrees) of S21, respectively; col. 6 & 7 are the
amplitude (dB) and phase (degrees) of S12, respectively; col. 8 & 9 are the amplitude (dB) and phase
(degrees) of S22, respectively.
There can be any number of lines of S parameter data, and no additional characters are required after the
last line, to terminate the file. The Frequency values need not be uniformly spaced.
When the S parameters at the frequencies lower than the minimum frequency or higher than the maximum
frequency given in the data file are needed, the algorithm will truncate the S values at those frequencies
either to zero or to the values at the lowest frequency for the lower frequency end and the highest frequnecy
for the higher frequency end. The way of truncation will be controlled by setting the input parameters
hf_truncate and lf_truncate.
This block can be used as a custom electrical filter by only using input 1 (a
1
) and output 2 (b
2
) and keeping
input 2 (a
2
) and output 1 (b
1
) disconnected. The transfer functon of the electrical filter will be represented
by the S21 parameters. Other S parameters are not needed for the calculation but the S data file must be
complete to avoid the error of reading files.
Properties
Inputs
Outputs

Parameter Values

filename string
lf_truncate enumerated FirstValue FirstValue, Zero
hf_truncate enumerated Zero Zero, LastValue


filename File name of the S parameters data file
hf_truncate The way of truncating the S parameters in the higher frequency end at the frequencies
higher than the maxmum frequency given in the S data file (Zero, LastValue)
lf_truncate The way of truncating the S parameters in the lower frequency end at the frequencies
lower than the minimum frequency given in the S data file (FirstValue, Zero)

Modulator-Driving S Block

This model containing two S-parameter blocks calculates the electrical characteristics of a modulator and its driving
circuits. Normally this model is followed by a modulator model in simulating systems. It can be described by the
following diagram.

a
1
a
2
b
2
b
1
a
2
b
2
a
1
b
1
IN
OUT

In this model, two S blocks and a time delay are included. The first S block represents the effect from the source,
i.e., the driving circuit of the modulator, and the second S block S

represents the effect from the load, i.e., the electrical
characteristics of the modulator. Where
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
1
a
a
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
1
b
b
b represents the
reflection waves, , Sa b =
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
22 21
12 11
S S
S S
S . In the implementation, a
2
was set as zero and b

1
was not calculated.
The interactions between the two S blocks have been taken into consideration.
The S parameters are input in an text data file. An example of the data file format is as follows.
! Frequency S11 S21 S12 S22
# HZ S DB R 50
50000000 12.429 164.41 40.377 123.19 50.881 172.86 1.4557 76.855
149750000 14.815 140.64 37.81 26.561 65.337 58.476 1.3314 130.63
249500000 19.546 132.07 36.337 56.143 71.422 175.4 1.3279 21.993
349250000 23.769 167.4 36.412 146.36 75.215 171.29 1.2779 174.28
In this example file, the first line are comments. The comments must follow the symbol !. The line starting with the
symbol # is standard and should not be changed. The remaining lines are data and have 9 columns : col. 1 is frequency
(Hz); col. 2 & 3 are the amplitude (dB) and phase (degrees) of S11, respectively; col. 4 & 5 are the amplitude (dB) and
phase (degrees) of S21, respectively; col. 6 & 7 are the amplitude (dB) and phase (degrees) of S12, respectively; col. 8 &
9 are the amplitude (dB) and phase (degrees) of S22, respectively.
There can be any number of lines of S parameter data, and no additional characters are required after the last line to
terminate the file. The Frequency values need not be uniformly spaced.
When the S parameters at the frequencies lower than the minimum frequency or higher than the maximum frequency
given in the data file are needed, the algorithm will truncate the S values at those frequencies either to zero or to the
values at the lowest frequency for the lower frequency end and the highest frequnecy for the higher frequency end. The
way of truncation will be controlled by setting the input parameters hf_truncate and lf_truncate.
Properties
Inputs
Outputs
Parameter Values

SFile_src string
SFile_load string
lf_truncate enumerated FirstValue FirstValue, Zero
hf_truncate enumerated Zero Zero, LastValue
TimeDelay double 0.0 [ 0.0, 1.0e32 ] Sec


SFile_load File name of the S parameters for the load. If no file name is given, the signals will go through
without being affected.
SFile_src File name of the S parameters for the source. If no file name is given, the signals will go through
without being affected.
TimeDelay Time delay introduced in this blcok.
hf_truncate The way of truncating the S parameters in the higher frequency end at the frequencies higher than the
maxmum frequency given in the S data file (Zero, LastValue)
lf_truncate The way of truncating the S parameters in the lower frequency end at the frequencies lower than the
minimum frequency given in the S data file (FirstValue, Zero)

Electrical Gain

This model simulates an ideal electrical amplifier or attenuator (negative gain is allowed). The gain (Gain)
is specified in dB, where Gain
dB
= 20log
10
(Gain
linear
).
Properties
Inputs
Outputs
Parameter Values
Gain double 0 -1e32 x 1e32 dB
Gain Ideal electrical gain in dB
Electrical Amplifier

This component provides a phenomenological model for an electrical amplifier, converting an incoming current signal to
an outgoing voltage signal. It is equally applicable to transimpedance amplifiers (commonly used as the front end
amplifier in optical receivers), and high-impedance amplifiers. This component is usually used in conjunction with the
photodetector and electrical filter component to model a complete receiver. The model accounts for thermal noise in a
stochastic fashion. If a Quasi-Analytic treatment of noise is required, the monolithic Receiver model should be used.
Premplifier Model and Parameter Values
The model converts a current signal to a voltage signal through a transfer function ( ) H f , such that in the Fourier
domain the output voltage satisfies

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
th
j j j j
v f H f i f N f
(
= +

where ( )
th
N f is an optional thermal noise source discussed below. The transfer function is specified either as a simple
pole-zero expression or with a user-defined file as selected by the parameter model_type:
Pole-zero representation (model_type=defined)
The transfer function is defined as
( )
p
T
z p
f
f
H f Z
j f f j f f
| |
| |
= |
|
|
+ +
\ .
\ .
,
in terms of the transimpedance Z
T
, low frequency zero f
z
, and high frequency pole f
p
. These quantities are
set by tZ, zero and pole respectively. Users requiring additional poles and zeroes should contact RSoft
Design Group.
User-defined representation (model_type=custom)
The user provides a file filename specifiying the real and imaginary parts of the filter function ( ) H f
with the following format:
<num_pts>
freq_1 real(H(freq_1)) imag(H(freq_1))

The frequencies must be monotonically decreasing or increasing. The parameters lo_trunc and hi_trunc
control the extrapolation behavior of the custom filter at low and high frquencies respectively, if the
supplied data does not cover the whole numerical bandwidth. With these parameters set to zero, any
outlying points are set to zero, while if the value extend is chosen, the extreme value of the supplied data
is applied to all outlying frequencies.
Note that if a photodetector is connected prior to the electrical amplifier, it is often convenient to lump their responses
together into the present model's transfer function. In this case, the parameter detect in the photodetector model would
be set to false. See the documentation of that model for details. Often, only rudimentary high-frequency information
such as the receivers 3-dB bandwidth is available. In these situations, it is useful to assign this frequency to the
parameter pole, set zero = 0. This will result in a frequency response with a 3-dB point that closely approximates the
desired one.

Thermal Noise
Thermal noise is added to the signal if include_thermal=YES. This noise is represented stochastically by adding a
complex random number to the Fourier representation of the incoming current before the transfer function is applied.
The added noise source is given by

( ) ( )
th

j j j
N f S f f = ,
where
j
is a complex Gaussian random variable of zero mean and unit variance, f is the frequency spacing of the
sampled spectrum, and the the noise spectral density function ( )
th
S f measured in A
2
/Hz is defined as
( )
2 4 6
th 0 2 4 6
S f a a f a f a f = + + +
with the coefficients
j
a set by the parameters n_a0, n_a2, n_a4 and n_a6. This is a more general form of the commonly
accepted expression:

2
2
th
4 (2 )
( ) 4
T
f m
kT C
S f kT f
R g
= +
which describes the thermal contribution of the feedback resistor in the transimpedance amplifier and the thermal
channel noise in the preamplifier input transistor. In this expression, k is Boltzmanns constant, T is the temperature,
f
R is the amplifier feedback resistance,
m
g is the transconductance of the preamplifier input transistor, is the excess
channel noise factor, and
T
C is the total input capacitance. The generalized polynomial representation is chosen to
allow the user to tailor the noise spectral density as he sees fit. It is also useful when actual noise spectra are available
since it allows the noise to be represented by simply fitting the polynomial coefficients to measured data. To model
white noise, simply set the coefficients a
2
, a
4
, and a
6
to zero.
The random number seed for the thermal noise source is controlled with the parameter random_seed, which supports
the standard OptSim convention for random number seeds.
Test Function
The test function can display either the transfer function of the amplifier or the thermal noise spectral density as
determined by the parameter test_output. For the former case, the parameter test_display selects the representation for
the complex transfer function.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Electrical signal (current)
Outputs
#1: Electrical signal (voltage)
Parameter Values

modeltype enumerated defined defined, custom
filename string
tZ double 1.0 [ 0, 1e18 ] Ohms
zero double 0.0 [ 0, 1e18 ] Hz
pole double 1e18 [ 0, 1e18 ] Hz
lo_trunc enumerated extend extend, zero
hi_trunc enumerated extend extend, zero
n_a0 double 5.4617e-23 [ 0, 1e32 ] A^2/Hz
n_a2 double 2.924e-43 [ 0, 1e32 ] A^2/Hz^3
n_a4 double 1.1118e-63 [ 0, 1e32 ] A^2/Hz^5
n_a6 double 0 [ 0, 1e32 ] A^2/Hz^7
include_thermal enumerated YES NO, YES
random_seed integer 0 [ -1e8, 1 ] none
norm_phase_wrap,
dB_phase,
dB_phase_wrap,
real_imag

test_output enumerated noise_spectrum noise_spectrum,
amp_response


model_type Select parameterized or user-defined transfer function
filename Filename for user-defined transfer function
tZ Transimpedance coefficient
zero Single zero low frequency rolloff
pole Single zero high frequency rolloff
lo_trunc Low frequency truncation behavior for user-defined transfer function
hi_trunc High frequency truncation behavior for user-defined transfer function
n_a0 Thermal noise coefficient
include_thermal Enable/disable thermal noise
random_seed Random number seed for thermal noise (obeys OptSim random seed convention)
test_display Select display format for complex transfer function
test_output Select test function display of noise spectrum or transfer function

Electrical Noise Adder

This model provides a mechanism for directly adding the electrical noise to the signal with various profiles. With the
parameter distribution, the user may select noise distributions with Gaussian, Uniform, or Rayleigh profiles. The noise
is added stochastically to the electrical signal (see Chapter 5 of OptSim User Guide for more details). So a quiet
electrical signal could be converted to a noisy one as follows:

qte nse
k k k
V V N = +
where
k
V denote real-valued time-sampled electrical signal (voltage or current); and the added stochastic noise term
k
N
follows one of the following distributions as selected by user:
Gaussian

2
2
( )
2
1
( )
2
V V
P V e
=
k
k
0 00 0
,
with the mean
0
V specified by mean, and standard deviation s specified by std_dev.
Uniform
( )
0
0
1
, / 2
0, / 2
k
k
k
V V r
r P V
V V r
>

with the mean
0
V specified by mean and range r is specified by range.
Rayleigh

2
2
-
2
2
e
( )
k
V
s
k
V
P V
s
=
where s is a scale parameter specified by rayleigh_S.
Note that once noise has been added stochastically to an electrical signal, it is no longer suitable for Quasi-Analytic noise
analysis. The receiver and BER must be set to Monte-Carlo noise analysis.
Seed for stochastic noise
The user may control the seeding of the random number generator used to implement the stochastic representation. In
the standard OptSim convention, this satisfies 1e8 <= seed <= 1 with the following behavior:
seed < 0
The generator is seeded with the actual value of seed on every run of the simulation. This is useful for
obtaining repeatable results.
seed = 0
The generator is seeded with an integer hashed from the string value of the components name.
seed = 1
The generator is seeded with a random number obtained from the system clock. This is essentially
unrepeatable.

Properties
Inputs
Outputs
Parameter Values

distribution enumerated Gaussian Gaussian, Uniform,
Rayleigh

mean double 0 [ 0, 1000 ] V or A
std_dev double 1 [ 0, 1000 ] V or A
range double 1 [ 0, 1e32 ] V or A
rayleigh_S double 1 [ 0, 1e32 ] V or A
seed integer 1 [ -1e8, 1 ] none


distribution Select appropriate noise distribution
mean Mean value of selected noise distribution
std_dev Standard deviation of selected noise distribution
range Range of uniform noise distribution
rayleigh_S Rayleigh scale parameter
seed Seed for random number generation
Crosstalk Block

This model adds crosstalk to the input electrical signals according to the specified crosstalk amounts.
Properties
Inputs
#1-N: Electrical signal
Outputs
#1-N: Electrical signal
Parameter Values

Mode enumerated Complex Magnitude, Complex
ParameterType enumerated Simple Simple
InChannelTransmiss
ion
double 0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] dB
NearestNeighborXtlk double -20 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] dB
NextNearestNeighbo
rXtlk
double -30 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] dB


Mode Complex applies the crosstalk to the full complex electrical signals; Magnitude applies the
crosstalk to the magnitude of the input electrical signals
ParameterType Simple uses above three parameters; exists for future expansion
InChannelTransmission Amount of input signal to transmit to corresponding output signal
NearestNeighborXtlk Amount of crosstalk from nearest neighbor signal (NN)
NextNearestNeighborXtlk Amount of crosstalk from next nearest neighbor signal (NNN)
Electrical Integrate And Dump

This model represents an integrate and dump operation which may be performed on an electrical signal. The model
integrates the input electrical signal over a specified period, multiplies it by a specified constant, and dumps that value at
the end of the integration period. It then starts the integration over again for the next period.
Prior to starting the first integration period, the model waits the amount of time specified in InitialDelay. Then the first
integration period begins, which consists of three regions. The first region is the initial ignored time of the period. From
the start of the integration period until the time specified in IntegrateBegin, the input signal value is not integrated. The
second region is the integration region. From the time specified in IntegrateBegin until the time specified in
IntegrateEnd, the input signal is integrated according to the following equation:
( )
=
=
2
1
t
dt t x a y
where y is the value dumped at the output at the end of the integration period (and held through to the end of the next
integration period), a is the constant, x(t) is the value of the input signal at time t, dt is the time step between input signal
samples,
1
is the start of the integration region specified by IntegrateBegin, and
2
is the last sample time in the
integration region prior to the time specified by IntegrateEnd.
A pictorial representation of the operation of this model follows:

...
t=0 t=td t=td+t1 t=td+t2 t=td+tp
InitialDelay
Ignore
Integrate
Ignore
Ignore

where each color coded tick mark represents a sample in the input signal, t=td is the InitialDelay value, t1 is the
IntegrateBegin value, t2 is the IntegrateEnd value, and tp is the IntegratePeriod value.
The input signals noise may be handled in one of two ways. It may be ignored by setting the NoiseMode to Ignore. This
is useful if it is known that the integration will average the noise to zero over the integration period, or if the input signal
has no quasianalytical noise component. Alternatively, the model may be set to convert the quasianalytical noise
representation of the input signal to a Monte Carlo noise representation prior to performing the integration. In either case,
the output signal has no quasianalytical noise component.
The block will output the integrated value at the end of the signal even if it has not yet reached the end of the specified
integration period. The output result is provided at the last data point of the period.
Properties
Inputs
Outputs
Parameter Values

NoiseMode enumerated Ignore Ignore, MonteCarlo
a double 1e9 [ 0, 1e32 ] none
InitialDelay double 0 [ 0, 1e32 ] s
IntegrateBegin double 0 [ 0, 1e32 ] s
IntegrateEnd double 1e-9 [ 0, 1e32 ] s
IntegratePeriod double 1e-9 [ 0, 1e32 ] s


NoiseMode Whether to ignore the noise array in input signal, or convert to MonteCarlo prior to
integration
a Integration constant
InitialDelay Time before integration periods begin
IntegrateBegin Time when integration phase of integration period begins
IntegrateEnd Time when second ignore phase of integration period begins
IntegratePeriod Time when next integration period begins

OptSim Models Reference: Block Mode Chapter 3: Special Functions and Logical Models 65
Chapter 3: Special Functions and
Logical Models
The models in this chapter fall into no other general categories:
Shift Signal
shift a signal of any type in time
Boolean Operator
perform element boolean operations on binary signals
D Flip-Flop
model a delay (D) flip-flop
T Flip-Flop
model a toggle (T) flip-flop
Electrical Signal Resampler
resample input electrical signal to modify time-step and number of samples
Optical Signal Resampler
resample input optical signal to modify time-step and number of samples

66 Chapter 3: Special Functions and Logical Models OptSim Models Reference: Block Mode
Shift Signal

This model may be used to do one of two primary functions: delay the output signal relative to the input
signal, or shift the signal data around in the data structures array without modifying the signal timing. Note
that when signal data is shifted by this block, it wraps around the edges of the data array. These two
functions are described below.
Time Delay Function
The timeDelay mode (set by the parameter shiftType) delays the output signal relative to the input
signal by a specified amount by either adjusting the start time of the signal while leaving the signal data
array alone (when keepStartTime is set to No), or by shifting the signal data around within the data
array to implement the delay (when keepStartTime is set to Yes). Time delays are specified in units
of time only. Use of the time delay feature is useful whenever a time delay needs to be modeled for any
type of signal, whether it be binary, electrical, or optical.

When setting keepStartTime to Yes for bit-streams, the requested time shift will be rounded to the
nearest multiple of the bit period. For example, a 10Gbps bit sequence can only be shifted by 0, 100ps,
200ps, etc. Thus, a 10ps shift effectively gets rounded to zero. This is necessary since binary signals are
only stored as ones and zeros, and so fractional bit shifts can't be taken into account while also keeping the
start time unchanged.
Shift Function
The timeShift, bitShift, and percentShift modes (set by the parameter shiftType) shift the signal
data array without changing the actual signal timing. The user may specify the amount of shift in time
units, percentage of the signal array, or number of bits. Appropriate adjustments are made to the start time
of the signal to maintain the original signal timing. A positive shift will advance the start time of the signal
while rotating the data to the left in the data array.
The use of this block to shift signal data around in the data array is not generally required for simulations,
but is useful in cases where the location of a bit in the data array is significant. For example, if it is desired
to simulate a single Gaussian pulse and view the flat phase of the frequency spectrum, this block could be
used to center the pulse around time = 0. Note that the relation between shifts in time and the frequency
spectrum are described by the following basic Fourier transform pair:
( )
0
2
0
ft j
e t t
=
Example
The following example demonstrates the impact that the Time Delay function of the Shift Signal block has
on a signal waveform. The following topology contains a PRBS generator block that generates the bit
sequence 0100 with a bit period of 0.1 ns. Following this, the Optical Signal Generator block is used to
convert this binary sequence to an optical signal with 32 samples (data points) per bit. The optical signal
then goes through the Shift Signal block. The signal is plotted at the output of each of these blocks, plus
there is a combined plot of the signal going into and coming out of the Shift Signal plot.


In the first exercise, we set the Shift Signal block to apply a time shift of 1e-10 seconds to the input signal.
The signal plot coming into the Shift Signal block, coming out of the Shift Signal block, and combined are
shown below, respectively. Note that the signal is shifted to the left by one bit period (1e-10 seconds) in the
array, but the absolute time of the single 1 bit in the output signal is not changed by the Shift Signal
block. The signal going into and coming out of the Shift Signal block overlap one another perfectly in the
combined plot. The start time of the input signals data array is 0 seconds, while the start time of the output
signals data array is 1e-10 seconds. The start time of the signal data array has been shifted forward by 1e-
10 seconds without affecting the timing of the actual signal. Note that the plot does not display the actual
signal start time, but this information is stored with the signal data structure and can be viewed using the
signal summary feature or with the Save Signal To File block.

Now we change the above simulation by setting it to apply a time delay of 1e-10 seconds, and set
keepStartTime to Yes. Since we are applying a delay of 1e-10 seconds, but are not changing the start
time of the signal, we must shift the 1 bit to the right in the output signal data array to implement the
delay. The signal plot coming into the Shift Signal block, coming out of the Shift Signal block, and
combined are shown below, respectively. In the combined plot below, the delayed signals 1 bit now
follows the original signals 1 bit by one bit period, but the start time of the signal data array has not been
changed. The actual signal data arrays and start time values can be inspected in detail by looking at the
*.sgd files generated by the Save Signal To File blocks before and after the Shift Signal block.


Note that positive values for the time shift result in the signal being shifted to the left in the data array,
while negative values for the time shift result in the signal being shifted to the right in the data array. For
the time delay option with keepStartTime set to Yes, the opposite is true: positive values for the time
delay result in the signal being shifted to the right in the data array, while negative values for the time delay
result in the signal being shifted to the left in the data array. Also note that for this example, 1e-10 second
shift = 1 bit period shift = 25% signal array shift.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Electrical, Binary, or Optical signal
Outputs
#1: Electrical, Binary, or Optical signal, matching input signal type
Parameter values

shiftType enumerated percentShift percentShift, bitShift,
timeShift, timeDelay

keepStartTime enumerated No No, Yes
percentShift double 0 [ -100, 100 ] percent
timeShift double 0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] s
bitShift integer 0 [ -1000000, 1000000 ] bits

shiftType Whether the block implements a time delay or a signal shift which specified as a
percentage of the signal array, in units of time, or as a number of bits.
keepStartTime Only when shiftType is timeDelay. If No, the start time of the signal is adjusted by
adding the timeShift value to it. If Yes, the start time of the signal is not modified, and
a shift of the data in the signal array is performed to implement the specified delay.
percentShift The percentage of the signal array to be shifted.
timeShift The amount of time to shift the signal in the signal array.
bitShift The number of bits to shift the signal by.

Boolean Operator

This model represents a boolean operator. It accepts either one or two binary input signals, and outputs a
binary output signal. The operations include NOT, AND, NAND, OR, NOR, and XOR. This block may be
used to perform logical operations on binary signals for various applications such as modeling a duobinary
transmission scheme.
There are several conditions for the binary input signals that must be satisified when using this model due
to possible confusion about the expected outcome when these conditions are not satisified. All input binary
signals must be of equal number of bits, equal bit rates, and equal starting times. If these conditions present
problems for your application, you may follow the following suggestion or contact RSoft Design Group for
assistance.
If it is desired to operate on two binary signals which do not have identical start times but do have identical
number of bits and bit rates, the user may use the Shift Signal block prior to the Boolean Operator block to
shift the signals such that the start times are identical. Then following the Boolean Operator, use the Shift
Signal block again to shift the resulting binary signal to the desired start time. By following this approach,
the user will have no confusion regarding the expected output of the boolean operator.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Binary signal
#2: Binary signal (not used for NOT operation)
Outputs
#1: Binary signal
Parameter Values

operation enumerated NOT NOT, AND, OR,
NAND, NOR, XOR


operation Boolean operation to perform: NOT, AND, OR, NAND, NOR, or XOR.
D Flip-Flop

This block models a D Flip-Flop. A D Flip-Flop sets its output to 1 when the data input is high, and to
0 when the data input is low. If the gate is clocked, the data input is only checked during the user-
specified clock transitions. Both regular and inverted binary outputs are available.
When the parameter Clocked is set to no, the output signal is set to 1 whenever the data signal is 1, and
to 0 whenever the data signal is 0.
When the parameter Clocked is set to yes, the output signal is set to 1 for a high data input and 0 for a
low data input only during a clock transition. The user specifies which clock transitions to use via the
parameter Pulse_Transition. Positive_Edge indicates that the output can change state during the rising
edge of the clock; Negative_Edge uses the falling edge. Note that if the data signal changes state
simultaneously with the clock, the new data signal value is used to determine how to set the flip-flops
outputs.
The user must specify the initial output state of the flip-flop via the parameter Initial_State.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Binary Signal
#2: Binary Signal
Outputs
#1: Binary Signal
#2: Binary Signal
Parameter Values
Clocked enumerated yes yes, no None
Pulse_Transition enumerated Positive_Edge Positive_Edge,
Negative_Edge
None
Initial_State enumerated 1 1, 0 None
Clocked Flag to control whether the flip-flop is clocked or not
Pulse_Transition Flag to determine which clock transition to use when the flip-flop is clocked
Initial_State Sets initial state of the flip-flop
T Flip-Flop

This block models a T Flip-Flop. A T Flip-Flop toggles its output (from 1 to 0, or 0 to 1) whenever
the toggle input is high and, if the gate is clocked, during the user-specified clock transitions. Both regular
and inverted binary outputs are available.
When the parameter Clocked is set to no, the output signal changes whenever the toggle signal is 1. With
Force_Transition set to no, the toggle signal must return to a 0 state before another change of state at the
output can occur. With Force_Transition set to yes, a change of state will occur whenever the toggle signal
is 1.
When the parameter Clocked is set to yes, the output signal changes state whenever the toggle signal is 1
during a clock transition. The user specifies which clock transitions to use via the parameter
Pulse_Transition. Positive_Edge indicates that the output can change state during the rising edge of the
clock; Negative_Edge uses the falling edge. Note that if the toggle signal changes state simultaneously with
the clock, the new toggle signal value is used to determine whether or not to toggle the flip-flops outputs.
The user must specify the initial output state of the flip-flop via the parameter Initial_State.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Binary Signal
#2: Binary Signal
Outputs
#1: Binary Signal
#2: Binary Signal
Parameter Values
Clocked enumerated yes yes, no None
Pulse_Transition enumerated Positive_Edge Positive_Edge,
Negative_Edge
None
Force_Transition enumerated no yes, no None
Initial_State enumerated 1 1, 0 None
Clocked Flag to control whether the flip-flop is clocked or not
Pulse_Transition Flag to determine which clock transition to use when the flip-flop is clocked
Force_Transition Flag to determine if the unclocked flip-flop should always toggle on a 1 bit
Initial_State Sets initial state of the flip-flop
DQPSK Precoder

This model converts a pair of bit streams into a pair of encoded P and Q DQPSK bit streams suitable for
controlling a DQPSK modulator. Given input bit streams a and b, and encoded output bit streams p and q,
the kth output bits satisfy the relationships:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 1
1 1
k k k k k k k k k
k k k k k k k k k
p a b a p a b b q
q a b b q a b a p

= +
= +

The initial states of the output bits should be specified via the parameters P_Initial_State and
Q_Initial_State. In general, these initial values do not affect the received bit sequences at a DQPSK
receiver, but they are useful if you want to generate a specific set of bit patterns from the Precoder. It
should also be noted that due to the nature of the signal representations in block mode, and the differential
character of DQPSK modulation, the demodulated bit streams at the DQPSK receiver will likely show
errors in the first or last bits due to phase discontinuities at the signal boundaries. For this reason, it is
strongly recommended that sufficient pre- and postbits be used in the original bit-stream sources.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Binary Signal
#2: Binary Signal
Outputs
#1: Binary Signal
#2: Binary Signal
Parameter Values
P_Initial_State enumerated 0 0, 1
Q_Initial_State enumerated 0 0, 1
P_Initial_State Sets initial state of the encoded P output
Q_Initial_State Sets initial state of the encoded Q output
Electrical Signal Resampler

The Electrical Signal Resampler allows the user to modify an electrical signals time step (timeStep) and
number of samples (2^noSamples). Note that this conversion ignores any logical information contained in
the signal. If the user specifies a set of values for timeStep and noSamples that causes the signal to be
lengthened, then the additional signal data is obtained by assuming that the original signal is periodic. The
user may also truncate the signal if the time range specified by timeStep and noSamples is less than that
of the original signal.
Properties
Inputs
Outputs
Parameter Values
timeStep double 1e-12 1e-32 x 1e32 s
noSamples integer 0 0 x 27 2^noSamples
timeStep New time step of the signal
noSamples New number of samples in the signal, specified as 2^noSamples
Optical Signal Resampler

The Optical Signal Resampler allows the user to modify an optical signals time step (timeStep) and
number of samples (2^noSamples). Note that this conversion ignores any logical information contained in
the signal. If the user specifies a set of values for timeStep and noSamples that causes the signal to be
lengthened, then the additional signal data is obtained by assuming that the original signal is periodic. The
user may also truncate the signal if the time range specified by timeStep and noSamples is less than that
of the original signal.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical Signal
Outputs
#1: Optical Signal
Parameter Values
timeStep double 1e-12 1e-32 x 1e32 s
noSamples integer 0 0 x 27 2^noSamples
timeStep New time step of the signal
noSamples New number of samples in the signal, specified as 2^noSamples
OptSim Models Reference: Block Mode Chapter 4: Optical Sources and Modulators 75
Chapter 4: Optical Sources and
Modulators
This chapter describes lasers and a variety of modulators:
Direct Modulated Laser
generate an optical signal using direct modulation
Mode-Locked Laser
generate a train of mode-locked pulses
CW Laser
generate one or more CW signals
Fabry Perot CW Laser
generate a Fabry Perot CW signal with multiple longitudinal modes
VCSEL
generate an optical signal from a VCSEL
Light Emitting Diode (LED)
create an optical signal from an LED
Modulator
modulate an optical signal using external modulation
Electro-Absorption Modulator
modulate an optical signal using electro-absorption modulation

76 Chapter 4: Optical Sources and Modulators OptSim Models Reference: Block Mode
Direct Modulated Laser

This block models a semiconductor laser directly modulated with an electrical signal. It computes the
electrical current injected into the lasers optical cavity and solves the laser rate equations for the optical
output. The behavior of the model can be partitioned into three blocks, as shown in Fig. 1.
The driving source consists of the electrical signal input into the model. The parasitics consist of a bond
inductance and shunting capacitance. Finally, the laser cavity is modeled via a simplified current-voltage
(IV) relationship and the laser rate equations.

Figure 1: Main components of the Direct Modulated Laser model
Driving Source
The Direct Modulated Laser is driven by a combination of the electrical signal at its input and, when
applicable, a dc bias current specified by I
o
(Io). I
o
can also be specified via a dc bias output power P
o
(Po).
The user determines which will be used via the parameter Bias_Value. The other parameter is then
calculated automatically.
The input electrical signal can be interpreted in a variety of ways, based on the settings of the model
parameter Drive_Scheme. This parameter can take on values of direct_drive, bias_tee, or bias_tee_old.
Direct_drive
The input signal is assumed to come from either an ideal current source or zero-impedance
voltage source. In other words, the laser is assumed to be undergoing direct-drive
modulation. If the input signal is a current, then it is combined with the bias current I
o
to form
the total input current. Fig. 2(a) illustrates this scenario. If the input signal is a voltage, then
the bias current I
o
is ignored. Note that the input voltage should be larger than the lasers
turn-on voltage V
on
; otherwise, the resulting current is zero. This arrangement is illustrated in
Fig. 2(b).

Figure 2: Direct-drive modulation schemes: (a) current and (b) voltage
bias_tee
The input signal is assumed to be generated by a source with output impedance R
s
(Rs),
connected to the laser via an ideal bias tee. The bias current I
o
is similarly connected. The
input signal can be either a current or a voltage. Figure 3 depicts a bias tee setup for both the
voltage- and current-source cases.

Figure 3: Bias-tee modulation schemes: (a) voltage source and (b) current source
bias_tee_old
This choice implements the driving scheme from OptSim versions prior to 3.0. Note that
these previous implementations intended to model the bias tee as described above, but did not
remove any dc component which may have been present in the electrical input signal that
would naturally occur via the tees capacitive leg. While future releases of OptSim may no
longer support this option, it is included here for compatibility.
Parasitics
The parasitics consist of a bond inductance L
b
(Lb) and shunting capacitance C
p
(Cp), as shown in Fig. 1.
These can be turned on or off via the parameter Parasitics.
Laser Cavity
Both electrical and optical effects are modeled within the laser cavity.
Electrical
The electrical model of the laser cavity is that of a simplified diode IV relationship, consisting of a series
resistance R
d
(Rd) and turn-on voltage V
on
(Von). During solution of the cavity current I, the model ensures
that negative currents are effectively limited to zero.
Rate Equations
The core of the Direct Modulated Laser block are the semiconductor laser rate equations, which determine
the optical output in response to the cavity current I. Relative intensity noise is modeled via a constant
value RIN (RIN). The rate equations, based largely on those discussed in [1], are:
( ) ( ) ( , )
i
sp nr p p
I dN
R N R N G N N N
dt qV
=
(1)
( ) ( , )
p p
sp sp p p
p
dN N
R N G N N N
dt
= + +
(2)

1
( , )
2
p
p
p p
N
d
G N N
dt

| |
= +
|
\ .

(3)

g mir
out fact p
v A
hc
P c N V F
= =

(4)
where I is the injection current, N is the carrier density, N
p
is the photon density, is the optical phase,
I

(effint) is the current injection efficiency, q is the electron charge, V is the cavity volume,
p
is the photon
lifetime, (K) is the confinement factor,
sp
(b) is the spontaneous emission coupling coefficient, (a) is
the linewidth enhancement factor, is a modified gain saturation factor (see Gain section below), h is
Plancks constant, c is the speed of light in a vacuum, (wavelength) is the lasing wavelength, v
g
is the
group velocity (c/n, where n (indx) is the material index), A
mir
is the mirror, or facet, loss, F is the fraction
of light that escapes the output facet, R
sp
(N) is the radiative recombination, R
nr
(N) is the nonradiative
recombination, and G(N,N
p
) is the laser gain. The recombination terms are modeled using:

2
( )
sp
R N BN =
(5)

3
( )
nr
R N AN CN = +
(6)
where A (A) is the unimolecular recombination coefficient, B (B) is the radiative recombination coefficient,
and C (C) is the Auger recombination coefficient.
Device Geometry
The device geometry can be modeled in a number of ways via the parameter geometry, which can take on
values of rectangular, cylindrical, or volumetric.
Rectangular
The laser is assumed to be an edge emitting laser with cavity width L
stp
(Lstp), cavity
thickness L
act
(Lact), and cavity length L
cav
(Lcav). The volume V is then computed as:

stp act cav
V L L L =
(7)
cylindrical
The laser is assumed to be a vertical-cavity device with cavity diameter W (W), cavity
thickness L
act
, and total cavity length L
cav
. The volume V is then computed as:

2
4
act
W
V L
=
(8)
volumetric
The volume is directly specified via the parameter V (V).
Mirror Effects
When the parameter mirror_effects is set to defined, the mirror parameters A
mir
and F are directly specified
by the parameters Amir and F, respectively. When mirror_effects is set to calculated, the mirror
parameters are calculated using L
cav
and the mirror reflectivities R
1
(R1) and R
2
(R2), where the optical
output is assumed to exit from mirror #1 [2]:

1 2
ln( )
2
mir
cav
R R
A
L
=
(9)

1
1 2 1 2
1
1 (1 ) /
R
F
R R R R
=
+

(10)
Intrinsic Loss
If the parameter intrinsic_loss is set to defined, then the intrinsic loss of the cavity is directly specified as
A
int
(Aint). When intrinsic_loss is set to calculated, then A
int
is defined in relation to A
mir
via the scaling
factor loss_ratio (loss_ratio):

int
_
mir
A loss ratio A =
(11)
Photon Lifetime
When parameter photon_lifetime is set to defined, the photon lifetime is directly specified via
p
(tp).
When photon_lifetime is set to calculated, the photon lifetime is calculated using [2]:

int
1
( )
p
gr mir
v A A
=
+

(12)
Gain
The laser gain G(N,N
p
) consists of the material gain g(N) and the optical gain saturation (N
p
), with both
terms able to take on a number of forms via the setting of the gain and saturation parameters:
( , ) ( ) ( )
p gr p
G N N v g N N =
(13)
The gain parameter can take on values of logarithmic:N, logarithmic:R(N), or linear:
Logarithmic:N
The material gain is modeled as a logarithmic function of N [1]:
( ) ln
s
o
tr s
N N
g N G
N N
| | +
=
|
+ \ .

(14)
where G
o
(Go) is the gain coefficient, N
tr
(Ntr) is the transparency density, and N
s
(Ns) is an
adjustable correction parameter [1].
Logarithmic:R(N)
The material gain is modeled as a logarithmic function of the carrier recombination [3],[4].
This approach is a more general version of the simple logarithmic gain.

( ) ( )
( ) ln
( ) ( )
sp nr s
o
sp tr nr tr s
R N R N N
g N G
R N R N N
| | + +
=
|
+ +
\ .

(15)
linear
The material gain is assumed to be linearized about the transparency density N
tr
, and is
described by [2]:
( ) ( )
o tr
g N G V N N =
(16)
Gain Saturation
The saturation parameter can also take on three values: Channin, Agrawal, or linear.
Channin
The gain saturation is modeled following the approach in [1] and [5]:

1
( )
1
p
p
N
N
=
+

(17)
where (e) is the gain saturation factor. In this case, the modified gain saturation factor is
simply = .
Agrawal
The gain saturation is modeled following the approach in [4] and [6], and is applicable when
intraband effects are important:

1
( )
1
p
p
N
N
=
+

(18)
In this case, the modified gain saturation factor is / 2 = .
Linear
The gain saturation is assumed to be linear, though the expression is strictly only valid when
N
p
< 1/. The modified gain saturation factor is = .
( ) 1
p p
N N =
(19)
Polarization
By default, the laser emits an output field polarized along the X axis, with no corresponding Y-polarized
component. A zero-valued Y-polarized component may be included in this case by setting the parameter
force_Ey to yes. The field polarization itself may be changed via the parameters azimuth and ellipticity.
These parameters correspond to the azimuth and ellipticity angles of the polarization ellipse, respectively.
Some typical values for these parameters are [7]:
ellipticity = 0: Linear polarization, with azimuth describing the tilt of the field vector relative
to the X axis.
ellipticity = +45 degrees, azimuth = 0: Right-handed circular polarization.
ellipticity = -45 degrees, azimuth = 0: Left-handed circular polarization.
Multi-Line Output
DWDM simulations especially, a series of regularly spaced optical sources is common. The Direct
Modulated Laser model provides a number of convenient facilities so that many or all required lines can be
generated from a single icon. To produce a series of lines spaced equally in wavelength or frequency, set
the parameter mode=LambdaGrid or mode=FreqGrid, respectively. The number of sources is controlled
by the number of electrical inputs to the laser, and in both modes the parameter wavelength specifies the
first line in a series of ascending wavelengths or ascending frequencies, respectively. The source
separation in wavelength or frequency is specified with deltaFreq. To set the number of electrical inputs to
the laser, select the direct modulated laser icon and open the menu item Properties. In the Ports tab,
number_input_ports field, enter the number of inputs.
Multi-Line Multi-Node Output
The comb of sources may be emitted either through a single node (the default) or with one channel per
output node. To achieve the latter behavior, select the direct modulated laser icon and open the menu item
Properties. In the Ports tab, set the value of the number_output_ports field to that of the
number_input_ports field.
Numerical Settings
During simulation, the laser rate equations are numerically solved. To control the accuracy of these
calculations, the user has access to three parameters. Eps adjusts the overall tolerance level, or accuracy,
of the solution. Initial_tstep is the initial time step used by the models ODE solver. Min_tstep is the
smallest time step that this solver is allowed to take.
Test Parameters
In order to ascertain whether the parameter settings for the Direct Modulated Laser block provide the
component performance desired, the user may test them from the component parameter editing window.
Depending on the setting of the parameter test_function, this test produces a light-current (LI) curve
(test_function set to LI), small-signal frequency response curves (ac), or a performance report (report).
These are typically used to fit rate-equation laser model parameters to the performance of actual
semiconductor lasers. The test can be controlled via model parameters carrying a prefix Test_. These
parameters allow the user to set sweep limits, bias conditions, etc.
LI Curve
The LI curve is controlled via the parameters Test_LItype, Test_Imin, Test_Imax, and Test_Lipoints.
When Test_Litype is set to auto-scaled, an LI curve is generated over currents ranging from 0 to I
max
,
where I
max
is the larger of 3I
th
or 2I
o
, I
th
being the calculated laser threshold current. With Test_Litype set
to user-specified, the LI curve is generated over currents ranging from Test_Imin to Test_Imax. The total
number of points in the LI curve is determined by Test_Lipoints. A sample LI curve is shown in Fig. 4.

Figure 4: Sample test LI curve, generated using automatic scaling
Small-Signal Frequency Responses
Two sets of frequency response curves are generated. The first set depicts the devices transfer function T
f
,
i.e. the small-signal output power vs. small-signal input current. This calculation includes parasitics if any
are present. The second set of curves depicts the devices normalized S
21
response using the relationship
S
21
= 2T
f
/(Z
in
+50), where Z
in
is the device input impedance and a 50- test setup is assumed. Both sets of
curves are generated at five different bias currents. With the parameter Test_actype set to Ith-based, these
currents are 1.1I
th
, 1.5I
th
, 2.0I
th
, 3.0I
th
, and I
o
. When Test_actype is set to user-specified, these currents are
defined by the parameters Test_I1ac, Test_I2ac, Test_I3ac, Test_I4ac, and Test_I5ac. Parameters
Test_acxscale and Test_acyscale control the type of scales on the x- and y-axes, respectively. Log
results in logarithmic scaling, and linear in linear scaling. Test_freqlow and Test_freqhigh specify the
range of frequencies over which to generate the response curves, and Test_acpoints defines the number of
points in each curve. Sample frequency-response curves are shown in Fig. 5.

Figure 5. Sample transfer-function and S
21
frequency-response curves at threshold-based bias values
Performance Report
In addition to the above plots, a report is generated highlighting some of the important performance metrics
of the laser. These include the threshold current, differential quantum efficiency, power, or slope,
efficiency, bias values I
o
and P
o
, as well as bandwidths and relaxation-peak locations for the transfer-
function, S
21
, and intrinsic (i.e., no parasitics) frequency responses at the five bias currents of interest.
Compatibility with LinkSIM version 2.1 VCSEL Model
With this release of OptSim, the LinkSIM 2.1 VCSEL model can be invoked through the use of the Direct
Modulated Laser block. In most cases, the old VCSEL parameters can be mapped into the present ones
with little or no change. However, the old parameters
n
,
s
, a, and can be converted to new parameters
by setting
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) /( )
n old s old n old s old
A = + ,
( )
/
o old
G a V = , and
( )
/
old
V = .
References
[1] L. A. Coldren and S. W. Corzine, Diode Lasers and Photonic Integrated Circuits (John Wiley
& Sons, New York, 1995).
[2] G. P. Agrawal and N. K. Dutta, Semiconductor Lasers, 2nd. ed. (Van Nostrand Reinhold, New
York, 1993).
[3] T. A. DeTemple and C. M. Herzinger, On the semiconductor laser logarithmic gain-current
density relation, IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics, 29, 1246 (1993).
[4] P. V. Mena, S.-M. Kang, and T. A. DeTemple, Rate-equation-based laser models with a single
solution regime, Journal of Lightwave Technology, 15, 717 (1997).
[5] D. J. Channin, Effect of gain saturation on injection laser switching, Journal of Applied
Physics, 50, 3858 (1979).
[6] G. P. Agrawal, Effect of gain and index nonlinearities on single-mode dynamics in
semiconductor lasers, IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics, 26, 1901 (1990).
[7] M. Born and E. Wolf, Principles of Optics, 7th. Ed. (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
1999).
Properties
Inputs
#1-#512: Electrical signal
Outputs
Parameter Values
wavelength double 1550e-9 [ 0, 1 ] m
LambdaGrid

effint double 0.9 [ 0, 1 ] none
K double 0.1 [ 0, 1 ] none
indx double 4.1 [ 0, 1e32 ] none
geometry enumerated rectangular rectangular,
cylindrical,
volumetric

Lact double 500e-8 [ 0, 1e32 ] cm
Lstp double 2.5e-4 [ 0, 1e32 ] cm
Lcav double 345e-4 [ 0, 1e32 ] cm
W double 1.5e-3 [ 0, 1e32 ] cm
V double 4.3125e-11 [ 0, 1e32 ] cm^3
mirror_effects enumerated defined defined, calculated
Amir double 33 [ 0, 1e32 ] 1/cm
F double 1 [ 0, 1 ] none
R1 double 0.9966 [ 0, 1e32 ] none
R2 double 0.9989 [ 0, 1e32 ] none
intrinsic_loss enumerated defined defined, calculated
Aint double 40 [ 0, 1e32 ] 1/cm
loss_ratio double 2.0 [ 0, 1e32 ] none
b double 1e-4 [ 0, 1 ] none
photon_lifetime enumerated calculated calculated, defined
tp double 1e-12 [ 0, 1e32 ] s
A double 0 [ 0, 1e32 ] 1/s
B double 1e-10 [ 0, 1e32 ] cm^3/s
C double 30e-30 [ 0, 1e32 ] cm^6/s
gain enumerated logarithmic_N logarithmic_N,
logarithmic_RN,
linear

Go double 1537 [ 0, 1e32 ] 1/cm
Ntr double 1.5e18 [ 0, 1e32 ] 1/cm^3
Ns double 0 [ 0, 1e32 ] none
saturation enumerated Channin Channin, Agrawal,
linear

e double 10e-17 [ 0, 1e32 ] cm^3
a double 2 [ 0, 1e32 ] none
RIN double -150 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] dB/Hz
Rd double 5 [ 0, 1e32 ] ohm
Von double 2.0 [ 0, 1e32 ] V
Drive_Scheme enumerated bias_tee_old direct_drive,
bias_tee,
bias_tee_old

Rs double 50 [ 0, 1e32 ] ohm
Bias_Value enumerated Io Io, Po
Io double 30e-3 [ 0, 1e32 ] A
Po double 0 [ 0, 1e32 ] W
Parasitics enumerated on on, off
Lb double 0.3e-9 [ 0, 1e32 ] H
Cp double 2e-12 [ 0, 1e32 ] F
eps double 1e-6 [ 0, 1e32 ] none
initial_tstep double 1e-13 [ 0, 1e32 ] s
min_tstep double 0 [ 0, 1e32 ] s
test_function enumerated LI LI, ac, report
Test_LItype enumerated auto-scaled auto-scaled, user-
specified

Test_Imin double 0 [ 0, 1e32 ] A
Test_Imax double 30e-3 [ 0, 1e32 ] A
Test_LIpoints integer 201 [ 0, 100000 ] none
Test_actype enumerated Ith-based Ith-based, user-
specified

Test_I1ac double 1e-3 [ 0, 1e32 ] A
Test_I2ac double 2.5e-3 [ 0, 1e32 ] A
Test_acxscale enumerated log log, linear
Test_acyscale enumerated linear log, linear
Test_freqlow double 1e7 [ 0, 1e32 ] Hz
Test_freqhigh double 1e12 [ 0, 1e32 ] Hz
Test_acpoints integer 201 [ 0, 100000 ] none
wavelength Wavelength of the laser,
effint Current injection efficiency,
I

K Optical confinement factor,
indx Optical mode index, n
geometry Device geometry: rectangular, cylindrical, volumetric
Lact Laser active region thickness, L
act

Lstp Laser active region width, L
stp

Lcav Laser cavity length, L
cav

W Laser diameter (for cylindrical geometries), W
V Laser cavity volume, V
mirror_effects Mirror effects: defined, calculated
Amir Laser mirror loss, A
mir

F Fraction of power that escapes from the output mirror, F
R1 Reflectivity of mirror #1, R
1

2

intrinsic_loss Intrinsic loss: defined, calculated
Aint Laser internal loss, A
int

loss_ratio Ratio of intrinsic loss to mirror loss, loss_ratio
b Spontaneous emission coupling coefficient,
sp

photon_lifetime Photon lifetime definition: calculated, defined
tp Photon lifetime,
p

A Unimolecular recombination coefficient, A
B Radiative recombination coefficient, B
C Auger recombination coefficient, C
gain Gain definition: logarithmic:N, logarithmic:R(N), linear
Go Gain coefficient, G
o

Ntr Carrier transparency density, N
tr

Ns Logarithmic gain correction factor, N
s

saturation Gain saturation definition: Channin, Agrawal, linear
e Gain saturation factor,
a Linewidth enhancement factor,
RIN Laser relative intensity noise, RIN
Rd Laser cavity resistance, R
d

Von Laser turn-on voltage, V
on

Drive_Scheme Drive signal definition: direct_drive, bias_tee, bias_tee_old
Rs Source impedance, R
s

Bias_Value Bias definition: Io, Po
Io Laser bias current, I
o

Po Laser dc power level, P
o

Parasitics Parasitics flag: on, off
Lb Laser bond inductance, L
b

Cp Laser parasitic capacitance, C
p

eps Accuracy of ODE solver
initial_tstep Initial time step taken by ODE solver
min_tstep Minimum time step taken by ODE solver
test_function Test function selection: LI curve, ac curves, or performance report
Test_LItype LI curve definition: auto-scaled, user-specified
Test_Imin Minimum current for LI curve
Test_Imax Maximum current for LI curve
Test_Lipoints Number of points in LI curve
Test_actype Frequency-response curve definition: Ith-based, user-specified
Test_I1ac Bias current for first ac curve
Test_I2ac Bias current for second ac curve
Test_I3ac Bias current for third ac curve
Test_I4ac Bias current for fourth ac curve
Test_I5ac Bias current for fifth ac curve
Test_acxscale Scale for x axis: log, linear
Test_acyscale Scale for y axis: log, linear
Test_freqlow Minimum frequency for ac curves
Test_freqhigh Maximum frequency for ac curves
Test_acpoints Number of points per ac curve

Mode-Locked Laser

This models a mode-locked laser.
The following pulse types are presently supported for the output optical signal ( u t ( ) is the field
amplitude):
gaussian
( ) [ ]
2
0
5 . 0 exp ) ( T t t u =
sech
( )
0
sec ) ( T t h t u =
on_off
|u(t)|
2
= linear ramp to 1 for t
r
; flat at 1 for t
FWHM
-t
r
/2-t
f
/2; linear ramp to 0 for t
f
.
raisedCosAmp
( )
0
2 cos 5 . 0 5 . 0 ) ( T t t u + =
raisedCosPow
( ) ( )
0
2
2 cos 5 . 0 5 . 0 T t t u + =
supGaussian
( ) [ ]
m
T t t u
2
0
5 . 0 exp ) ( =
supGaussian (Super Gaussian) is an approximation to square pulses but with rounded edges. The m
parameter is determined from the rise time of the pulse. Although t
r
and t
f
may be different for on_off pulse
type, they must be the same for supGaussian type. The 10%-90% rise time rule is used for the
supGaussian while for the on_off it is the total rise or fall time.
The FWHM of these pulse types are:
gaussian

0
2 ln 2 T T
FWHM
=
sech
) 2 1 ln( 2
0
+ = T T
FWHM

raisedCosAmp
) 1 2 cos(
1
0

= a T T
FWHM

raisedCosPow
2 /
0
T T
FWHM
=
supGaussian

m
FWHM
T T
2
1
0
) 2 (ln 2 =
Arbitrary amounts of linear chirp may be added to each of these pulse forms. The chirp is included via a
chirp factor C. The expression for the field amplitude of a chirped pulse u
chirp
(t) is given by (this is a
general result irrespective of the pulse shape, see G. P. Agrawal, Nonlinear Fiber Optics, Academic
Press),

|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
2
0
2
exp ) ( ) ( T
T
C
j t u t u
chirp

The expression for the additional spectral width due to pulse chirp is given by,

(
(

|
|
.
|
\
|
0
1
0 0
4
1
2
cT
C

In the case of mode-locked sources, phase shift between adjacent bits is allowed so that the phase shifted
soliton transmission technique can be studied.
Note that this models output can be disabled by setting its peak-power value to 0.
Polarization
to the X axis.
Multi-Line Output
DWDM simulations especially, a series of regularly spaced optical sources is common. The Mode-Locked
Laser model provides a number of convenient facilities so that many or all required lines can be generated
noSources, and in both modes the parameter wavelength specifies the first line in a series of ascending
wavelengths or ascending frequencies, respectively. The source separation in wavelength or frequency is
specified with deltaFreq.
For applications in which the sources are not regularly spaced or the peak power or phase must be
controlled independently, the option mode=File is available. In this case, the user provides an ascii file
with the name filename detailing the frequency, power and phase of the sources. The format of the file is
as follows:
MultiModeLockedLaserFormat1 <freq_format> <power_format>
<freq_1> <power_1>
<freq_2> <power_2>
etc..
Here <freq_format> indicates the units for the frequency data in the first column and must be one of
[nm], [um], [m], [Hz], [MHz], [GHz], [THz], [cm^(-1)], [m^(- 1)] or [rad/s]. Similarly, <power_format>
indicates the units for the power data in the second column and must be one of [W], [mW], [uW] or
[dBm]. The phase information must be entered in degrees.
output node. To achieve the latter behavior, first set multiNodeOutput=YES. Then select the mode-locked
laser icon and open the menu item Properties. In the Ports tab, number_output_ports field, enter the
number of lines that the model will generate (i.e. either noSources or the number of lines in the user data
file if mode=File).
References
1999).
Properties
Inputs
None
Outputs
Parameter Values
pattern enumerated Multiple Single, Multiple
type enumerated gaussian sech, gaussian,
supGaussian, on_off,
raisedCosPow,
raisedCosAmp

peakPower double 1e-3 [ 0, 1e32 ] Watts
wavelength double 1550e-9 [ 0, 1e18 ] meters
mode enumerated Single Single, LambdaGrid,
FreqGrid, File

multiNodeOutput enumerated NO NO, YES
noSources integer 10 [ 1, 1000 ] none
filename string
width double 10e-12 [ 0, 1e32 ] sec
pointsPerBit integer 5 [ 1, 27 ] 2^x_bits
repRate double 10e9 [ 1, 1e32 ] Bit/s
ChirpFactor double 0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] none
phaseShift double 0 [ -6.284, 6.284 ] rad
riseTime double 10e-12 [ 0, 1e32 ] sec
fallTime double 10e-12 [ 0, 1e32 ] sec
multiNodeOutput Select multi-line output on a single or multiple output nodes
noSources Number of lines in multi-line output
filename Filename for user-specified source grid
type Mode-locked source type: gaussian, supGaussian, sech, on_off,
raisedCosAmp, raisedCosPow
repRate Repetition rate of the source
patternLength Bit pattern length = 2
x
, x is input
pointsPerBit Number of sampling points per bit period in output optical signal
peakPower Peak power
wavelength Wavelength of the laser
RIN Relative intensity noise of the laser
width Pulse FWHM Parameter
ChirpFactor Chirp factor C
phaseShift Phase Shift Between Adjacent Pulses
pattern Single or multiple pulses in bit stream
riseTime Pulse Rise Time for on-off and supGaussian types
fallTime Pulse Fall Time for on-off type
CW Laser

This model produces the optical signal output of one or more CW lasers. It is most commonly used in
conjunction with the external modulator model to encode a binary signal upon the CW source.
In this model, the CW source is characterized completely by its power, wavelength, linewidth, relative
intensity noise (RIN) and phase. These are controlled directly through the parameters peakPower,
wavelength, linewidth, RIN and phase. The laser can also be assigned a random phase by setting
randomPhase=YES. Note that by setting peakPower to 0, you can disable this models output.
There are two options for the temporal representation of the laser output selected by the parameter
signalType. For topologies in which a CW laser model provides direct input to a modulator model or the
pumps of a Raman fiber amplifier, the PowerValue signal representation is most convenient. In this
representation, the optical signal holds a single complex value describing the field amplitude and phase.
For topologies in which a CW laser models output is used as input to other component models or is to be
multiplexed with different optical signals from other types of sources, the TimeSequence signal
representation should be used. This is the standard time-sampled representation of optical signals. For this
representation, the timeStep and noSamples parameters must be set appropriately to match the sampling
rate and number of data samples of any other signals with which it will interact in the simulation. The
nominalBitRate parameter should also be set to an appropriate data rate.
Linewidth
Inclusion of a source linewidth in the laser output is controlled via the parameter linewidth_model, which
by default is set to none (for a linewidth of zero). If linewidth_model=phase_noise, and the laser output
uses the TimeSequence signal representation, then linewidth is added to the output via phase noise. These
random phase variations (seeded via the same phaseSeed parameter that controls random initial phase
values) result in a Lorentzian output power spectrum [1]. If linewidth_model=value, then the constant
linewidth value is attached to each output.
The specific value for the source linewidth is set by the parameter linewidth. If the parameter
linewidth_units=frequency, then linewidth is specified in Hz. If linewidth_units=wavelength, then
linewidth is specified in meters.
Polarization
to the X axis.
Multi-Line Output
It is frequently necessary to produce several CW signals with similar properties but different wavelengths.
In DWDM simulations especially, a series of regularly spaced optical sources is common. The CW Laser
model provides a number of convenient facilities so that many or all required lines can be generated from a
single icon. To produce a series of lines spaced equally in wavelength or frequency, set the parameter
mode=LambdaGrid or mode=FreqGrid, respectively. The number of sources is controlled by noSources,
and in both modes the parameter wavelength specifies the first line in a series of ascending wavelengths or
ascending frequencies, respectively. The source separation in wavelength or frequency is specified with
deltaFreq.
as follows:
MultiCWLaserFormat1 <freq_format> <power_format>
<freq_1> <power_1> <phase_1>
etc..
output node. To achieve the latter behavior, first set multiNodeOutput=YES. Then select the cw laser icon
and open the menu item Properties. In the Ports tab, number_output_ports field, enter the number of
lines that the model will generate (i.e. either noSources or the number of lines in the user data file if
mode=File). Figure 1 indicates the use of multi-node output mode to produce a series of WDM sources.

Figure 1: CW laser in multi-node output mode for WDM sources.
References
York, 1993).
1999).
Properties
Inputs
None
Outputs
Parameter Values
FreqGrid, File

filename string
linewidth_model enumerated none none, phase_noise,
value

linewidth_units enumerated frequency frequency,
wavelength

linewidth double 100e6 [ 0, 1e32 ] Hz or m
signalType enumerated PowerValue PowerValue,
TimeSequence

nominalBitRate double 10e9 [ 0, 1e32 ] Hz
randomPhase enumerated NO NO, YES
peakPower Peak power (also average power for CW laser)
wavelength Laser wavelength
linewidth_model Select linewidth representation
linewidth_units Select linewidth units
linewidth Linewidth value
signalType Select representation of a power or time sequence
timeStep For TimeSequence representation, the signal sampling time
nominalBitRate For TimeSequence representation, the signal bit rate
noSamples For TimeSequence representation, the number of signal samples
randomPhase Select randomization of laser phase
phase Select amplitude of phase randomization
phaseSeed Random number seed for phase randomization. (Standard OptSim seed convention).

Fabry Perot CW Laser

This block models a Fabry Perot CW laser with multiple longitudinal modes. The user specifies a center
wavelength (wavelength),the total output power (totalPower), the total spontaneous output power
(spontaneousPower), the total number of side modes (numSidemodes), and the spacing in Hz between
adjacent modes (modeSpacing). Based on these settings, the power in each mode is calculated as in [1]:
2
1 1
o
o
spo
P
P m
P M
| |
| |
+
| |
\ .
\ .

where P
o
is the power in the central mode, P
spo
is the spontaneous power in each mode (assumed to be the
same for all modes, and thus equal to the total spontaneous power divided by the total number of modes), m
is the mode number in the range [-M,+M], and the total number of modes is 2M+1. P
o
is calculated such
that the total power over all modes is equal to the total output power specified by the user.
The user may also control the representation of the output signal. There are two options for the temporal
representation of the laser output selected by the parameter signalType. In the PowerValue signal
The TimeSequence signal representation is the standard time-sampled representation of optical signals. For
this representation, the timeStep and noSamples parameters must be set appropriately to match the
sampling rate and number of data samples of any other signals with which it will interact in the simulation.
The nominalBitRate parameter should also be set to an appropriate data rate. If the TimeSequence
representation is chosen, then the user may further determine the representation of the lasers multiple
output modes. Setting bandType to single forces the output to be a single-band optical signal. When
bandType is set to multi, each mode has its own output signal. Note that for PowerValue signals, the
output will always be multi.
The user can also set values for the laser outputs relative-intensity noise (RIN), as well as its optical phase
(phase). A random value for the phase can be selected by setting randomPhase to yes and choosing an
appropriate seed value (randomSeed).
Linewidth
Inclusion of a source linewidth for each mode in the laser output is controlled via the parameter
linewidth_model, which by default is set to none (for a linewidth of zero). If linewidth_model is set to
phase_noise, and the laser output uses the TimeSequence signal representation, then linewidth is added to
the output via phase noise. These random phase variations (seeded via the same randomSeed parameter
that controls random initial phase values) result in a Lorentzian output power spectrum [1]. If
linewidth_model is set to value, then the constant linewidth value is attached to each output.
The specific value for the linewidth is set by the parameter linewidth. If the parameter
Polarization
to the X axis.
References
[1] G. P. Agrawal and N. K. Dutta, Semiconductor Lasers, 2nd. ed. (Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York,
1993).
[2] M. Born and E. Wolf, Principles of Optics, 7th. Ed. (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1999).
Properties
Inputs
None
Outputs
#1: Optical signal
Parameter Values
totalPower double 1e-3 [ 0, 1e32 ] W
spontaneousPower double 0 [ 0, 1e32 ] W
numSidemodes integer 0 [ 0, 100000 ] none
modeSpacing double 100e9 [ 0, 1e32 ] Hz
value

wavelength

TimeSequence

bandType enumerated single single, multi
randomPhase enumerated no no, yes
randomSeed integer 0 [ -1e8, 1 ] none
totalPower Total output power
wavelength Center mode wavelength
spontaneousPower Total output power due to spontaneous emission
numSidemodes Number of side modes
modeSpacing Spacing between modes in Hz
bandType Select single- or multi-band spectral representation
phase Optical phase value
randomSeed Random number seed
azimuth Polarization azimuthal angle
ellipticity Polarization ellipticity
force_Ey Select forcing of Y-polarization even if zero
VCSEL

This block models a vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser (VCSEL) directly modulated with an electrical signal. It
computes the electrical current injected into the lasers optical cavity and solves the laser rate equations for the optical
output. Important VCSEL behaviors such as spatial hole burning, lateral carrier diffusion, thermally dependent gain, and
thermal carrier leakage are all accounted for. The behavior of the model can be partitioned into three blocks, as shown in
Fig. 1.

Figure 1: Main components of the VCSEL model
The driving source consists of the electrical signal input into the model. The parasitics consist of a bond inductance and
shunting capacitance. Finally, the VCSEL cavity is modeled via a simplified current-voltage (IV) relationship and
spatially independent VCSEL rate equations.
Driving Source
The VCSEL is driven by a combination of the electrical signal at its input and, when applicable, a dc bias current
specified by I
o
(Io). The input electrical signal can be interpreted in a variety of ways, based on the settings of the model
parameter Drive_Scheme. This parameter can take on values of direct_drive, direct_ user_iv, or bias_tee.
direct_drive
The input signal is assumed to come from either an ideal current source or zero-impedance voltage source.
In other words, the laser is assumed to be undergoing direct-drive modulation. If the input signal is a
current, then it is combined with the bias current I
o
to form the total input current. Figure 2(a) illustrates
this scenario. If the input signal is a voltage, then the bias current I
o
is ignored. Note that the input voltage
should be larger than the lasers turn-on voltage V
on
; otherwise, the resulting current is zero. This
arrangement is illustrated in Fig. 2(b).

direct_user_iv
Equivalent to direct_drive, but with support for a user-specified equation for the cavity voltage (see below).
bias_tee
s
(Rs), connected to the
laser via an ideal bias tee. The bias current I
o
is similarly connected. The input signal can be either a
current or a voltage. Figure 3 depicts a bias tee setup for both the voltage- and current-source cases.

Parasitics
b
p
(Cp). These can be turned on or off via
the parameter Parasitics.
VCSEL Cavity
Both electrical and optical effects are modeled within the VCSEL cavity.
Electrical
In both the direct_drive and bias_tee modes of operation, the electrical model of the VCSEL cavity is that of a simplified
diode IV relationship, consisting of a series resistance R
d
on
(Von). During solution of the
cavity current I, the model ensures that negative currents are effectively limited to zero.
For the direct_user_iv mode of operation, the user may specify a nonlinear equation for the cavity voltage via the
parameter voltage_equation. This equation should be a function of cavity current I and device temperature T. For
example, to implement a simple diode, the user might set voltage_equation equal to I*100+17.2e-5*T*log(I/1e-
18+1.0), where we have assumed a 100- series resistance, a saturation current of 10
-18
A, and a diode ideality factor of
2.
Rate Equations
At the core of the VCSEL block are spatially independent semiconductor laser rate equations, which determine the
optical output in response to the cavity current I [1]. Relative intensity noise is modeled via a constant value RIN (RIN),
and the optical emission frequency is set by (wavelength). The model rate equations are based on the following
single-mode spatially dependent equations [1]:

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
2
2
, , , ,
, ,
eff i l
n n
L N r t I r t N r t I N T
G r t S t r N r t
t q q
= +
r r r
r r r

(1)

( ) ( ) 1 1
( , ) ( , ) ( ) ( )
p n
V V
S t S t
N r t dv G r t S t r dv
t V V

= + +

v v v

(2)
In (1), I is the spatially dependent injection current, N is the carrier density scaled by the effective active-layer volume V,
S and are the total photon number and normalized transverse mode profile, T is the device temperature, G is the gain, I
l

is the thermal leakage current,
I
(effint) is the current-injection efficiency,
n
(tn) is the carrier lifetime, L
eff
is the
effective carrier diffusion length, and q is the electron charge. In (2), (b) is the spontaneous-emission coupling
coefficient, and
p
(tp) is the photon lifetime. Following the approach taken in [1], we can eliminate the explicit spatial
dependence from (1) and (2) by assuming a cylindrical geometry, neglecting azimuthal variations, and adopting a two-
term Bessel-series expansion for the carrier profile:

0 1 0 1
( / ) N N J r R
(3)
where
1
is the first nonzero root of J
1
(x), and R is the active-layer effective radius. If we further assume a uniform
current distribution and linear gain, we can eliminate the explicit spatial dependence from (1) and (2), thereby obtaining
the following spatially independent VCSEL rate equations:

0 0 00 0 01 1 0
( ) [ ( ( )) ] ( , )
1
i t l
n
dN I N G T N N T N I N T
S
dt q S q

=
+

(4)

100 0 101 1 1 1
( ) [ ( ( )) ]
(1 )
1
t
diff
n
G T N N T N dN N
h S
dt S

= + +
+

(5)

0 00 0 01 1
( ) [ ( ( )) ]
1
t
p n
N G T N N T N dS S
S
dt S

= + +
+

(6)
In (4)-(6), the spatial dependence of the gain is now accounted for via the overlap coefficients
00
(gam00),
01
(gam01),
100
(phi100), and
101
(phi101), while diffusive effects are taken care of via h
diff
(hdiff), which is equal to
2
1
( / )
eff
L R .
The thermal dependence of the gain is taken into account via the thermally dependent gain constant G(T) and
transparency number N
t
(T), while gain saturation is modeled via (e), the gain saturation factor. Furthermore, the
leakage I
l
is now a function of N
0
(the average carrier number), as opposed to N. Finally, the photon number S is
converted to an output power via the output-power coupling coefficient k
f
(kf) using the expression P
out
= k
f
S.
Phase Rate Equation
A rate equation for the optical phase is also included in the model, and is based on work presented in [7] and [8]:

00 0 01 1
( ) [ ( ) ]
2 1
th
G T N N N d
dt S

=
+

(7)
is the optical phase, (alpha) is the linewidth enhancement factor, and N
th
is the room-temperature threshold carrier
number (the model assumes that the specified laser wavelength is defined at room temperature).
Mode-Carrier Overlap
If the transverse mode profile I is normalized such that

2
0
2
( ) 1 r r dr
R

(8)
then the mode overlap coefficients can be calculated as [1]:

0 0
2
0
2
( / ) ( )
R
i i
J r R r r dr
R
=

(9)

10 0 0 1
2 2
0 1 0
2
( / ) ( / ) ( )
( )
R
i i
J r R J r R r r dr
R J

(10)
where I = 0 or 1, and
0
= 0. By setting the parameter overlap_calculation to off, the user is free to calculate specific
values for the overlap coefficients depending on their particular choice of mode profile.
In many situations, one can model the mode profile of a single mode device as a Gaussian with characteristic radius R
m
.
In this case, it can be shown that the overlap coefficients reduce to functions of (overlap), where = R
m
/R [2]. By
setting overlap_calculation to on, the overlap coefficients are calculated as functions of , overriding the specified
values.
Thermally Dependent Gain
In order to account for a VCSEL gains unique thermal dependence, the gain is modeled as a linear function of carrier
number N, with thermally dependent gain constant and transparency number. The gain constant G(T) and transparency
number N
t
(T) are described via the following empirical relationships [1]:

2
0 1 2
2
0 1 2
( )
g g g
o
g g g
a a T a T
G T G
b b T b T
+ +
=
+ +

(11)

2
0 1 2
( ) ( )
t tr n n n
N T N c c T c T = + +
(12)
where G
o
(Go) is a gain constant, N
tr
(Ntr) is a transparency number, and a
g0
-a
g2
(ag0-ag2), b
g0
-b
g2
(bg0-bg2), and c
n0
-c
n2

(cn0-cn2) are fitting parameters. Generally, the gain constant will be peaked about some optimal temperature value, as a
result of the temperature-dependent mismatch between lasing wavelength and gain peak. An example of the gain
constant based on the models default values is illustrated in Fig. 4. The transparency number generally increases with
temperature.

Figure 4: Sample thermally dependent gain constant based on default model values
Thermal Carrier Leakage
Thermally dependent carrier leakage is modeled using the following empirical relationship [1], based on the analysis of
[3]:

0 1 0 2 0 3 0
0
/
( , ) exp
l lo
a a N a N T a N
I N T I
T
+ + (
=
(

(13)
where I
lo
(Ilo) is the leakage current factor, and a
0
-a
3
(a0-a3) are fitting parameters. This expression accounts for the
interdependence of the carrier number and temperature in determining the total leakage current. An example of (13) for
various temperatures is illustrated in Fig. 5.

Figure 5: Sample thermal leakage current based on default model values
Temperature Rate Equation
To complete the thermal aspect of the model, a rate equation for the device temperature as a function of dissipated heat is
included. Heat generation is assumed to arise from any power not dissipated as part of the optical output. The resulting
equation is [1],[4]:
( )
o tot out th th
dT
T T I V P R
dt
= +
(14)
where T
o
(To) is the ambient temperature, I
tot
is the total current flowing through the VCSEL (including current through
the intrinsic parasitic shunting capacitance C
p
), R
th
(Rth) is the device thermal impedance, and
th
(tth) is the thermal
time constant.
Polarization
By default, the laser emits an output field polarized along the X axis, with no corresponding Y-polarized component. A
zero-valued Y-polarized component may be included in this case by setting the parameter force_Ey to yes. The field
polarization itself may be changed via the parameters azimuth and ellipticity. These parameters correspond to the
azimuth and ellipticity angles of the polarization ellipse, respectively. Some typical values for these parameters are [5]:
ellipticity = 0: Linear polarization, with azimuth describing the tilt of the field vector relative to the X
axis.
Multi-Line Output
It is frequently necessary to produce several signals with similar properties but different wavelengths. In DWDM
simulations especially, a series of regularly spaced optical sources is common. The VCSEL model provides a number of
convenient facilities so that many or all required lines can be generated from a single icon. To produce a series of lines
spaced equally in wavelength or frequency, set the parameter mode=LambdaGrid or mode=FreqGrid, respectively.
The number of sources is controlled by the number of electrical inputs to the laser, and in both modes the parameter
wavelength specifies the first line in a series of ascending wavelengths or ascending frequencies, respectively. The
source separation in wavelength or frequency is specified with deltaFreq. To set the number of electrical inputs to the
laser, select the VCSEL icon and open the menu item Properties. In the Ports tab, number_input_ports field, enter the
number of inputs.
The comb of sources may be emitted either through a single node (the default) or with one channel per output node. To
achieve the latter behavior, select the VCSEL icon and open the menu item Properties. Set the value of the
number_output_ports field in the Ports tab to that of the number_input_ports field.
Numerical Settings
During simulation, the laser rate equations are numerically solved. To control the accuracy of these calculations, the
user has access to three parameters. Eps adjusts the overall tolerance level, or accuracy, of the solution. Initial_tstep is
the initial time step used by the models ODE solver. Min_tstep is the smallest time step that this solver is allowed to
take.
Test Parameters
In order to ascertain whether the parameter settings for the VCSEL block provide the component performance desired,
the user may test them from the component parameter editing window. This test produces a family of light-current (LI)
curves at different ambient temperature T
o
. The test can be controlled via model parameters carrying a prefix Test_.
These parameters allow the user to set sweep limits, etc.
LI Curve
The LI curve is controlled via the parameters Test_Imin, Test_Imax, Test_Lipoints, Test_Tomin, Test_Tomax, and
Test_Topoints. Based on these parameters, a family of LI curves is generated over a range of ambient temperatures
from Test_Tomin to Test_Tomax. The number of curves is determined by Test_Topoints. Each LI curve is generated
over currents ranging from Test_Imin to Test_Imax, with the total number of points per curve specified by
Test_LIpoints. A sample family of LI curves is shown in Fig. 6. Note that if a user-specified cavity voltage equation is
being used, a plot of cavity voltage versus current will also be displayed.

Figure 6: Sample test family of LI curves at ambient temperatures of 25-75 C
References
[1] P. V. Mena, J. J. Morikuni, S.-M. Kang, A. V. Harton, and K. W. Wyatt, A comprehensive circuit-level
model of vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers, Journal of Lightwave Technology, 17, 2612 (1999).
[2] P. V. Mena, J. J. Morikuni, and K. W. Wyatt, Compact representations of mode overlap for circuit-level
VCSEL models, IEEE/LEOS Annual Meeting Conference Proceedings, 234 (2000).
[3] J. W. Scott, R. S. Geels, S. W. Corzine, and L. A. Coldren, Modeling temperature effects and spatial hole
burning to optimize vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser performance, IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics, 29, 1295
(1993).
[4] N. Bewtra, D. A. Suda, G. L. Tan, F. Chatenoud, and J. M. Xu, Modeling of quantum-well lasers with
electro-opto-thermal interaction, IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics, 1, 331 (1995).
[6] G. P. Agrawal and N. K. Dutta, Semiconductor Lasers, 2nd. Ed. (Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1993).
[7] M. X. Jungo, D. Erni, and W. Bchtold, VISTAS: A comprehensive system-oriented spatiotemporal VCSEL
model, IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics, 9, 939 (2003).
[8] L. A. Coldren and S. W. Corzine, Diode Lasers and Photonic Integrated Circuits (John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
New York, 1995).
Properties
Inputs
Outputs
Parameter Values
LambdaGrid

effint double 1.0 [ 0, 1e32 ] none
kf double 1.5e-8 [ 0, 1e32 ] W
b double 1e-3 [ 0, 1e32 ] none
tp double 2.5e-12 [ 0, 1e32 ] s
tn double 2.5e-9 [ 0, 1e32 ] s
Go double 3e4 [ 0, 1e32 ] 1/s
ag0 double -0.4 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] none
ag1 double 0.00147 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] 1/K
ag2 double 7.65e-7 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] 1/K^2
bg0 double 1.3608 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] none
bg1 double -0.00974 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] 1/K
bg2 double 1.8e-5 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] 1/K^2
Ntr double 1e7 [ 0, 1e32 ] none
cn0 double -1 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] none
cn1 double 0.008 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] 1/K
cn2 double 6e-6 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] 1/K^2
e double 5e-7 [ 0, 1e32 ] none
alpha double 0 [ 0, 1e32 ] none
Ilo double 9.61 [ 0, 1e32 ] A
a0 double 4588.24 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] K
a1 double 2.12e-5 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] K
a2 double 8e-8 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] none
a3 double 9.01e9 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] K
overlap_calculation enumerated off on, off
overlap double 1 [ 0.01, 10.00 ] none
gam00 double 1 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] none
gam01 double 0.37978 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] none
phi100 double 2.3412 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] none
hdiff double 15 [ 0, 1e32 ] none
To double 25 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] C
Rth double 900 [ 0, 1e32 ] K/W
tth double 1e-6 [ 0, 1e32 ] s
Von double 1.75 [ 0, 1e32 ] V
Drive_Scheme enumerated direct_drive direct_drive, bias_tee
Io double 1.5e-3 [ 0, 1e32 ] A
Lb double 0.3e-9 [ 0, 1e32 ] H
Cp double 2e-12 [ 0, 1e32 ] F
test_function enumerated LI LI
Test_Tomin double 25 [ 0, 1e32 ] C
Test_Tomax double 75 [ 0, 1e32 ] C
Test_Topoints integer 3 [ 0, 20 ] none
I

kf Output power coupling coefficient, k
f

tp Photon lifetime,
p

tn Carrier lifetime,
n

o

ag0-ag2, bg0-bg2 Gain coefficient empirical parameters, a
g0
-a
g2
, b
g0
-b
g2

Ntr Carrier transparency number, N
tr

cn0-cn2 Transparency number empirical parameters, c
n0
-c
n2

alpha Linewidth enhancement factor,
Ilo Leakage current factor, A
a0-a3 Leakage current empirical parameters, a
0
-a
3

overlap_calculation Overlap calculation flag: on, off
overlap Overlap parameter,
gam00, gam01 Overlap coefficients for N
0
and S rate equations,
00
and
01

phi100, phi101 Overlap coefficients for N
1
rate equation,
100
and
101

hdiff Diffusion parameter, h
diff
RIN VCSEL relative intensity noise, RIN
To Ambient temperature, T
o
Rth VCSEL thermal impedance, R
th

tth Thermal time constant,
th

Rd VCSEL cavity resistance, R
d

Von VCSEL turn-on voltage, V
on

Drive_Scheme Drive signal definition: direct_drive, bias_tee
s

o

Lb VCSEL bond inductance, L
b

Cp VCSEL parasitic capacitance, C
p

test_function Test-function selection: LI curve
Test_Imin Minimum current for LI curves
Test_Imax Maximum current for LI curves
Test_LIpoints Number of points per LI curve
Test_Tomin Minimum ambient temperature for LI curve generation
Test_Tomax Maximum ambient temperature for LI curve generation
Test_Topoints Number of LI curves (one per ambient temperature setting)

Light Emitting Diode (LED)

This block models a Light Emitting Diode (LED) directly modulated with an electrical signal. It computes the electrical
current injected into the LEDs optical cavity and generates the optical response, including linewidth and relative
intensity noise. The behavior of the model can be partitioned into three blocks, as shown in Fig. 1.
The driving source consists of the electrical signal input into the model. The parasitics consist of a bond inductance and
shunting capacitance. Finally, the LED optical cavity is modeled via a simplified current-voltage (IV) relationship and
linear carrier rate equation.

Figure 1: Main components of the Light Emitting Diode model.
LED Optical Response
The LED cavitys optical response is modeled via a linear rate equation for the cavity carrier density. Relative intensity
noise is modeled via a constant value RIN (RIN). The carrier rate equation, following the treatment in [1], is:

n
dN I N
dt qV
=
(1)
where I is the injection current, N is the carrier density, q is the electron charge, V is the cavity volume, and
n
is the
carrier lifetime. The optical output power at wavelength (wavelength) is proportional to N/
n
. When the parasitic
response time is much shorter than
n
, the carrier lifetime is proportional to the intrinsic LED rise/fall time
rf

(rise_fall_time), where ln(9)
rf n
= . Because (1) is linear and the optical output is proportional to N, we can readily
convert (1) into a frequency-domain transfer function for the output power versus input current, whose dc value is simply
the LED responsivity (responsivity), measured in W/A. Thus, the intrinsic optical response is (in the frequency
domain):
( ) ( )
1
out
n
P I
j

=
+

(2)
where P
out
is the optical output power and I is the cavity current. Note that when the parasitic response time contributes
significantly to the rise/fall time, the value of the parameter rise_fall_time should be adjusted accordingly by removing
any parasitic contributions which are accounted for via the models parasitic element parameters.
In order to add a constant optical phase to this output, the user may specify either a fixed value (initial_phase), or
request a randomly generated value (by setting randomInitialPhase to yes). In the latter case, the user must provide an
integer seed (randomSeed) in the range 1e8 to 1. If randomSeed < 0, then randomSeed itself acts as the seed value
for random number generation. If randomSeed = 0, then the LED component name acts as the seed. In both cases, the
same random number is generated in successive simulations. Alternatively, if randomSeed = 1, then the system clock
setting serves as the seed value, in which case different random numbers will be generated in successive simulations.
Linewidth
Inclusion of a source linewidth in the LED output is controlled via the parameter linewidth_model, which by default is
set to none (for a linewidth of zero). If linewidth_model=phase_noise, then linewidth is added to the output via phase
noise. These random phase variations (seeded via the same randomSeed parameter that controls the random initial
phase value) result in a Lorentzian output power spectrum [2]. If linewidth_model=value, then the constant linewidth
value is attached to each output.
linewidth_units=frequency, then linewidth is specified in Hz. If linewidth_units=wavelength, then linewidth is
specified in meters.
LED Electrical Model
The electrical model of the LEDs optical cavity is that of a simplified diode IV relationship, consisting of a series
resistance R
d
on
(Von). During solution of the cavity current I, the model ensures that negative
currents are effectively limited to zero.
Device parasitics may consist of a bond inductance L
b
p
(Cp), as shown in Fig. 1. These
can be turned on or off via the parameter parasitics.
Driving Source
The Light Emitting Diode is driven by a combination of the electrical signal at its input and, when applicable, a dc bias
current specified by I
bias
(Ibias).
The input electrical signal can be interpreted in a variety of ways, based on the settings of the model parameter
drive_scheme. This parameter can take on values of direct_drive or bias_tee.
direct_drive
The input signal is assumed to come from either an ideal current source or zero-impedance voltage source.
In other words, the LED is assumed to be undergoing direct-drive modulation. If the input signal is a
current, then it is combined with the bias current I
bias
to form the total input current. Figure 2(a) illustrates
this scenario. If the input signal is a voltage, then I
bias
is ignored. Note that the input voltage should be
larger than the LEDs turn-on voltage V
on
; otherwise, the resulting current is zero. This arrangement is
illustrated in Fig. 2(b).
bias_tee
s
(Rs), connected to the
LED via an ideal bias tee. The bias current I
bias
is similarly connected. The input signal can be either a
current or a voltage. Figure 3 depicts a bias tee setup for both the voltage- and current-source cases.

Figure 2: Direct-drive modulation schemes: (a) current and (b) voltage.

Figure 3: Bias-tee modulation schemes: (a) voltage source and (b) current source.
Polarization
By default, the laser emits an output field polarized along the X axis, with no corresponding Y-polarized component. A
zero-valued Y-polarized component may be included in this case by setting the parameter force_Ey to yes. The field
polarization itself may be changed via the parameters azimuth and ellipticity. These parameters correspond to the
azimuth and ellipticity angles of the polarization ellipse, respectively. Some typical values for these parameters are [3]:
ellipticity = 0: Linear polarization, with azimuth describing the tilt of the field vector relative to the X
axis.
Multi-Line Output
It is frequently necessary to produce several signals with similar properties but different wavelengths. In DWDM
simulations especially, a series of regularly spaced optical sources is common. The LED model provides a number of
convenient facilities so that many or all required lines can be generated from a single icon. To produce a series of lines
spaced equally in wavelength or frequency, set the parameter mode=LambdaGrid or mode=FreqGrid, respectively.
The number of sources is controlled by the number of electrical inputs to the laser, and in both modes the parameter
wavelength specifies the first line in a series of ascending wavelengths or ascending frequencies, respectively. The
source separation in wavelength or frequency is specified with deltaFreq. To set the number of electrical inputs to the
laser, select the LED icon and open the menu item Properties. In the Ports tab, number_input_ports field, enter the
number of inputs.
The comb of sources may be emitted either through a single node (the default) or with one channel per output node. To
achieve the latter behavior, select the LED icon and open the menu item Properties. Set the value of the
number_output_ports field in the Ports tab to that of the number_input_ports field.
Test Functions
In order to ascertain whether the parameter settings for the Light Emitting Diode block provide the component
performance desired, the user may test them from the component parameter editing window. This test produces either a
light-current curve or small-signal frequency response curves. By setting the test_function parameter to the desired
output and clicking the Test button in the component-parameter editing window, the user may display the LED
characteristics summarized below. Furthermore, the default plot ranges for each characteristic may be overridden by
setting test_default_settings to no, and specifying values for test_function_x_low, test_function_x_high, and
test_function_points (the number of data points to plot). For frequency response curves, the user may also select
whether or not to display the x-axis in log scale (test_log_x).
LI: Plots the LEDs light-current (LI) characteristic. The plot range should be specified in amperes. The
plot units can be set via the parameters power_units and current_units.
transfer_function: Displays the LEDs small-signal optical transfer function (optical power versus current),
including parasitic effects. The plot range should be specified in Hertz. The plot units can be set via the
parameters response_units and frequency_units.
S21: Displays the LEDs small-signal S21 response. The plot range should be specified in Hertz. Plot
units can be set via the parameters response_units and frequency_units.
References
[1] B. E. A. Saleh and M. C. Teich, Fundamentals of Photonics (John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1991).
[2] G. P. Agrawal and N. K. Dutta, Semiconductor Lasers, 2nd. ed. (Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1993).
Properties
Inputs
Outputs
Parameter Values
LambdaGrid

responsivity double 1.0 [ 0, 1e32 ] W/A
rise_fall_time double 1e-9 [ 0, 1e32 ] s
linewidth_model enumerated phase_noise none, phase_noise,
value

wavelength

Rd double 5.0 [ 0, 1e32 ] ohm
Von double 2.0 [ 0, 1e32 ] V
drive_scheme enumerated direct_drive direct_drive, bias_tee
Rs double 50.0 [ 0, 1e32 ] ohm
Ibias double 25e-3 [ 0, 1e32 ] A
parasitics enumerated no no, yes
Cp double 2e-12 [ 0, 1e32 ] F
Lb double 0.3e-9 [ 0, 1e32 ] H
test_function enumerated LI LI, transfer_function,
S21

test_default_settings enumerated yes yes, no
test_function_x_low double 0 [ 0, 1e32 ] none
test_function_x_high double 100e-3 [ 0, 1e32 ] none
test_function_points integer 201 [ 2, 100000 ] none
test_log_x enumerated yes yes, no
power_units enumerated mW uW, mW, W, dBm
current_units enumerated mA nA, uA, mA, A
frequency_units enumerated Hz Hz, kHz, MHz, GHz,
THz

response_units enumerated dB linear, dB
wavelength
Wavelength of the LED,
responsivity
Optical response coefficient
rise_fall_time
Intrinsic rise/fall time ln(9)
rf n
=
linewidth_model Linewidth model selection
linewidth_units Linewidth units selection
randomInitialPhase Random phase setting
initial_phase Constant phase value, when randomInitialPhase = no
randomSeed Random-number-generation seed value
RIN Relative intensity noise, RIN
Rd Cavity resistance R
d

Von Turn-on voltage V
on

drive_scheme Drive signal setting
Rs Source impedance R
s

Ibias Bias current I
bias

parasitics Parasitics setting
Cp Parasitic capacitance C
p

Lb Bond inductance L
b
power_units Units for optical power
current_units Units for electrical current
frequency_units Units for modulation frequency
response_units Units for small-signal response data
test_function Test function output selection.
test_default_settings Selection for default settings in test function output
test_function_x_low Lowest x-value for test function output
test_function_x_high Highest x-value for test function output
test_function_points Number of points in test function output
test_log_x Switch for using log scale for test function x-values
Modulator

This models an electro-optic modulator. Several types of modulators may be modeled with this block, including the
Mach-Zehnder type. When using the modulator model with the mode-locked laser model, the user must ensure that the
number of samples per bit and the bit sequence pattern width for both the binary sequence generator and the mode-
locked laser model are the same.
The electrical parasitic frequency response for the modulator is written as one of three fitting forms,

( )
( )
( )
2
2 3 4
0 1 2 3 4
fOffset type
1
Coefficients type
0
1 ( 2 )
+ + + ( )
pow
offset
signal
signal
f f
V f
Coef
V
Coef f
a a f a f a f a f dB
+
=
+
+ Polynomial type

where f is in unit of GHz. Be careful with polynomial fitting, the fitting must be reasonable to frequencies up to the FFT
sampling frequency. If an ideal parasitic frequency response is desired, use the Coefficients type with Coef1=1.0 and
Coef2=0.0.
After accounting for the parasitic response, the voltage signal is input to the optical modulator and the corresponding
intensity response of the modulator is modeled as one of the following forms, depending on the modulation type chosen.
Mach-Zehnder
For the Mach-Zehnder type modulator, the following intensity response function is used:

<
|
|
.
|
\
| +
=

1

1
1

2
sin
/ /
/
2
off on i
o
off on
off on i
o
offset bias signal
i
o
R I
I
R
R I
I
V
V V V
I
I

where R
on off
is the extinction ratio of the modulator in linear units (to be input by user as parameter onOffRatio in dB
units) and V
signal
represents the electrical signal after being modified by the parasitic frequency response and optionally
being level-shifted such that the average level is zero, modeling the behavior of the bias circuitry. The sine function is
used instead of the cosine function in the Mach-Zehnder modulator so that the modulated signal will have the same
polarity as the original binary sequence. This is important for increased numerical accuracy in simulation. To deactivate
the extinction ratio modification to the signal, set the extinction ratio parameter to 0.
Chirp of the modulator is also modeled. The phase change due to chirping is calculated as (see for example, Fumio
Koyama and Kenichi Iga, Frequency chirping in external modulators, J. of Lightwave Technology, Vol. 6, pp. 87-93,
1988.),

1
2
d C ds
dt S dt
| |
=
|
\ .
which gives
0
0
ln
2
C S
S

| |
= +
|
\ .

where C is the user-specified ChirpFactor, is the optical instantaneous phase, and S is the instantaneous intensity of the
light.
Ideal
For the ideal signal type modulator, the following intensity response function is used:

<
|
|
.
|
\
| +
=
off on i
o
off on
off on i
o
offset bias signal
i
o
R I
I
R
R I
I
V
V V V
I
I
/ /
/
2
1

1
1

where R
on/off
is the extinction ratio of the modulator (to be input by user as parameter onOffRatio in dB units), and V
signal

represents the electrical signal after being modified by the parasitic frequency response and optionally being level-shifted
such that its average level is zero. To have an ideal parasitic frequency response, use the Coefficients type and set the
first coefficient to 1, and the second to 0. To deactivate the extinction ratio modification, set the extinction ratio
parameter to 0. Note that intensity is the square of the field; therefore a sinusoidal modulating electrical signal applies a
sinusoidal modulation to the electric field of the optical output signal. Also note the behavior when
signal bias offset
V V V + < 0 and set the values appropriately to avoid any undesired behavior.
Chirp may be included in the Ideal type modulator, as well. If no chirp is desired, the ChirpFactor parameter should be
set to 0. The phase change due to chirping is calculated the same as in the Mach-Zehnder type modulator.
Amplitude
This may represent both an ideal amplitude modulator as well as an electroabsorption modulator depending on the
parameter settings and whether chirp is specified. For the amplitude type modulator, the following intensity response
function is used:

<
|
|
.
|
\
| +
=
off on i
o
off on
off on i
o
offset bias signal
i
o
R I
I
R
R I
I
V
V V V
I
I
/ /
/
1

1
1

where R
on/off
is the extinction ratio of the modulator (to be input by user as parameter onOffRatio in dB units), and V
signal

represents the electrical signal after being modified by the parasitic frequency response and optionally being level-shifted
such that its average level is zero. To have an ideal parasitic frequency response, use the Coefficients type and set the
first coefficient to 1, and the second to 0. To deactivate the extinction ratio modification, set the extinction ratio
parameter to 0. In no case is the response allowed to go below 0. If it does, it is clipped at 0.
Chirp may be included in the ideal amplitude type modulator, as well. If no chirp is desired, the ChirpFactor parameter
should be set to 0. The phase change due to chirping is calculated the same as in the Mach-Zehnder type modulator.
Phase
For the phase type modulator, the following intensity response function is used:
exp
signal bias offset
o
i
V V V
E
j
E V
| + | | |
=
| |
\ . \ .

where is the specified phase shift and V
signal
represents the electrical signal after being modified by the parasitic
frequency response and optionally being level-shifted such that its average level is zero. To have an ideal parasitic
frequency response, use the Coefficients type and set the first coefficient to 1, and the second to 0.
Chirp may be included in the phase type modulator, as well. If no chirp is desired, the ChirpFactor parameter should be
set to 0. The phase change due to chirping is calculated the same as in the Mach-Zehnder type modulator.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical signal
Outputs
#1: Optical signal
Parameter Values
modulationType enumerated MachZehnder Ideal, Amplitude,
Phase, MachZehnder

phaseShift double 0.0 [ -180, 180 ] degrees
vPi double 1.0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] Volts
vBias double 0.0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] Volts
vOffset double 0.0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] Volts
onOffRatio double 0 [ 0, 1e6 ] dB
insertionLoss double 0 [ 0, 1e6 ] dB
fittingType enumerated Coefficients fOffset, Coefficients,
Polynomial

fOffset double 0.0 [ 0, 1e32 ] GHz
power double 0.0 [ -100, 100 ] none
coef1 double 1 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] none
coef2 double 0.0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] 1/GHz
a0 double 1.0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] none
a1 double 0.0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] 1/GHz
a2 double 0.0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] 1/GHz^2
a3 double 0.0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] 1/GHz^3
a4 double 0.0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] 1/GHz^4
ChirpFactor double 0.0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] none
MatchEnds enumerated No No, Yes
LevelShift enumerated No No, Yes
fittingType Modulator electrical parasitics fitting type
modulationType Modulation response function type
LevelShift Whether to level shift input voltage signal to have an average value of 0 before
applying modulation function to optical signal
MatchEnds Whether to alter the signal value in the last two bit periods of the output optical
signal to gradually bring it to the same value as the start of the optical signal
vPi vPi of the modulator
vBias Bias voltage of the modulator
vOffset Offset voltage of the modulator
onOffRatio Extinction or on-off ratio
insertionLoss Insertion loss = waveguide + coupling loss
foffset Offset for the Frequency Response parasitics fitting type
power Exponent for the Frequency Response parasitics fitting type
coef1 Coef1 in Coefficients of the parasitics frequency response
coef2 Coef2 in Coefficients of the parasitics frequency response
ChirpFactor Chirp parameter for modulator
a0 a0 of Polynomial Fitting of the parasitics frequency response
Electroabsorption Modulator

This model represents an electroabsorption modulator. With voltage scaling enabled, it allows the user to specify the
extinction ratio of the output optical signal explicitly, and it scales the input modulating voltage signal as required to
obtain the specified extinction ratio at the output. Nonlinear modulation response is also supported with either file-based
data interpolation or a 7
th
order polynomial in terms of the scaled or un-scaled input modulating voltage signal. The
model also allows the chirp factor to be specified as a data file or as a 7
th
order polynomial in terms of the input
modulating voltage signal and supports specification of dc chirp with another data file or 7
th
order polynomial in terms of
the input modulating voltage signal. In addition, the user may specify whether or not the output optical signal should be
modulated as the inverse of the input electrical signal (only if voltage scaling is enabled), and whether the alpha
parameter should be considered positive or negative (to accommodate differing conventions in the literature).
The model has two input ports and one output port. The first input port accepts an optical signal that is modulated to
produce the output optical signal, and the second input port accepts an electrical signal that is used to modulate the input
optical signal to produce the output optical signal. The input optical signal may be any type of optical signal, but it is
recommended to use the CW laser or mode-locked laser sources to provide the input optical signal. The user must
ensure that the total number of samples contained within the input electrical and optical signals are the same, as are the
sampling rates. An exception to this is when using the CW laser model to produce the PowerValue signal type.
When voltage scaling is enabled (voltage_scaling = Yes), the expression describing the relationship between the input
optical signal and the output optical signal is as follows:
( )
/10 /10
10 1 10
L R o
i
I
x x
I

(
= +

where I
o
is the output optical intensity, I
i
is the input optical intensity, L is the insertion loss in dB, R is the extinction
ratio in dB, and x is as follows:

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 3
0 1 2 3
4 5 6 7
4 5 6 7
s s s
s s s s
x x V x V x V
x
x V x V x V x V
+ + +
=

+ + + +

where V
s
is the input electrical voltage after scaling to range from 0 to 1 and optionally inverting. x may also be
interpolated from a data file providing x vs. V
s
values.
When voltage scaling is disabled (voltage_scaling = No), the expression describing the relationship between the input
optical signal and the output optical signal is as follows:

/10
10
L o
i
I
x
I
=
where I
o
is the output optical intensity, I
i
is the input optical intensity, L is the insertion loss in dB, and x is as follows:

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 3
0 1 2 3
4 5 6 7
4 5 6 7
offset offset offset
offset offset offset offset
x x V V x V V x V V
x
x V V x V V x V V x V V
+ + +
+ + + +

where V is the un-scaled un-inverted input modulating voltage, and V
offset
is a user-specified voltage offset parameter. x
may also be interpolated from a data file providing x vs. V-V
offset
values.

Expressions describing the frequency chirp and the phase change of the output optical signal due to frequency chirping
are as follows (see for example, Fumio Koyama and Kenichi Iga, Frequency chirping in external modulators, J. of
Lightwave Technology, Vol. 6, pp. 87-93, 1988.):
Frequency Chirp (Hz)
1
2
d
dt
=
where is the phase in units of radians and

1
2
dc
d d ds
dt S dt dt
| |
= +
|
\ .

where

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 3
0 1 2 3
4 5 6 7
4 5 6 7
m m m
m m m m
V V V V V V
V V V V V V V V

+ + +
=

+ + + +

and

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 3
0 1 _ 2 _ 3 _
4 5 6 7
4 _ 5 _ 6 _ 7 _
m dc m dc m dc
dc
m dc m dc m dc m dc
dc dc V V dc V V dc V V
d
dt
dc V V dc V V dc V V dc V V

+ + +
+ + + +

and
0
to
7
are the user-specified parameters for the polynomial chirp expression, V is the input modulating voltage,
V
m
is the user-specified voltage offset parameter, is the optical instantaneous phase, S is the instantaneous intensity of
the light, dc
0
to dc
7
are the user-specified parameters for the polynomial dc chirp expression, V
m_dc
is the user-specified
dc chirp voltage offset parameter, dt d
dc
/ is the phase change due to the dc chirp. and dt d
dc
/ may alternatively be
interpolated from data files providing their values vs. V-V
m
or V-V
m_dc
respectively.
There is an option regarding the sign convention for the alpha parameter in the frequency chirp equations. By default in
this model, the sign convention is to use the negative sign in front of the alpha parameter in the phase derivative equation
(negative alpha). This convention leads to a positive alpha parameter creating a positive frequency chirp for rising
output signal powers. To use the opposite convention, change the alpha_sign parameter to Pos instead of Neg.
Note that the user specified parameters for dc chirp are actually the parameters in the polynomial expansion for the phase
derivative. For example, to specify a positive frequency chirp of 1e9 Hz when the input voltage V is 1.0, set dc_chirp1
to 9 1 * ) 2 ( e and the rest of the dc_chirp parameters to 0.
File Format
For the data files used by this model, the voltage values should be monotonically increasing. The required file format is:
<num_pts>
<voltage 1> <x 1>
<voltage 2> <x 2>
<voltage 3> <x 3>

where <num_pts> specifies the number of data points in the file, voltage specifies the voltage (V
s
, V-V
offset
, V-V
m
or
V-V
m_dc
, depending on the data file), and x specifies the dependent data value (x, or dt d
dc
/ , depending on the data
file).
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical signal
Outputs
#1: Optical signal
Parameter Values
voltage_scaling enumerated Yes Yes, No
invertInput enumerated No No, Yes
extinctionRatio double 13.0 [ 0, 1e32 ] dB
Voffset double 0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] Volts
Vm double 0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] Volts
alpha_sign enumerated Neg Pos, Neg
alpha_spec enumerated polynomial polynomial, file
alpha_file string
alpha0 double 0.0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] N/A
Vm_dc double 0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] Volts
chirp_spec enumerated polynomial polynomial, file
chirp_file string
dc_chirp0 double 0.0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] N/A
mod_spec enumerated polynomial polynomial, file
mod_file string
x0 double 0.0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] N/A
x1 double 1.0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] N/A
x2 double 0.0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] N/A
x3 double 0.0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] N/A
x4 double 0.0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] N/A
x5 double 0.0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] N/A
x6 double 0.0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] N/A
x7 double 0.0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] N/A
voltage_scaling Whether to scale input voltage for intensity modulation
InvertInput Whether to invert input voltage prior to modulation or not
InsertionLoss Optical power loss of input optical signal prior to modulation (dB)
ExtinctionRatio Ratio of high and low output power levels (dB)
Voffset Offset voltage to use when calculating intensity modulation without voltage
scaling
alpha_sign Sign prior to the alpha parameter in phase derivative equation
alpha_spec Polynomial or file-based specifications for alpha
alpha_file File name for file-based alpha specification
Vm Offset voltage for chirp parameter polynomial expression (V)
alpha0 alpha7 Chirp parameters for chirp parameter polynomial expression
Vm_dc Offset voltage for dc chirp polynomial expression (V)
chirp_spec Polynomial of file-based specifications for dc chirp
chirp_file Filename for file-based dc chirp specification
dc_chirp0 dc_chirp7 Chirp parameters for dc chirp polynomial expression
mod_spec Polynomial or file-based specifications for modulation
mod_file Filename for file-based specification of modulation
x0 x7 Modulation relation parameters for nonlinear input voltage to output optical
power modulation response
OptSim Models Reference: Block Mode Chapter 5: Optical Fibers 123
Chapter 5: Optical Fibers
This chapter describes the optical fibers:

Nonlinear Fiber
provide a detailed implementation of propagation of one or more optical channels in a single mode fiber
Bidirectional Nonlinear Fiber (Raman Amplifier)
provide a detailed implementation of a bidirectional fiber with all dispersive, nonlinear, PMD and Raman
effects
Fiber Delay
introduce a time delay onto the optical signals
124 Chapter 5: Optical Fibers OptSim Models Reference: Block Mode

Nonlinear Fiber

This model provides a detailed implementation of propagation of one or more optical channels in a single mode fiber. It
takes into account attenuation, dispersion, polarization mode dispersion (PMD) and nonlinearities including Raman
effects. When the Single-Channel mode of the MUX is used prior to the fiber model, it also takes into account four wave
mixing. Bi-directional effects, especially Raman amplification, should be modeled using the Bidirectional Nonlinear
Fiber Model, described later in this chapter.
Background
A (scalar) optical field in a fiber obeys a differential equation of the general form

( )
( ) ( )
,

,
z t
D N z t
z
(
= +

(1)
where the operators
Dand
N describe the (linear) dispersive and nonlinear effects, respectively. In the simplest
approximation the propagation equation is the well-known nonlinear Schrdinger equation:

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2
2
2 2
, ,
, ,
z t z t
j j z t z t
z t

= +

(2)
This equation applies to loss-less fibers with quadratic dispersion of strength
2
and a purely instantaneous nonlinearity
of strength that introduces self-phase modulation (SPM). In general, it is necessary to include many further terms in
order to account for attenuation, higher-order dispersion and delayed-nonlinearity (the Raman response of the fiber),
though for most problems only a subset of these effects will play a significant role. We present all these additional terms
below, but first discuss the general method of solution.
Fourier Split-step algorithm
As a second-order nonlinear partial-differential equation, Eq. (2) is at first-sight non-trivial to solve. The standard
approach with a long validated history [1] is to separate the treatment of the linear and nonlinear parts. Remembering
that
Dand
N are to be treated as operators, the formal solution for a small increment of the solution of Eq. (1) may be
written

( )
( )
( )
( )
0 0
0

exp

exp exp exp .

2 2
z dz D N dz z
D D
dz Ndz dz z

(
+ = +

( (
(
( (

(3)
The second approximate solution is simply the lowest order term in a series expansion, and simplifies the problem by
allowing the dispersive and nonlinear parts to be integrated separately. This separation inspires the description split-
step for the solution method. The choice of the symmetric form of the expansion guarantees that the approximate
solution is accurate to second order in the step-size dz .
For the simple example of Eq. (2), the problem is now much easier to solve. Consider first the nonlinear part with
2
N j = . This has the elementary exact solution

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
0 0
2
0 0
, exp ,
exp , , ,
z dz t N dz z t
j z t dz z t

(
+ =

(
=
(

(4)
where we note that the operator
N is diagonal in the time domain. Now consider the dispersive part of the problem with
2 2
2
/ D i t = . The time derivative makes the dispersion operator non-local in the time domain. Writing the optical
field in the Fourier representation
( ) ( ) d e
j t
t

(5)
the time derivative becomes a simple multiplication in the Fourier domain / t j and the solution to the
dispersive problem can be written

( ) ( )
( )
0 0
2
0 2
, , exp ,
, exp ,
z dz z Ddz
z j dz

(
+ =

( =

(6)
which is diagonal in the frequency domain.
The general strategy for solution is then to take alternating steps of size dz , solving the dispersive linear part of the
problem in the frequency domain, and the nonlinear part of the problem in the time domain. Even when additional terms
are added to the propagation equations to describe effects other than quadratic dispersion and SPM, this split-step
approach remains effective. The dispersion operator is always exactly solvable. Certain nonlinear terms involving mixed
polarization and the Raman response cause the nonlinear operator to become non-diagonal, and in this case the nonlinear
part of the problem is integrated using a standard Runge-Kutta algorithm. The step-size dz must thus be small enough to
ensure both an accurate integration of the nonlinear part, and the validity of the split-step approach. As discussed below,
the step-size may be controlled explicitly by the user, or else determined automatically during the simulation to satisfy
accuracy requirements.
The use of the Fourier-based algorithm implies that the simulation uses periodic boundary conditions pulses leaving
one end of the simulation window reenter at the opposite end. Initially, it may appear that this approach introduces
unphysical correlations due to the wrapping of signals and noise. In fact, these correlations have a very minor effect and
can always be essentially eliminated by using longer bit patterns. Moreover, periodic boundary conditions are important
for WDM simulations since initially coincident pulses in different channels quickly separate due to walk-off. If the
pulses did not reenter the time window, inter-channel interactions would be grossly underestimated leading to
overoptimistic predictions for cross-talk, gain tilt and XPM effects.
Frequency Decomposition Approach
It is frequently the case that the incoming field to the fiber consists of a number of narrow channels separated by a fixed
or varying channel spacing. Again, a WDM system is a natural example. Neglecting polarization, the incoming field may
then be written
( ) ( ) ( ) exp c.c.
i i
i
E t A t j t = +

(7)
where the amplitude functions ) (t A
i
are slowly varying in time, and c.c. denotes the complex conjugate of the
preceding expression. When such an expression is substituted into the Kerr nonlinearity source term
3
E , numerous
terms appear. For just two channels at frequencies
1
and
2
, for instance, the nonlinear expression is as follows:

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
1 2 1 2
1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1
1 2
2 2 2 2
3
1 1 2 2 2 1 1 2
2 * 2 * 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1
2 2 3 3
1 2
3 e e 6 e e
3 e e 3 e e
e e c.c.
j t j t j t j t
j t j t j t j t
j t j t
E A A A A A A A A
A A A A A A A A
A A

+ +

= + + +
+ + + +
+ + +

(8)
The bracketed terms respectively correspond to self-phase modulation (SPM), cross-phase modulation (XPM), difference
frequency generation or four-wave mixing (FWM), sum-frequency generation and third harmonic generation. SPM and
XPM, which occur only at the source frequencies
1
and
2
, are automatically phase-matched and are always present.
In optical fibers, the sum-frequency and third-harmonic generation (THG) terms are never phase-matched and are
negligible. However, in a low dispersion fiber, or near the zero-dispersion wavelength, the FWM terms transfer
significant energy to new frequencies. For widely spaced channels, or far from the zero-dispersion point however, FWM
is unimportant. In this case, all the nonlinear response occurs at frequencies in the incoming field and it is then common
to simulate the channels separately using a set of coupled differential equations for each amplitude function ) (t A
i
,
rather than a single equation for the whole field ( ) E t . This is known as the frequency decomposition approach [1].
Indeed, it is only in the context of such a decomposition that the identification of different effects such as SPM, XPM or
THG is justified. The advantage of such an approach is that one need only simulate the behavior in small subsets of the
total spectral range of the problem greatly increasing the speed of the simulation. For example, the plots in Fig. 1 show
the input and output fields of a three-channel fiber simulation using frequency decomposition. Since one channel is
missing, a considerable spectral range has been neglected allowing savings in computational time. Moreover, the
maximum step-size for accurate simulation of the dispersive part turns out to decrease with the square of the largest
channel bandwidth, so by simulating individual channels the simulation speed is increased many times.

lstmpmux spec Optical Frequency Spectrum
x10
11
Optical Frequency (Hz)
1929 1930 1931 1932 1933
P
o
w
e
r

(
d
B
m
)
300 -
200 -
100 -
0
lstmpfiber spec Optical Frequency Spectrum
x10
11
1929 1930 1931 1932 1933
P
o
w
e
r

(
d
B
m
)
300 -
200 -
100 -
0
Figure 1: Input and output spectra for a fiber operating in multi-channel mode. No four wave mixing is visible.

lstmpmux spec Optical Frequency Spectrum
x10
11
1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935
P
o
w
e
r

(
d
B
m
)
200 -
100 -
0
lstmpfiber spec Optical Frequency Spectrum
x10
11
1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935
P
o
w
e
r

(
d
B
m
)
140 -
120 -
100 -
80 -
60 -
40 -
20 -
0

Figure 2: Input and output spectra for a fiber operating in single-channel mode. Four-wave mixing peaks are observed
both between and outside the existing channels
Mode Selection
The choice of whether a simulation is performed using frequency decomposition or multi-channel mode,
or instead as a single field in single-channel mode is determined not by controls in the fiber model, but
by the value of the Representation parameter setting of any optical multiplexers preceding the fiber in the
topology. If the multiplexer is set to MultiBand, each channel is carried as a separate field and the
simulation is performed using the coupled equations. If the multiplexer is set to SingleBand, the channels
are combined into a single field using Eq. (7) and simulated using a single equation (per polarization).
Four wave mixing
The plots in Fig. 2 illustrate an important limitation of the frequency decomposition approach its
inability to simulate four wave mixing effects. These plots show results for the same three-channel problem
as in Fig. 1 , but with the whole field ( ) E t now simulated using a single channel. It is apparent that
FWM has transferred energy to several new frequency bands, and perhaps more importantly it may have
degraded the signal at the input channels. Thus if simulations are performed using multi-channel mode, it is
wise to check the results using single-channel mode to ensure that FWM is not being neglected without
justification.
Complete model
We now present the full set of equations used in the fiber model [1]:

( )
( )
2 3
2 3 2 3
2 3
2 3 2 3
1 1
;
2 6 2
1 1
;
2 6 2
x x x x
x x y i i i i i
i i i x j j x
gi
y y y y
y x y i i i i i
i i i y j j y
gi
A A A A j
A N A A
z v t t t
A A A A j
A N A A
z v t t t

+ + + =

+ + + =

K K
K K

(9)
Here, ,
x y
i i
A A are the x and y

polarized complex modal amplitudes of the ith channel. For single-channel
mode simulations, only a single amplitude is used for each polarization. Further,
gi
v is the group velocity,
2i
is the second-order dispersion coefficient,
3i
is the third-order dispersion coefficient, evaluated at
the center wavelength
i
and
i
is the frequency-dependent attenuation coefficient. The nonlinear
response is represented by the terms
( )
;
x y
x j j
N A A K K and
( )
;
x y
y j j
N A A K K . Since these
expressions are very complicated, we reserve stating them in full until the discussion of the nonlinearity
below.
We now discuss the use and implementation of the attenuation, dispersion and nonlinearity, in increasing
order of complexity.
Attenuation
Using the parameter loss_method, the fiber loss may be specified as either a constant value or as an
arbitrary user-specified frequency-dependent profile. The constant value is determined by the parameter
loss. The user profile is stored in a file of filename loss_filename, with a format described in the
appendix. Note that for both methods, the loss is specified in the familiar units of dB/km and is one of the
few quantities in OptSim not expressed in SI units. It is strongly recommended that a frequency-dependent
profile be used for all broadband or WDM simulations, particularly for simulations involving more than
one of the S, C or L bands. Multi-stage fibers with varying attenuation should be produced by
concatenation of two or more fiber components.
Dispersion
The dispersive part of the model accounts for the variation in phase velocity with frequency as a result of
both material and waveguide dispersion. The dispersion is expressed in terms of the standard parameters

( )
( )
( )
1
2
2 2
3
3 3
d
d
d
d
d
d
=
=
=

(10)
where ( ) is the frequency-dependent propagation constant of the fiber. In each optical channel, a
phase shift is applied according to the equation
( ) ( )
2 3
2 3
i i
i
= +
(11)
In addition, each channel experiences group velocity walkoff from the other channels according to the
group index ) / (
1 1
c n
i i
= , with
1
/
i i
g
v c n = . Several different models may be used for dispersion, which
determine how the parameters
1
n ,
2
and
3
are set for each channel. In all cases, the numerical values
of the parameters denote the actual values at the center wavelength of the associated optical signal.
These models are selected through the dispersionModel parameter with the following options:
defined
The dispersive parameters are obtained from the standard fiber dispersion parameter ( ) D
which satisfies the relations


( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
0
2
2
3 4
3 2 2 2
1 1 0
2
d
2 d
2
d
D
c
D
D
c
c
D

=
= +
= +

(12)
In the defined model, the dispersion parameter is modeled with the empirical formula

4
0 0
0
( ) 1
4
S
D D

(
| |
= +
(
|
\ .
(

(13)
in terms of a dispersion slope
0
S (dispersionS0), dispersion offset
0
D (dispersionOffset),
and a reference wavelength
0
(dispersionLambda0). These parameters are frequently
available from product specification sheets. Note that the conventional units of ps/km/nm for
( ) D must be converted to SI units of s/m
2
for use in OptSim. The component parameters
n1, beta2, beta3 are not used in this dispersion model. This is the recommended model for
standard link simulation.
defined2
This model is similar to the defined model, but uses the simpler formula
[ ]
0 0 0
( ) D S D = + .
custom
The user specifies
1
n ,
2
and
3
values directly through the parameters n1, beta2, beta3.
These values are applied to every channel. This cannot correspond to any real dispersion
profile and hence for more than one channel, this model is non-physical. It is intended
primarily for testing purposes and for theoretical studies of ultrashort-pulse propagation, when
it can be useful to have explicit control of the dispersion. The parameters dispersionS0,
dispersionOffset, dispersionLambda0 are not used.
extrapolated
The user specifies
1
n ,
2
and
3
values at a specific wavelength
0
(dispersionLambda0).
For all other frequencies, the dispersion properties are extrapolated in a polynomial fashion,
according to
3 3 0
2 2 0 3 0
0
2
3 0 1
1 2 0
0 0
( ) ( )
2 2
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) 2 2 2 2
( ) ( )
2
n
c

=
| |
= +
|
\ .
| | | |
= + +
| |
\ . \ .

The parameters dispersionS0 and dispersionOffset are not used. This model should be used
if the user has data in terms of the dispersion coefficients
i
rather than ( ) D , or for novel
fibers with unusual dispersion characteristics such as photonic crystal fibers that are not well-
fitted by the defined or defined2 models. Note that this model is physical and should normally
be preferred to the custom model.
extrapolated_full
This model extends the extrapolated approach to seventh order dispersion. The user specifies
1
n ,
2
,
3
,
4
,
5
,
6
and
7
,values at a specific wavelength
0
(dispersionLambda0).
For all other frequencies, the dispersion properties are extrapolated in a polynomial fashion,
according to
7 7 0
6 6 0 7 0
2
5 5 0 6 0 7 0
2 3
4 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0
2 3 4
3 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0
2
2 2 0 3 0 4 0
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 3!
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 3! 4!
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2

=
= +
= + +
= + + +
= + + + +
= + + +
3 4
5 0 6 0
5
7 0
2 3 4
1 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0
5 6
6 0 7 0
2 3 4
1
1 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0
5 6
6 0 7 0
( ) ( )
3! 4!
( )
5!
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 3! 4!
( ) ( )
5! 6!
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 3! 4!
( ) ( )
5! 6!
n
c

+
+
= + + + +
+ +
= + + + +
+ +

where
0
2 2

| |
=
|
\ .
.
The parameters dispersionS0 and dispersionOffset are not used. This model should only be
used for problems with a very large bandwidth in which a great deal of information about the
fiber dispersion profile is known.
Nonlinearity
The general third-order nonlinear polarization response of the fiber can be written
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
3 2
0
d
t
P t E t t g t t E t

(14)
where
( ) 3
is the (scalar) third-order susceptibility tensor. The response function may be expressed as
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 1
R R
g t f t f h t = +
(15)
so that the nonlinear polarization is composed of an instantaneous part and a delayed response part [2-6] as
follows
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
3 2
0
1 d .
t
R R
P t f E t f t h t t E t E t
| |
= +
|
\ .

(16)
The fraction [0,1]
R
f determines the fraction of the nonlinearity assumed to be non-instantaneous. The
instantaneous response gives rise to the nonlinear refractive index the familiar effects of self-phase
modulation, cross-phase modulation and four wave mixing. The delayed response, which accounts for
Raman effects, results in both additional phase effects and the transfer of energy to longer wavelengths,
allowing Raman amplification and interesting effects such as the soliton self-frequency shift [6]. The fiber
model permits simulation of all these nonlinear effects.
It may be shown that for the expansion (7), the nonlinear terms in Eqs. (9) have the form

( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 2
SPM XPM XPM
2 *
XPM
2 2 2
SPM XPM XPM
2 *
XPM
2
; 2
3
e
3
2
; 2
3
e
3
x x y x x y x
i j j i i i j i j i
j i j
y x j x x
i i i i j
y x y y y x y
i j j i i i j i j i
j i j
x y j y y
i i i i j
N A A j A A A A
j
A A R A
N A A j A A A A
j
A A R A
| |
= + +
|
\ .
+ +
| |
= + +
|
\ .
+ +

K K
K
K K
K

(17)
The final terms
( )
,
;
x y x y
i j j
R A A K K describe the delayed Raman response of the
( ) 3
nonlinearity and
are discussed below. The preceding terms describe self phase modulation and cross phase modulation due
to the instantaneous part of the nonlinear response. The nonlinear coefficients are given by
( )
( ) 2
SPM XPM
1
i
i i R
eff
n
f
cA
= =
(18)
where
R
f is the fraction of the nonlinearity assigned to the Raman response (see below), and
( ) ( ) 2 2 3
0
3 / (4 )
L
n Z n = is termed the nonlinear refractive index with SI units of m
2
W
- 1
, where
L
n is the
background refractive index and
0 0 0
/ Z = is the impedance of free space. Note from Eqs. (17), that
for each channel there are two sets of cross-phase modulation terms corresponding to interactions between
different channels and different polarizations. (For simulations in single-channel mode or with unpolarized
fields, the appropriate terms are dropped.) An additional term with prefactor 1/3 allows coherent coupling
between opposite polarizations and depends on the phase mismatch parameter
( )
x y
z = . For
simulations including PMD, these coherent terms are dropped due to phase randomization.
It is important to note while we have introduced separate nonlinear coefficients for SPM and XPM, their
numerical values are equal and physically they are both always present. They are distinguished in the
model in order that their effects may be studied separately if desired (see section Disabling Effects). For
any physical model, both effects should be active.
Nonlinear Parameters
For the instantaneous part of the nonlinearity, the only internal parameter required by the model is the
coefficient . This may be specified in terms of the nonlinear refractive index and the effective area of the
fiber as shown in Eq. (18) by setting the parameters n2, aEff, diameter and choosing
nonlinearity_model=Constant. In this case, the nonlinear coefficient increases linearly with frequency
according to Eq. (18) since the effective area of the fiber is assumed independent of frequency. Note that
aEff is a dimensionless number relating the actual effective area of the mode
eff
A
to the core diameter:
eff
A = aEff (diameter/2)
2
.
For wide-bandwidth simulations, it may be more accurate to take account of the frequency variation of the
effective area, as well as of the nonlinear response
( ) 3
itself (though it has a relatively weak frequency
dependence and is typically difficult to measure). This may be accomplished by setting
nonlinearity_model=File and specifying the nonlinear coefficient directly as a function of frequency in
a data file of filename nonlinearity_filename. While is a derived quantity, it is the most easily
accessible parameter in experiments. The file format is discussed in the appendix. Note that even with a
user-specified nonlinearity, a single value
i
is used for all frequency components within a single channel.
Hence, this option is most appropriate for multi-channel simulations.
Raman Effects
The most complicated part of the fiber model is the treatment of the delayed nonlinear or Raman response,
which gives rise to Raman gain and intra-pulse effects such as the soliton self-frequency shift. Note that if
the intention is to simulate Raman amplifiers with CW pump waves, the Bidirectional Nonlinear Fiber
model described later should normally be used. That model provides a complete accounting of Rayleigh
scattering and spontaneous emission effects which are not included here. All Raman effects in the present
model may be disabled with the parameter raman_effects.
The Raman terms in the nonlinear expression of Eq. (17) take the form [4]

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
2 2
*
d d
d ,
ki
t t
x x x x x
i k R i i i R i i k
k i
t
j t t x x x
R i k i k
k i
R A jf A t t h t t A t jf A t t h t t A t
jf A t t h t t A t A t e

= +
+

K

(19)
where
ki k i
= with a similar equation for
( )
y y
i k
R A K . Note that the model does not include
Raman coupling between orthogonal polarizations (effects which are both weak and poorly characterized
experimentally). Users interested in such a feature should contact RSoft Design Group. The terms in Eq.
(19) respectively represent intra-pulse Raman scattering (or self-Raman scattering) which can be
considered as a time-delayed contribution to SPM; the molecular contribution to cross-phase modulation;
and a coherent Raman coupling which gives rise to energy coupling between channels and thus to Raman
gain. In the model implementation, the convolution integrals in Eq. (19) are performed in the frequency
domain for efficiency.
As we discussed above for the instantaneous nonlinear effects, it should be emphasized that the
identification of these separate effects is only meaningful in the frequency-decomposition picture. For a
single-channel optical signal, only the first term appears: if the input optical signal has one broadband
component, it experiences a downward frequency shift; if it has several components at different
frequencies, the same process transfers energy to lower frequencies but is typically interpreted as Raman
amplification of longer wavelength signals by shorter wavelength signals.
In fact, the Raman response spectrum in silica fiber (see Fig. 3) spans a range of over 30 THz, and for
typical channel line-widths in WDM systems, the intra-pulse effects described by the first two terms in Eq.
(19) are negligible. They are primarily of interest for detailed simulation of ultra-short pulse propagation of
analog signals. In the model, these effects are disabled by default, and may be activated with the parameters
raman_self_interaction and include_xpm_mol. As indicated in the previous paragraph, however, the first
term controlled by raman_self_interaction is required to account for Raman gain if several optical
channels are simulated in single-channel mode, since the final gain term only provides coupling between
different signals in multi-channel mode.

Raman Response spectrum
Frequency shift (THz)
0 10 20 30 40 50
x 1 0
- 4
g
a
i
n
(
m
-
1
W -
1
)
4 -
3 -
2 -
1 -
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Im[G()]
exp
Re[G()]
exp
Im[G()]
ana
Re[G()]
ana

Figure 3: Analytic and default experimental Raman response functions. The Raman gain is represented by the
imaginary parts.
Raman Gain Effects
For most multi-channel mode simulations, the only important term in Eq. (19) is the final gain term, which
in a WDM simulation accounts for effects such as Raman-induced signal-signal crosstalk and gain tilt.
Since the Raman spectrum varies slowly on the scale of the channel line-width, the gain convolution
integral can be simplified for pulses longer than a picosecond or so [4]. The optical fields are taken out of
the integral to obtain

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
*
gain
2
2
d
d
ki
ki
t
i t t
i R i k i k
k
t
i t t
R i k i
k
R i k i ki
k
R jf A t t h t t A t A t e
jf A t A t t h t t e
jf A t A t h
=
=
=
%

(20)
where ( ) ( ) ( ) h h jh = +
% % %
is the Fourier transform of the response function. Finally, if we neglect
the real part ( ) h
%
describing the phase response we find

( )
( )
( )
2
gain
2
2
2
i R i ki k i
k
R i ki k i
k
R
ik ki
k i
k
R jf j h A A
f h A A
g
A A
=
=
%
%

(21)
where we have defined the well-known Raman gain coefficient [1,4,5]
( ) ( ) 2
R
ik ki R i ki
g f h =
%

(22)
The expression for the gain coupling in Eq. (20) is the default model used in the fiber simulation. The
parameter raman_sigsig_interaction allows the signal interaction to be described by Eq. (20) (Simple), by
the full expression in Eq. (19) (Full) or to be disabled altogether (Off).
Note that due to the wavelength dependence of
i
, if a channel at frequency
k
induces gain on a channel
at
i
with strength ( )
R
ik ki
g , the Raman-induced loss at
k
is related to the gain coefficient by
( ) ( ).
R R k
ki ik ik ik
i
g g
=
(23)
This relation is required since a Raman scattering event conserves the number of photons, not the total
optical energy. For each Stokes scattering event (down-shifting of frequency), the energy difference
between the pump and Stokes photons is lost to the vibrational modes of the fiber.
Response Function and Gain Spectrum
The model allows either the response function ( ) h t or gain spectrum ( )
R
ik ki
g to be specified in several
ways through the parameter raman_profile. With the Analytic setting, the response function is given an
assumed analytic profile
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
1 2
1 2 2
1 2
sin / exp / . h t t t

+
=
(24)
Taking the values
15
1
12.2e s
= and
15
2
32.0e s
= , (set by the parameters raman_analytic_sig1

and raman_analytic_sig2), Eq. (24) predicts a gain spectrum in broad agreement with measurements on
silica fibers (see Fig. 3). The strength of the Raman interaction can then be specified in two ways. If
raman_strength_model is set to Fractional, the strength is given exactly according to Eq. (19) with the
delayed-response fraction
R
f
set with the parameter raman_response_fraction. The commonly accepted
value is 0.18
R
f = [3]. If raman_strength_model=Absolute, the response fraction
R
f
is ignored and
the user instead specifies the maximum value of the gain spectrum ( )
R
g in a manner explained shortly.
In detail, the gain profile in silica fibers is considerably more complicated than the profile obtained from
Eq. (24) and it is usually better to use an experimentally determined gain profile for ( )
R
g . This is
achieved by setting gain_profile to either Default, in which case a standard literature profile is assumed [3]
or to File, in which the profile is specified in a user file of filename raman_profile_filename. Figure. 3
compares the analytic profile with the industry-standard default experimental profile [3] which is used in
Default mode. The file format RamanGainFormat1 for the user-specified spectrum is explained in the
appendix. The user specifies a normalized profile
( )
2
G
=
%
with a peak value of 1.0. This accounts
for the gain profile, but as seen earlier, the frequency response function is complex-valued, with the
imaginary part representing the gain. In both the Default and File modes, the model uses symmetry and
causality requirements [3] to obtain the real part of the response function from the specified gain spectrum
G
%
, so that the complete function ( ) h
%
is known.
The Fractional mode for the Raman strength may also be used with Default and File forms for the gain
spectrum. More commonly, however, experiments provide the peak gain, rather than the fractional response
R
f and the Raman strength should be set with raman_strength_model=Absolute. In this case, the gain
experienced by channel I due to channel k is given by

( )
( )
( ) ( )
max
ki
R k
ik ki ref k
eff ref
G
g G
A
=
%

(25)
In this description, it is assumed that a gain profile has been measured using a reference pump wavelength
/
ref ref
c = . The peak gain
( )
max
ref
G
for that pump wavelength and the reference wavelength itself
are set using the parameters raman_max_gain and raman_pump_ref_lambda. The user should beware
that in literature sources, the gain is commonly expressed either in terms of
( ) ( ) ( )
max
ref
G G G =
%

with units of m/W, or as ( )
R
g with units of

m
- 1
W
- 1
, according to
whether the description is in terms of optical intensity or optical power. Users must enter the value for
( )
max
ref
G in m/W for raman_max_gain. The default values are literature standards for silica fiber:
raman_max_gain=0.98e- 13 m/W and raman_pump_ref_lambda=1.0e- 6 m.
Equation (25) indicates that by default, the gain coefficient is inversely proportional to wavelength. This is
ultimately a result of the frequency dependence of the nonlinear coefficient [see Eq. (18)]. In experiments,
however, it is sometimes found that the gain coefficient is not strictly proportional to frequency, due largely
to the frequency dependence of the effective area. Typically, the gain at short pump wavelengths is higher
than would otherwise be expected [7]. The additional factor ( )
k
is a dimensionless scale factor of
order unity that can be included by the user. By default it is always unity, but the user may adjust it to
specify a departure from the standard linear dependence on the pump frequency. This feature is activated
by setting raman_pump_scaling=File and providing a scaling function in a file of filename
raman_pump_scaling_filename as described in the appendix. Equation (25) actually assumes that
0
ki k i
= > , so that the channel at
i
experiences gain at the expense of
k
For the reverse
situation 0
ki
< , Eq. (23) is replaced by

( ) ( )
R R i
ik ki ik ki
k
g g
=


(26)
The additional frequency ratio was explained after Eq. (23).
Normalization Details
To handle the two quite different approaches to specifying the strength of the Raman interaction some
additional rules are imposed. As stated earlier the response fraction
R
f
is only significant if
raman_strength_model=Fractional. Moreover, the molecular contribution to XPM, described by the
second term in Eq. (19) is only included in Fractional mode. In most cases, the Raman interaction should
be specified using the Default or File-based modes with the Absolute strength configuration. We
recommend using the Fractional mode largely for studies of analog ultra-short propagation where the
details of the molecular XPM are required or where there is an interest in the effects of varying the
response fraction
R
f
. It is possible to combine a fractional Raman response with a user-specified nonlinear
profile
.
Stimulated Brillouin Scattering
With the model parameter include_sbs set to Yes, Stimulated Brillouin Scattering (SBS) [1],[8]-[12] is
included in the fiber model as an additional attenuation on the fiber inputs, and is calculated separately
from the primary fiber model equations. In other words, before any other effects are taken into account,
each optical signal or pump that is input to the fiber has its power reduced by an amount equal to that lost
to SBS in the absence of any other phenomena. As part of this calculation, each optical input is modeled as
a CW signal with a linewidth that is specified by the user, or calculated from the inputs optical spectrum.
Furthermore, the model neglects the following:
effects due to multiple channels at the same wavelength
dynamic SBS effects
interaction between SBS and other nonlinear phenomena, including Raman effects
At the end of a simulation, the fiber model produces plots of the input powers before and after the effects of
SBS have been taken into account.
For each input to the fiber, loss from SBS is determined by solving the following differential equations for
the pump power (i.e., that of the signal input) and the resulting Stokes wave power:
( ) ( )
0
d
p
f
p
p B s p p
I
I C I f I
z

=
`

(27)
( ) ( )
s
s B s p s B p
I
I C f I I h f C f I
z

= +

(28)
where I
p
is the pump power at a carrier frequency f
p
, I
s
is the resulting Stokes wave power density, f
s
is the
Stokes frequency, f = f
p
f
s
, h is Plancks constant, is the fiber loss coefficient, and C
B
(f) is the
Brillouin gain coefficient defined as
( )
( )
B
B
pol eff
g f
C f
k A
=
(29)
where k
pol
accounts for random relative polarization between the pump and Stokes wave (typically 1.5 in
conventional fibers), and A
eff
is the fiber effective area. g
B
(f) accounts for the Lorentzian Brillouin gain
shape:
( )
( )
2
7 2 2
12
2 3
2
0
2
2
2
B
p
B
B
A B B p
B
B
f
n p f
f
g f
c V f f f
f
f f
| |
|

\ .
=
+
| |
+
|
\ .

(30)
where n is the fiber cores refractive index, p
12
is the elasto-optic coefficient, c is the vacuum speed of light,
o
is the material density, V
A
is the fibers acoustic-wave velocity, f
B
is the Brillouin linewidth, f
p
is the
pump linewidth, and f
B
is the peak frequency of the Brillouin gain.
Assuming that the SBS gain is constant over some equivalent bandwidth around the peak Brillouin gain
frequency, and dealing only with the total Stokes wave power I
s
, we have simplified the differential
equations:
,max
p
p B s p
I
I C I I
z

(31)
,max , ,max
s
s B s p s eq SBS B p
I
I C I I h f B C I
z
= +

(32)
where
2
,max 2
p
B B
B
pol eff B p r
f
g f
C
k A f f f
=
+

(33)
and
,
arctan 2
2 2
B B
eq SBS
B
f f
B
f
( | |
= +
( |
\ .

(34)
With these equations, the user need only provide values for the following SBS-related parameters:
g
B
(g_B), a nominal Brillouin gain value in m/W
f
r
(gain_ref_freq), the frequency in THz at which g
B
is specified
k
pol
(k_pol)
f
B
(f_B) in GHz
f
B
(Delta_fB) in MHz
The pump linewidth f
p
may either be calculated from the input signal itself, or specified by the user via
the model parameter channel_linewidth (in MHz) when force_linewidth is set to Yes.
PMD
Due to unavoidable irregularities in fabrication, nominally circular-core fibers actually exhibit weak
birefringence with polarization axes that vary randomly along the fiber with a correlation length
corr
L (pmd_corlen). As a result, the polarization state of an incoming signal experiences a random walk on
the Poincare sphere as it propagates along the fiber. This very complicated process gives rise to the
phenomenon of polarization mode dispersion (PMD), in which a pulse becomes distorted due to the
different transit times of the orthogonal polarization states.
Rather than explicitly include the micro-variation of the polarization evolution which would be
prohibitively expensive computationally, the fiber model uses the Coarse-Step method to simulate PMD
[13, 14]. In this approach, the signal polarization is changed randomly after each propagation step in such a
way that the average dynamics recover the true PMD behavior.
The user may include PMD in the fiber simulation by setting the pmd_method parameter to either
Coarse_Step or Modified_Coarse_Step.
The degree of PMD is controlled by the correlation length pmd_corlen, and the polarization mode
dispersion coefficient
P
D (pmd_coef). The Modified_Coarse_Step method implements a more recent
version of the algorithm that is believed to give more accurate results and should normally be chosen in
preference to the Coarse_Step option [15].
A simulation with PMD clearly requires both polarization members
x
E and
y
E of the optical signal.
Incoming channels with only a single polarization member are automatically converted to dual polarization
signals before the propagation commences.
The user may control the seeding of the random number generator used to implement PMD with the
parameter pmd_seed. This satisfies 1e8<pmd_seed<1 with the following behavior:
pmd_seed<0
The generator is seeded with the actual value of pmd_seed on every run of the simulation.
This is useful for obtaining repeatable results.
pmd_seed=0
The generator is seeded with an integer hashed from the string value of the components
name. This is a convenient way to obtain repeatable results on subsequent runs within a single
fiber, but different PMD sequences from in a series of fiber components which have different
names. This would be appropriate in an amplifier chain, for example.
pmd_seed=1
The generator is seeded with a random number obtained from the system clock. This is
essentially unrepeatable.

Noise
The fiber model can treat noise in one of two ways. If the incoming signal contains a separate ASE
component, the ASE spectrum is attenuated according to the frequency-dependent loss coefficient. No
nonlinear or dispersive effects are applied to the noise. This is the appropriate technique if it desired to
perform semi-analytic calculations of the bit-error rate at the end of the link. In some problems however,
interesting propagation effects that may impact bit error rates occur due to the nonlinear interaction
between the noise and signal [16]. For these effects to be captured, the signal and noise must be treated as
a single entity. This is accomplished using the Noise Adder model, described elsewhere in this chapter,
which has an option to transfer the noise representation from the separate power spectrum description into a
stochastic component of the optical signal. Since there is now no distinction between the representation of
noise and signal, all nonlinear effects are correctly accounted for. A disadvantage of this approach is that it
precludes the semi-analytic calculation of the BER The BER must instead be calculated using a Monte-
Carlo technique. If nonlinear noise effects might be important, the user must experiment to determine
which mode of simulation is the most appropriate.
Skew
A constant skew may be added to the signal with the use of the skew parameter. This essentially adds the
specified time skew to the signal time axis. This is useful if a parallel fiber ribbon is being modeled, and the
skew between the different fibers in the ribbon is desired to be accounted for. For such an application,
using a value of zero and a nonzero standard deviation in combination with a statistical simulation is often
useful.
Interior Property Maps
The fiber model is able to monitor several properties along the length of fiber. These are the total power,
the pulse width and pulse location. (The latter two are only well-defined for single-pulse simulations.) In
conjuction with the Interior Property Map model, plots can be produced showing the evolution of these
properties along a series of fibers. The various fibers and the Map communicate through a common file
whose name is specified with the parameter physpropFilename the number of measurements is
determined by physpropSteps. Further details of this facility are described in the documentation of the
Interior Property Map.
Simulation Features and Settings
We now discuss the strictly numerical parameters of the model.
Step Size
The step size dz may be determined automatically by the model, or set directly by the user. If the user
desires to set the step size manually, the zStepSize parameter should be set to a positive value. A negative
value of this parameter indicates that the step size should be automatically computed.
The automatically computed step size is found by evaluating the minimum of the characteristic lengths of
second order dispersion,third order dispersion, nonlinearityand Raman gain. The actual stepsize is a user-
specified fraction (zStepFac) of the minimum characteristic length. If PMD is active, a minimum of 15
steps will be taken, regardless of the characteristic lengths in order to obtain randomization of the
polarization. Reasonable values for zStepFac are 0.01 0.1.
The current status, including the step size and the distance simulated so far, may be shown in the simulation
window and saved to the log file if the showstatus option is set to Yes.
Some recent work [17] has shown that under certain circumstances, the use of a constant step-size may
generate spurious four-wave mixing signals in WDMsimulations unless the step-size is extremely small. If
the dominant characteristic length is the dispersion length, the automatically calculated step size is
constant. Setting the parameter decreasingStepSize=Yes, causes the model to reduce the step size
smoothly as the propagation progresses, which helps to alleviate this problem.
Optimizations
One of several optimization levels may be chosen by the user to speed up the simulation. The default
optimization level is 3. In some simulations, however, if the optimization level is reduced to 1, less
artifacts due to the finite nature of the simulation occur.
Disabling effects
All physical effects dispersion, nonlinearity, PMD in the fiber model may be individually disabled. This
might be done for one of several reasons
To increase efficiency by not simulating effects which are known to be negligible. For example in a low
power simulation with an optical bandwidth of a few GigaHertz, the impact of the Raman nonlinearity is
negligible.
To increase accuracy by not simulating inappropriate effects. For example, in a high power simulation
over a few meters of fiber (less than the fiber correlation length), PMD plays no role and should be turned
off. Leaving PMD active would introduce spurious polarization scrambling.
To isolate the effects of different physical phenomena. For example, SPM, XPM and dispersion may all be
individually turned off so that the user may determine their individual roles in the simulation. It must be
stressed that the results of such a simulation are non-physical in reality, XPM can never occur without
SPM for instance and the results must always be checked against a full simulation with all relevant
effects enabled. An example of this technique might be XPM-induced compression of a weak probe pulse
by an accompanying strong pump pulse [18]. If the probe pulse has sufficiently weak intensity, SPM will
not affect its propagation, but XPM from the pump pulse induces the compression. This physical
expectation could be checked by disabling SPM. However, there is a negligible impact on the efficiency of
the simulation, and so SPM should never be disabled merely to enhance simulation speed.
By default, PMD and the Raman self-interaction are disabled; all other effects are enabled. For long
distance standard fiber propagation, some form of PMD should normally be enabled, while the Raman self-
interaction is usually important only for high-power and large bandwidth signals.
All the following parameters allow disabling of effects. Their actions are explained in the Parameter
Descriptions section below.
Pmd_method, raman_effects, raman_self_interaction, raman_sigsig_interaction, include_spm,
include_xpm_el, include_xpm_mol, include_dispersion.
Attenuation is trivially disabled by choosing a constant loss parameter of 0.
Test functions
The Test button provides previews of a number of frequency dependent quantities including loss,
dispersion and Raman responses. The frequency_units parameter determines the units used in the test
function plots. The quantity displayed is selected through the test_function parameter with the following
options:
loss
The current loss profile set by loss_filename is displayed. There is no display if loss_model
is set to Constant.
dispersion
The values of
1
n ,
2
and
3
and the dispersion parameter D are plotted as a function of
frequency according to the settings of dispersionModel and the various dispersion
parameters.
nonlinearity
The current nonlinear coefficient profile
set by nonlinearity_filename is displayed. There

is no display if nonlinearity_model is set to Constant.
raman_gain_profile
The current Raman response function is displayed according to the various Raman settings.
The gain profile assumes a pump wavelength set by test_raman_pump_lambda and takes
account of the values of the parameters raman_response_model, raman_profile,
raman_max_gain, raman_response_fraction, raman_pump_ref_lambda,
raman_analytic_tau1, raman_analytic_tau2 and raman_pump_scaling.
raman_pump_scaling
The current Raman pump scaling profile
( )
is displayed as a function of frequency.
There is no display if raman_pump_scaling is set to Default.
References
[1] G. P. Agrawal, Nonlinear Fiber Optics, 2
nd
Edition (Academic Press, San Diego, CA, 1995).
[2] K. J. Blow and D. Wood, Theoretical description of transient stimulated Raman scattering in
optical fibers, IEEE J. Quantum Electron 25, 2665 (1989).
[3] R. H. Stolen, J. P. Gordon, W. J. Tomlinson and H. A. Haus, Raman response function of silica-
core fibers, J. Opt. Soc. Am. B 6, 1159 (1989).
[4] C. Healey III and G. P. Agrawal, Unified description of ultrafast stimulated Raman scattering in
optical fibers, J. Opt. Soc. Am. B 13, 2170 (1996).
[5] C. Healey III and G. P. Agrawal, Noise characteristics and statistics of picosecond Stokes pulses
generated in optical fibers through stimulated Raman scattering, IEEE J. Quantum Electron 31, 2058
(1995).
[6] J. P. Gordon, Theory of the soliton self-frequency shift, Opt. Lett. 11 662 (1986).
[7] A. Berntson, S. Popov, E. Vanin, G. Jacobsen and Jorgen Karlsson, Polarisation dependence and
gain tilt of Raman amplifiers for WDM systems, paper MI2, Optical Fiber Communication Conference,
Anaheim, CA 2001.
[8] R. W. Boyd, Nonlinear Optics (Academic, New York, 1992).
[9] L. Chen and X. Bao, Analytical and numerical solutions for steady state Stimulated Brillouin
scattering in a single-mode fiber, Opt. Commun., 152, pp. 6570, 1998.
[10] S. Rae, I. Bennion, and M. J. Carswell, New numerical model of stimulated Brillouin scattering
in optical fibers with nonuniformity, Opt. Commun., 123, pp. 611616, 1996.
[11] A. Djupsjbacka, G. Jacobsen, and B. Tromborg, "Dynamic stimulated Brillouin scattering
analysis," J. Lightwave Technol, 18, pp. 416-424, March 2000.
[12] R. W. Boyd, K. Rzazewski, and P. Narum, Noise initiation of stimulated Brillouin scattering,
Phys. Rev. A, 42, pp. 55145521, 1990.
[13] P. K. A Wai, C. R. Menyuk, and H. H. Chen, Opt. Lett. 16, 1231 (1991).
[14] S. G. Evangelides, L. F. Mollenauer, J. P. Gordon, and S. Bergano, J. Lightwave Technol. 10, 28
(1992).
[15] D. Marcuse, C.R. Menyuk, and P.K. A. Wai, J. Lightwave Technol. 15, 1735 (1997).
[16] R. Hui, D. Chowdhury, M. Newhouse, M. OSullivan and M. Poettcker, Nonlinear amplification
of noise in fibers with dispersion and its impact in optical amplified systems, IEEE Photonics Technol.
Lett. 9, 392 (1997).
[17] C. Francia, Constant step-size analysis in numerical simulation for correct four-wave-mixing
power evaluation in optical fiber transmission systems, IEEE Photonics. Technol. Lett. 11, 69 (1999).
[18] J. E. Rothenberg, Intrafiber visible pulse compression by cross-phase modulation in a
birefringent optical fiber, Opt Lett. 15, 495 (1990).
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical signal
Outputs
#1: Optical signal
Parameter Values
length double 1e3 [ 0, 1e32 ] m
zStepFac double 0.1 [ 0, 1 ] none
zStepSize double -1 [ -1, 1e10 ] m
decreasingStepSi
ze
enumerated No No, Yes
diameter double 8.2e-6 [ 0, 1e-2 ] m
aEff double 1.425 [ 0, 100 ] none
loss_model enumerated Constant Constant, File
loss double 0.25 [ 0, 1e32 ] dB/km
loss_filename string
dispersionModel enumerated defined defined, defined2,
custom, extrapolated

n1 double 1.4682 [ 0, 100 ] none
beta2 double 0.0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] s^2/m
beta3 double 0.0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] s^3/m
dispersionLambd
a0
double 1.312e-6 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] m
dispersionS0 double 0.09e3 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] s/m^3
dispersionOffset double 0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] s/m^2
nonlinearity_mod
el
enumerated Constant Constant, File
n2 double 2.6e-20 [ 0, 100 ] m^2/W
nonlinearity_filen
ame
string
pmd_method enumerated None None, Coarse_Step,
Modified_Coarse_Ste
p

pmd_coef double 3.16e-15 [ 0, 1e32 ] s/m^0.5
pmd_corlen double 10 [ 1e-10, 1e32 ] m
pmd_seed integer 0 [ -1e8, 1 ] none
raman_effects enumerated On Off, On
raman_strength_
model
enumerated Absolute Absolute, Fractional
raman_profile enumerated Default Default, Analytic,
File

raman_profile_file string
name
raman_max_gain double 0.98e-13 [ 0, 1e32 ] m/W
raman_response_
fraction
double 0.18 [ 0, 1 ] none
raman_pump_ref_
lambda
double 1.0e-6 [ 0, 1e32 ] m
raman_analytic_si
g1
double 12.2e-15 [ 0, 1e32 ] s
raman_analytic_si
g2
double 32.0e-15 [ 0, 1e32 ] s
raman_pump_sca
ling
enumerated Default Default, File
raman_pump_sca
ling_filename
string
raman_self_intera
ction
enumerated Off Off, On
raman_sigsig_int
eraction
enumerated Simple Off, Simple, Full
include_sbs enumerated No No, Yes
g_B double 3e-11 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] m/W
k_pol double 1.5 [ 1, 2 ]
gain_ref_freq double 193.0 [ 1e-32, 1e32 ] THz
Delta_fB double 40.0 [ 0, 1e32 ] MHz
f_B double 11.0 [ 1e-32, 1e32 ] GHz
force_linewidth enumerated No No, Yes
channel_linewidth double 100.0 [ 0, 1e32 ] MHz
Include_spm enumerated Yes No, Yes
include_xpm_el enumerated Yes No, Yes
include_xpm_mol enumerated Yes No, Yes
include_dispersio
n
enumerated Yes No, Yes
skew double 0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] s
optimizationlevel integer 3 [ 0, 3 ] none
showstatus enumerated Yes No, Yes
logstatus enumerated No No, Yes
physpropFilenam
e
string
physpropSteps integer 20 [ 2, 1e8 ]
frequency_units enumerated um nm, um, m, Hz, GHz,
THz, cm^{-1}, m^{-
1}, rad/s

test_raman_pump
_lambda
double 1.4e-6 [ 0, 1e32 ] m
test_output enumerated raman_gain loss, dispersion, n2,
raman_gain,
raman_pump_scaling



length
Length of the fiber
zStepFac Scaling factor for propagation step-size
zStepSize Specify user-defined step size or automatic calculation
decreasingStepSize Toggle use of monotonically decreasing step-size
diameter Core diameter
aEff Effective mode area normalized by core area
loss_model Select constant or file-based loss
loss Constant fiber attenuation parameter
loss_filename Data file for attenuation profile
dispersionModel Select dispersion model
n1 Group index
beta2 Second-order group velocity dispersion
beta3 Third-order group velocity dispersion
dispersionLambda0 Dispersion reference wavelength
dispersionS0 Dispersion slope at dispersionLambda0
dispersionOffset Dispersion offset at dispersionLambda0
nonlinearity_model Select nonlinearity model
n2 Constant nonlinear refractive index value
nonlinearity_filename Data file for nonlinearity coefficient profile
pmd_method Select PMD model if any
pmd_coef
PMD coefficient D
pmd_corlen
PMD correlation length
corr
L
pmd_seed Select randomization mode of PMD
raman_effects Toggle all Raman effects
raman_strength_model Select Raman strength model
raman_profile Select Raman response or gain profile model
raman_profile_filename Data file for Raman gain profile
raman_max_gain Peak Raman gain at reference pump wavelength
raman_response_fraction Fraction of nonlinearity that is non-instantaneous
raman_pump_ref_lambda Reference pump wavelength for Raman gain
raman_analytic_sig1 Coefficient for analytic Raman response function
raman_analytic_sig2 Coefficient for analytic Raman response function
raman_pump_scaling Toggle additional scaling of Raman gain
raman_pump_scaling_filename Data file for user-specified Raman pump scaling
raman_self_interaction Toggle intra-pulse Raman scattering
raman_sigsig_interaction Select mode for inter-channel Raman interactions
include_sbs Toggle stimulated Brillouin scattering
g_B Nominal Brillouin gain value
k_pol Random polarization factor
gain_ref_freq Reference frequency for g_B
Delta_fB Brillouin linewidth
f_B Brillouin gain peak frequency
force_linewidth Toggle manual setting of channel linewidths for SBS model
channel_linewidth Manual channel linewidth for SBS model
include_spm Toggle inclusion of SPM
include_xpm_el Toggle inclusion of electronic (normal) XPM
include_xpm_mol Toggle inclusion of molecular (Raman) XPM
include_dispersion Toggle inclusion of dispersion
skew Time skew added to the output optical signal
optimizationlevel Simulation optimization level
showstatus Toggle display of propagation progress
logstatus Toggle logging of propagation progress
physpropFilename Filename for recording physical properties for interior maps
physpropSteps Number of property measurements to make
frequency_units Units for display of test functions
test_raman_pump_lambda Pump wavelength for Raman gain profile test function
test_output Selection of test function display

Appendix: File formats
In the following descriptions, absolute frequencies denoted <freq_absolute> may be expressed in a number
of units as determined by the value of the field <freq_absolute_units> which may be any one of [nm],
[um], [m], [Hz], [MHz], [GHz], [THz], [cm^(-1)], [m^(-1)] or [rad/s].
Frequency shifts, denoted <freq_shift> may only be expressed in the units [Hz], [MHz], [GHz], [THz],
[cm^(-1)], [m^(-1)] or [rad/s], as indicated by the value of the field <freq_shift_units>.
The frequency values in all files must be monotonically increasing or decreasing. The field <num_pts>
specifies the number of data lines in the file.
Attenuation
A user specified attenuation profile is selected by setting loss_method to File and providing a filename
loss_filename. The loss values are interpreted in units of dB/km.
Out of range frequency values:
If the loss is required at a frequency outside the range specified in the file, the value at the closer endpoint
is used.
Format:
FiberLossFormat1 <freq_absolute_units>
<num_pts>
<freq_absolute 1> <loss 1>
Example:
FiberLossFormat1 [um]
5
1.40 0.25
1.45 0.21
1.50 0.19
0.17
1.60 0.21
Nonlinearity
A user specified nonlinearity profile is selected by setting nonlinearity_method to File, and providing a
filename nonlinearity_filename. The file contains values for in units of W
- 1
m
- 1
.
If the nonlinearity is required at a frequency outside the range specified in the file, the value at the closer
endpoint is used.
Format:
FiberN2Format1 <freq_absolute_units>
<num_pts>
<freq_absolute 1> <gamma 1>
Example:
FiberN2Format1 [um]
5
1.40 0.0015
1.45 0.0014
1.50 0.0012
0.001
1.60 0.0009
Raman gain profile
Selection:
A user specified Raman gain profile is selected by setting raman_profile=File, and providing a filename
raman_profile_filename. OptSim does not at this time support Raman gain between orthogonal
polarizations. Users requiring such a feature should contact RSoft Design Group.
The gain profile is dimensionless and should normally have a maximum value of 1.0.
The gain is assumed to vanish at frequencies outside the specified range.
Format:
RamanGainFormat1 <freq_shift_units>
<num_pts>
<freq_shift 1> <parallel gain 1>
Example:
RamanGainFormat1 [cm^(-1)]
200
0 0.00 0.00
5 0.04 0.01
10 0.20 0.05
20 0.30 0.10
25 0.40 0.12

Raman pump scaling
Selection:
A user specified Raman pump scaling profile is selected by setting raman_pump_scaling=File, and
providing a filename raman_pump_scaling_filename.
The profile is dimensionless and should normally take values of order 1.0.
For frequencies outside the file range, the value at the closer end point is used.
Format:
RamanPumpScalingFormat1 <freq_absolute_units>
<num_pts>
<freq_absolute 1> <Gamma value 1>
Example:
RamanPumpScalingFormat1 [um]
4
1.2 1.06
1.3 1.02
1.4 1.0
1.5 0.95
Bi-directional Nonlinear Fiber (Raman Amplifier)

This model provides a detailed implementation of a bidirectional fiber with all dispersive, nonlinear, PMD
and Raman effects. CW pump lasers may be attached traveling both forwards and backwards to simulate
Raman amplification of a forward and backward traveling signals. Spontaneous emission and Rayleigh
back-scatter effects are fully described. The problem is solved in two stages: a bi-directional power solution
that solves for the pump and noise distributions, followed by an extended implementation of the standard
Nonlinear Fiber Model that adds the influence of the pump waves to the dispersive and nonlinear effects
experienced by the signals. For strictly uni-directional problems with no pumps and backward traveling
signal or noise, the model is identical to the Nonlinear Fiber Model. The documentation for that model
should be read before the following.
All the parameters of the standard Nonlinear Fiber Model are also parameters of the present Bidirectional
Fiber Model. The shared parameters are documented in full in the discussion of the Nonlinear Fiber Model
and their explanations are not repeated here. The Parameter Descriptions section below indicates all
parameters that are common to both models.
Introduction
A number of fiber propagation applications require the ability to solve for fields traveling in both
directions. The most obvious and important is the simulation of Raman amplification of signals by CW
pumps. Raman amplification is a bidirectional problem, firstly because the pumps can be launched from
either ends, but also because the noise component to the field travels in both directions a single pump
produces spontaneous emission in both directions, and Rayleigh back-scattering couples fields in both
directions. These effects are summarized in Fig. 1. The forward traveling (red) signal is amplified by
pumps (blue) traveling in both directions. Spontaneous emission is generated by the pumps (green crosses)
and back-scattered. The signal also contributes directly to the noise through double Rayleigh back-
scattering indicated by the red loop.

Figure 1: Bidirectional fiber effects in Raman amplification. Incoming signal (red) is amplified by co-propagating and
counter-propagating pumps (blue). Deleterious effects include spontaneous emission (green), Rayleigh backscatter of
the spontaneous emission (green) and double-Rayleigh backscatter of the signal (red).
In other applications, bidirectionality arises directly due to signals being launched from both ends. We
show below that the only significant interaction between the oppositely-directed signals is the Raman
coupling. Therefore, the problem can be solved using the same approach as for Raman amplification with
one signal replaced by a CW wave of the equivalent average power. Thus this documentation is geared
towards the Raman amplification application but applies generally to all bidirectional problems.
Background
Origin of Raman effects
Raman effects may be viewed phenomenologically as a result of a delayed third-order nonlinearity, in
contrast to effects such as self-phase modulation, which arise from the instantaneous nonlinearity (see
documentation for Nonlinear Fiber Model). Microscopically, a Raman scattering event occurs when a
pump photon of frequency
p
scatters off a phonon (vibrational quantum). A transfer of energy and
momentum between the particles converts the incoming photon to a new frequency
s p
= + , with
p
<< . If 0 < , the new photon is referred to as a Stokes wave. The opposite case of a positive
frequency shift produces an anti-Stokes wave. This is very much less likely and can be largely neglected
in fiber systems. Raman gain occurs when the Stokes shift corresponds to the separation between a pump
and signal wave, so that the incoming signal is amplified. Stokes photons may also appear spontaneously at
frequencies with no preexisting signal. Subsequently amplified they contribute to the ASE noise of the
system.
Model Approach
It is essentially impossible to perform a complete fully-resolved bidirectional simulation over typical
distances of tens to hundreds of kilometers. Since boundary conditions exist at both ends of the fiber rather
than just the front end, the initial-value problem of the Nonlinear Fiber Model is replaced by a two-point
boundary-value problem that must be solved iteratively. On the other hand, modeling coherent effects such
as dispersion and self-phase modulation requires a spatial resolution at the sub-millimeter scale. Satisfying
both these requirements simultaneously would be numerically intractable in terms of stability, convergence
and computational time.
Fortunately we can construct an alternative approach, which is numerically efficient and captures all
important effects. The problem is divided into two distinct stages:
The first stage, solved bidirectionally and iteratively, provides the distribution of optical power (including
pumps, signals and noise) at coarse spatial resolution typically tens of meters or more. All dispersive and
instantaneous (non-Raman) nonlinear effects are neglected in this stage. Only Raman gain, attenuation,
spontaneous emission and Rayleigh scattering are included.
This second stage, is an extension of the standard Nonlinear Fiber Model that incorporates the information
about the pump and noise power distribution obtained in the first stage. In this way both the forward and
backward traveling coherent optical signal experience the appropriate amount of Raman gain from both
forward and backward pumps, and yet still suffers all coherent effects including dispersion, PMD, and
nonlinearities (including Raman effects due to intra-pulse or signal-signal interactions as distinct from the
CW pump-induced gain). Raman effects due to signal-signal interactions between counter-propagating
signals are not currently accounted for in the model, however, the Raman signal-signal interactions
between co-propagating signals are included.
Justification
This approach clearly neglects certain effects. In most cases these are of little or no consequence:
No nonlinear effects between signals traveling in opposite directions are included.
So, if the backward traveling wave contains modulated information, rather than just CW
pumps, XPM between these oppositely-directed signals is ignored. However, from the point
of view of a pulse traveling forwards, intensity variations in the backward-traveling wave
walk-through the forward signal essentially at the speed of light at a rate much faster than
any other process in the system. Hence, the XPM interactions between opposite waves are
smeared out so rapidly that each signal sees the reverse one as an effective CW wave. Since
the action of XPM by a CW wave is merely to impose a uniform phase shift of no
significance, it may be ignored. Four wave mixing (FWM) between counter-propagating
signals is negligible due to the phase-mismatch. For some specially chosen signal frequencies,
propagation directions, and fiber dispersion profile the phase matching may be fulfilled.
These special cases are not considered.
It is not possible to include nonlinear interactions between the signal and noise generated
within the fiber.
In order to correctly account for bidirectional behavior of the noise bidirectional emission
and Rayleigh backscatter, the noise must be represented as a separate power spectrum, rather
than as a stochastic component to the signals. Effects such as parametric gain of the noise can
only be obtained in the stochastic representation. Generally, if ASE is a significant source of
noise, variations due to nonlinear mixing represent a small perturbation. Pre-existing noise
produced before entry into the model can of course be converted to the stochastic
representation.
The modeling of the pumps as idealized CW waves neglects the phenomenon of pump-
mediated crosstalk.
In a WDM system, amplification of a pulse in one channel can locally deplete the pump wave,
reducing the gain seen by other channels. This effect is not captured in the present model
since the pump intensity varies only on macroscopic scales. The effect is only important for
co-propagating pumping, since for counter-propagating pumps, the variation is averaged out.
Pump-mediated crosstalk could be modeled in a unidirectional fashion using the standard
Nonlinear Fiber Model (or this model if backward pumping is also present). The forward
pump is launched as a genuine optical signal in the form of a very long though finite pulse
from one of the laser sources and interacts with the other channels through signal-signal
Raman interactions. In this case of course, it is not possible to include bidirectional noise
effects. Users concerned about pump-mediated crosstalk would perform simulations in both
ways and determine which source of noise has the dominant impact on bit error rates.
A similar argument applies to the impact of pump RIN on the amplified signals.
The model allows incoming signal and noise in both the forward and backward directions.
Model Operation
Input and output ports
The Bidirectional Nonlinear Fiber icon has four input and two output nodes (see Fig. 2). The top input and
output nodes function identically to the ports of the standard Nonlinear Fiber the input node accepts an
arbitrary set of optical signals, and the output node contains these signals after propagation through the
fiber. The lower input and output node have a similar function, but for the backward propagating optical
signals. The input nodes in the middle denote incoming CW pump waves and are interpreted in a different
manner. The node on the west side of the icon represents pumps launched at the front of the fiber and co-
propagating with the forward-traveling signal; the node on the east represents backward co-propagating
pumps launched at the rear of the fiber. The pump inputs do not accept arbitrary optical signals. Their
inputs must come from a series of CW Laser components whose signalType parameter is set to
PowerValue (the default). Using the Optical MUX model, any number of CW Lasers may be connected to
each input node. The restriction to CW Laser inputs serves as a reminder to the user that the pumps are
completely specified by their wavelength, power and propagation direction.
The example topology in Fig. 2 should help to make this convention clear. A two-channel signal is
generated by modulating the output of two CW Lasers with a random binary sequence, and is connected to
the first node of the bidirectional fiber. A single CW Laser is connected to the second node representing a
forward-traveling pump. A single-channel modulated signal is connected to the backward incoming signal
node on the east side. Three additional CW Lasers are multiplexed (in multi-channel mode) and connected
to the middle node on the east side to denote backward-going pumps. The output node on the east side
holds the modified version of the signals that enter on the first input node. The output node on the west side
holds the modified version of the signal that enters on the backward signal input node. As explained below,
in different modes of operation, any three of the four input nodes need not be connected.
Note finally, that no nodes are provided for the outgoing pumps, and at this stage it is not possible to
continue the propagation of the pumps beyond the fiber component.

Figure 2: Input node convention for bidirectional fiber model.
Modes of operation
Unlike most components in OptSim, the Bidirectional Fiber can be operated in a number of distinct modes.
In addition to the complete two-stage simulation as a part of a full link topology, the component can also be
used in a quasi-stand-alone fashion in order to optimize gain characteristics such as flatness and noise
figure. Which of the four modes of operation is used is controlled by the parameter simulation_mode. In
three of these modes, internal plots are generated that may be accessed by double-clicking the component
icon. These are discussed below in the section Internal Plots. The four modes with the corresponding
setting of simulation_mode are as follows:
Input only (InputOnly)
The preparatory stage of the model is run analyzing the incoming optical signals. Plots are
generated displaying the spectral density and power per channel of the incoming signals,
pumps and noise field. No signals are emitted at the output nodes. This is used as a quick
check that the incoming pumps and signals have the intended wavelengths and powers.
Power solution only (PowerOnly)
The first stage of the model is solved, obtaining the power distribution with distance of the
signals, pumps and noise fields. A large number of internal plots are generated describing this
solution. No signals are emitted at the output nodes. This mode is intended for stand-alone
use so that the gain flatness, range, noise figure and other parameters may be optimized before
analyzing the details of true pulsed coherent signal propagation through the fiber.
Coherent solution only (CoherentOnly)
This mode is similar to the standard Nonlinear Fiber Model with the additional support of
backward propagating signals and noise. It is provided as a convenience to avoid having to
switch components if bi-directional Raman effects are not desired at some point. As for the
standard fiber, there must be at least one incoming optical signal at one of the input signal
nodes, and the field at the end of the fiber appears at the corresponding output node. Any
inputs at the pump nodes are ignored.
Power + Coherent solution (Full)
The complete two-stage bidirectional simulation is performed. The power solution is obtained
and the resulting pump distribution is used as an additional source of information for the
coherent nonlinear fiber model. The resulting optical signal appears at the output nodes.
Signal Inputs
In simulations in PowerOnly mode, the user may be more interested in the total gain spectrum and noise
profile, as opposed to the detailed response of a single signal channel. Rather than attaching an incoming
signal to the incoming optical signal nodes, a flat spectral density representing the average power of many
WDM channels may be added by setting signal_spectrum=FixedRange and selecting a spectral density
with sig_fixed_spec_dens and a wavelength range with sig_fixed_lambda_lo and
sig_fixed_lambda_hi. This arrangement is useful for determining properties such as gain flatness and
noise figure over a wide bandwidth. Once the pump powers and wavelengths have been chosen to achieve
the desired properties, the simulation can be run in Full mode to determine the detailed effects on a single
channel.
It is possible to use the FixedRange spectrum even in Full mode. In this case, the pump power distribution
is found using the fixed range spectrum, while the coherent solution acts on the actual signal input at the
incoming optical signal nodes. In this way, gain saturation due to the existence of a large number of WDM
channels may be modeled without explicitly including all the channels.
User-Specified Profiles
A number of physical quantities may be specified in user data files, notably the Raman gain profile and the
loss profile. The formats and parameter settings required for these features are all explained in the
Nonlinear Fiber Model documentation to which the reader is referred. We emphasize here, however, that in
modeling Raman amplifiers it can be especially important to use measured profiles where available rather
than choosing constant values. Typically, the pumps and signals can together span 100-150 nm or more
and the frequency-dependence of the attenuation is critical to obtaining accurate results. Similarly, if the
pumps are widely spaced, the use of the additional scaling substantially improves accuracy if the correct
scaling is available.
Power Solution Equations and Calculation
The stage-one bidirectional solution solves for the power distribution in the fiber. In order to pass the ASE
noise spectrum to subsequent models and to calculate local quantities such as the noise figure, the noise
power is modeled as a distinct component from the signal and pumps. The model supports an arbitrary
number of pumps from both ends, an arbitrary number of signals from both ends, incoming ASE noise
spectra from both ends, temperature-dependent spontaneous emission, and arbitrary-order Rayleigh
scattering of signal, pump and noise components. In reality, Rayleigh scattering contributes to the noise in
several ways. Spontaneous emission traveling backwards is back-scattered in to the forward ASE spectrum
and vice-versa increasing ASE noise. On the other hand, forward and backward traveling signals are
double back-scattered producing a kind of highly smeared-out shadow of the original signals. These
two noise sources have somewhat different spectral characteristics. In this model, the two are considered to
collectively contribute to the ASE spectrum and are interpreted as such by subsequent components.
Principal equations
The model is an extension of a model of Kidorf et al. [1]. It consists of the following coupled equations for
the spectral densities of four quantities: the forward signal and pumps ( )
f
S , backward signal and pumps
( )
b
S , forward noise ( )
f
N and backward noise ( )
b
N :

( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) { }
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) { }
d
d
d ,
d , 4 1 , ,
d
d
d ,
d , 4 1 , ,
d
f
f
s
f b f b f
p
f f b f b ph
b
b
s
f b f b b
p
b f b f b ph
S
S
z
G S S N N S
G S S S N N h N T
S
S
z
G S S N N S
G S S S N N h N T

>
<
>
<
=
( + + + +

(
+ + + + +

=
( + + + +

(
+ + + + +

( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) { }
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) { }
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
N
d
d , 2 1 ,
d , 4 1 , ,
dN
d
d , 2 1
f
f b b
s
f b f b f ph
p
f f b f b ph
b
b f f
s
f b f b b
N S N
z
G S S N N N h N T
G N S S N N h N T
N S N
z
G S S N N N h N

>
<
>
( = + +

( ( + + + + + +

(
+ + + + +

( = + +

( + + + + + +

( ) { }
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) { }
,
d , 4 1 , .
ph
p
b f b f b ph
T
G N S S N N h N T

<
(

(
+ + + + +

(1)
Here ( ) is the attenuation, ( ) is the Rayleigh scattering coefficient (discussed below), his
Plancks constant and
ph
N represents an enhancement of spontaneous emission associated with the phonon
spectrum of the fiber. The superscripts on the gain factors
s
G and
p
G indicate the terms for which the
field on the left hand side is acting as a signal (s) (being amplified by higher frequencies) or as a pump (p)
(being depleted by lower frequencies). They satisfy

) ( |) (| |) | , (
) ( |) (| |) | , (

=
=
ref
ref
p
ref
ref
s
g G
g G

(2)
where the first argument to
, s p
G denotes the pumping frequency,
ref
g is the gain spectrum at the reference
frequency
ref
and ( ) is an empirical scaling factor. Thus for ( ) 1 = ,
s
G is proportional to the
pump frequency which is the traditional assumption. As discussed in the documentation for the Nonlinear
Fiber Model, the frequency dependence of the fiber effective area and other factors can introduce
departures from this scaling. It was explained there that this can be accounted for by specifying the
( ) function using the raman_pump_scaling parameters. The additional frequency ratio in the
expression for
p
G
arises because the Raman interaction preserves photon number rather than optical
energy. The gain profile, g
ref
() itself is equivalent to the gain function ( )
R
g introduced in the standard
fiber documentation and it is specified in this model exactly as in the standard fiber.
The factor in Eqs. (2) account for the polarization of the pumps. For
raman_pump_polarization=Parallel, 1 = and it is assumed that all signals and pumps have the same
polarization throughout the fiber. In most cases, the pumps and signals are scrambled in polarization, due
both to properties of the launched fields and PMD. This corresponds to 1/ 2 = , and is obtained with
raman_pump_polarization=Unpolarized.
The Bose-enhancement of the spontaneous emission factor is given by
( ) ( )
1
, exp / 1 .
ph
N T h kT
( =

(3)
in terms of the temperature T and frequency shift , with k being the Boltzmann constant. At low
temperatures, it enhances the degree of spontaneous emission for small frequency shifts. Physically, this is
due to the large phonon population in low energy states. At room temperature, its effect is minor.
Note in Eqs. (1), that the Rayleigh scattering terms appear only in the equations for the noise fields. Thus
as discussed earlier, all Rayleigh scattered power is regarded as noise. In the first two equations of (1), it is
unnecessary to include terms describing scattering out of these fields since this is subsumed into the
attenuation coefficient.
Equations (1) are solved by discretizing the fields in space and frequency and solving the differential
equations iteratively to a specified tolerance.
Physical Model Parameters
The Raman gain curves
, s p
G are specified in shape and strength using the various parameters described for
this purpose in the Nonlinear Fiber Model. Their behavior here is unchanged.
Rayleigh scattering and spontaneous emission effects are enabled with the parameters include_rayleigh
and include_spontaneous (both enabled by default). The temperature T in Eq. (3) is set by temperature.
The parameter noise_adjustment, by default set to 1.0, allows all spontaneous emission terms to be scaled
by a constant factor: all appearances of Plancks constant
h
in Eqs. (1) are replaced by
* h h = noise_adjustment
%
. This may be occasionally useful for fibers with very small noise
capture factors, but should normally not be used. Exact formulas for the Rayleigh coefficient
( )
are
quite involved and depend on careful knowledge of the modal properties and effective index [2]. We have
chosen to support several models for the Rayleigh scattering. The default is to use a power-law fit to the
Rayleigh scattering. The different models are listed below, each of which defines ) ( :
Constant

) ( = rayleigh_coeff_k.
PowerLaw

( ) ( ) ( ) / / 1.0 m c ( =

rayleigh_coeff_m
rayleigh_coeff_k/

(4)
File
) ( is set by data taken from a file specified with rayleigh_filename. The format is similar
to the documented loss file formats but the dependent parameter is the scattering coefficient,
which must be in units of 1/m. For example:

FiberRayleighFormat1 Nanometers
4
1300 1e-8
1400 2e-8
1500 2.5e-8
1600 3e-8
The default values rayleigh_coeff_k=2.16e- 7 m
- 1
and rayleigh_coeff_m=2.7, are suitable values for
standard single mode fiber. Note that these values differ from the well-known
4
1/ dependence familiar in
scattering theory, due to the wavelength dependence of the capture cross-section of the fiber most of the
scattered light escapes from the fiber and is not guided.
The Rayleigh back-scatter of the pump fields contributes to the noise spectrum in the model leaving large
spikes in the spectrum at the pump frequencies. In practice these narrow lines would be removed by
narrow-band optical filters and this could be done using OptSim components. The parameter filter_noise
enables these lines to be removed from the spectrum before it leaves the model as a convenience. Disabling
this feature may produce unexpected results in calculations using the ASE spectrum such as in the BER and
Eye Diagram components.
Numerical Model Parameters
A large number of parameters control aspects of the numerical solution of the algorithm.
Convergence: The criterion for convergence of the bidirectional algorithm is controlled by bd_tol. The
algorithm is considered to have converged when the largest relative change in power at any point in the
pump/signal or noise spectra is smaller than bd_tol. The default setting is usually appropriate but may be
experimented with. The rate at which the solution relaxes towards the correct answer is determined by
iterative_damping which is a number between 0.001 and 1.0. In a very strongly-pumped fiber or for very
long fibers, the algorithm may occasionally become unstable with the default settings. In this case,
increasing iterative_damping towards 1.0 can improve the convergence. Conversely, in problems with
weak Raman interactions, reducing iterative_damping reduces the number of iterations required for
convergence.
In the most severe pumping problems, convergence may also be improved by enabling the switch
progressive_solution, but this parameter should otherwise be left disabled.
Grid parameters: The frequency and spatial grid spacings are controlled by bd_freqStepSize and
bd_zStepSize, respectively. If these parameters have negative values, OptSim will determine appropriate
values based on the strength of the Raman gain and the input pump and signal powers. For the spatial grid
step, the shortest characteristic length in the problem is calculated and multiplied by zStepFac. This
number should not be increased above the default value of 0.1, but can be reduced if required until a
consistent result is obtained. If positive values are provided for bd_freqStepSize or bd_zStepSize they are
used directly. If stability problems are encountered (an error is issued if this occurs,) the user should
experiment with decreasing bd_zStepSize in addition to the parameters mentioned in the previous
paragraph.
By default, the model calculates a range for the frequency/wavelength domain that allows for a broad
spontaneous emission spectrum. In some cases, this domain may be larger than necessary and the
simulation time may be reduced by specifying upper and lower bounds for the frequency grid with the
parameters sim_fixed_wavelength_range, sim_lambda_lo and sim_lambda_hi.
Display Parameters
Frequently, the user may be interested in viewing the results over a smaller frequency domain than is
required for the numerical solution. It may be desired to zoom in on the signal gain with the pumps
outside the plot domain. To save having to use the WinPlot zoom feature for each new plot, the
freq_plot_lo and freq_plot_hi parameters may be used to set viewing limits for the frequency axes in all
the internal plots. The values of these parameters are interpreted in terms of the current setting for
frequency_units. If either value is negative, the whole domain is shown. The parameters distance_units,
power_units, power_density_units determine the units for other quantities in all plots.
As discussed in the section Internal Plots below, a number of generated plots convert the internal spectral
density representation into powers over frequency channels of a given width. This width is set with
nominal_channel_width. Typical values in a WDM system would be 25GHz, 50GHz or 100GHz.
Coherent Solution Calculation
In CoherentOnly mode, incoming signals are propagated through the fiber using the standard Nonlinear
Fiber Model with support for signal propagation in both directions. All parameters described in the
documentation for that model are present in this model and behave identically.
In Full mode, the signals are again propagated using the standard Nonlinear Fiber Model. However, for
each pump laser connected to the model an additional term appears in the expression for the Raman
interaction, using the powers ( )
f
m
P z and ( )
b
n
P z of the forward and backward propagating pumps which
are known from the power solution which has already been obtained. Thus the gain term from the signal
field ( )
i
A z in Eq. (22) of the Nonlinear Fiber documentation becomes

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
2
,
,
2 2
i k R i k i ki
k
R R
mi mi ni ni f b
m i n i
m n
R A jf A t A t h
g g
P z A t P z A t

=

+ +

%
K

(5)
where the gain factors ( )
R
mi mi
g are defined in Eq. (23) of the Fiber Model documentation and
mi
and
ni
are the frequency separation of the pumps and signal i . The factor accounts for the pump
polarization specified by pump_polarization. For Polarized pumps, 1 = , while for Unpolarized pumps,
1/ 2 = . Note that signals at higher frequencies than the pumps are depleted rather than amplified as is
required.
If the signal bandwidths are broad compared to the Raman gain spectrum (that is, bandwidths larger than a
THz or so), then the assumption of frequency-independent gain coefficients in Eq. (5) is invalid. Setting
the parameter raman_pumpsig_interaction=Full instead of the default Simple causes the full frequency
dependence to be taken into account. This works in an analogous fashion to the parameter
raman_sigsig_interaction in the standard fiber model. The action of the pumps is completely disabled
with raman_pumpsig_interaction=Off, in which case the simulation again reverts to the standard fiber
model. The stage 1 power solution is still performed however. Note that the raman interaction between
sampled signals traveling in opposite directions is not currently modeled. This may be added later.
The forward-propagating and backward-propagating noise fields obtained from the PowerSolution is
directly assigned to the ASE associated with the optical signals and is not altered in the second stage of the
problem.
Internal Plots
For diagnostic purposes, the first stage power solution generates a number of internal plots, which can be
accessed by double-clicking on the component icon after the simulation is completed. These plots are
useful for checking the input powers and wavelengths of the various signals and pumps, and for analyzing
properties of the gain spectrum. By examining these plots, the pump configuration can be adjusted to
produce acceptable gain bandwidth and flatness without requiring a complete coherent propagation of the
signal or subsequent components such as the Spectrum Plot. The meaning of the various plots follows,
listed by their WinPlot filenames. The units for many of these plots can be adjusted with the parameters
frequency_units, distance_units, power_units, power_density_units.
raman_spectral_density_launch.pcs
Spectral density of the launched forward and backward fields and noise. The pumps and signal energies are
combined.
raman_power_launch.pcs
Launched pump, signal and noise power averaged over frequency bins of width nominal_channel_width.
This presentation may be more natural than the spectral density representation.
raman_solve_fwd.pcs
Contour plot of the spectral density of the forward-propagating solution as a function of distance and
frequency.
raman_solve_back.pcs
Contour plot of the spectral density of the backward-propagating solution as a function of distance and
frequency.
raman_fwd_output.pcs
Spectral densities of the forward-propagating fields exiting the rear of the fiber.
raman_back_output.pcs
Spectral densities of the backward-propagating fields exiting the front of the fiber.
raman_forward_channel_power.pcs
Power per frequency bin of width nominal_channel_width of the launched and final forward propagating
signal and noise.
raman_backward_channel_power.pcs
Power per frequency bin of width nominal_channel_width of the launched and final backward propagating
signal and noise.
raman_signal_power_evol.pcs
Distance evolution of total signal and noise powers.
raman_pump_evol.pcs
Distance evolution of individual and total pump powers.
raman_forward_gain.pcs
Signal gain spectrum with gain
( )
( )
( )
sig
fout
10 sig
fin
10log
S
G
S
| |
=
|
|
\ .

raman_backward_gain.pcs
Signal gain spectrum with gain
( )
( )
( )
sig
bout
10 sig
bin
10log
S
G
S
| |
=
|
|
\ .

raman_forward_absolute_gain.pcs
Absolute change in forward signal spectral density ( ) ( )
sig sig
fout fin
S S
raman_backward_absolute_gain.pcs
Absolute change in backward signal spectral density ( ) ( )
sig sig
bout bin
S S
raman_forward_on_off_gain.pcs
On-off gain forward signal gain spectrum. On-off gain is the standard gain normalized by the attenuation of
the fiber: ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
sig
fout
f_on-off 10
sig
fin
10log
exp
S
G
S L

| |
= |
|
\ .

raman_backward_on_off_gain.pcs
On-off gain forward signal gain spectrum. On-off gain is the standard gain normalized by the attenuation of
the fiber: ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
sig
bout
b_on-off 10
sig
bin
10log
exp
S
G
S L

| |
= |
|
\ .

raman_forward_noise_figure.pcs
Effective Raman noise figure ( ) F defined by ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
ASE f_on-off
1 F G h = where
( )
ASE
is the spectral density of spontaneous emission in both transverse polarizations.
raman_backward_noise_figure.pcs
Effective Raman noise figure ( ) F defined by ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
ASE b_on-off
1 F G h = where
( )
ASE
is the spectral density of spontaneous emission in both transverse polarizations.
raman_photons.pcs
Total photon flux in forward and backward directions and total photon flow. In a lossless fiber, the photon
flow is conserved rather than the power flow.
raman_Forward_SNR.pcs
Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of forward propagating signals.
raman_Backward_SNR.pcs
Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR of backward propagating signals.
The parameters frequency_plot_lo and frequency_plot_hi can be used to limit the size of the plotting
domain as opposed to the simulation domain size. If either parameter is negative, they are ignored and the
whole simulation domain is plotted. The values are interpreted with respect to the current frequency_units
setting.
To save time and disk space, the number of plots displayed may be controlled with generate_plots. By
default, all plots are shown. Set generate_plots=1 to suppress the contour plots, or generate_plots=0 to
suppress all plots.
References

[1] H. D. Kidorf, K. Rottwitt, M. Nissov, M. Ma and E. Rabarijaona, Pump interactions in a 100-nm
bandwidth Raman amplifier, IEEE Photonics Technol. Lett. 11, 530 (1999).
[2] E. Brinkmeyer, Analysis of the backscattering method for single-mode optical fibers, JOSA Lett.
70, 1010 (1980).

Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical signal
#2: CW optical signals representing forward propagating pumps
#3: CW optical signals representing backward propagating pumps
Outputs
#1: Optical signal
Parameter Values
simulation_mode enumerated Full InputOnly,
PowerOnly,
CoherentOnly, Full

length double 1e3 [ 0, 1e32 ] m
zStepFac double 0.1 [ 0, 1 ] none
zStepSize double -1 [ -1, 1e10 ] m
decreasingStepSi
ze
enumerated No No, Yes
diameter double 8.2e-6 [ 0, 1e-2 ] m
aEff double 1.425 [ 0, 100 ] none
loss_model enumerated Constant Constant, File
loss double 0.25 [ 0, 1e32 ] dB/km
loss_filename string
dispersionModel enumerated defined defined, defined2,
custom, extrapolated

n1 double 1.4682 [ 0, 100 ] none
beta2 double 0.0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] s^2/m
beta3 double 0.0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] s^3/m
dispersionLambd
a0
double 1.312e-6 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] m
dispersionS0 double 0.09e3 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] s/m^3
dispersionOffset double 0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] s/m^2
nonlinearity_mod
el
enumerated Constant Constant, File
n2 double 2.6e-20 [ 0, 100 ] m^2/W
nonlinearity_filen
ame
string
pmd_method enumerated None None, Coarse_Step,
Modified_Coarse_Ste
p

pmd_coef double 3.16e-15 [ 0, 1e32 ] s/m^0.5
pmd_corlen double 10 [ 1e-10, 1e32 ] m
pmd_seed integer 0 [ -1e8, 1 ] none
signal_spectrum enumerated Incoming Incoming,
FixedRange

sig_fixed_lambda
_lo
double 1.4e-6 [ 1e-10, 1e32 ] m
sig_fixed_lambda
_hi
double 1.6e-6 [ 1e-10, 1e32 ] m
sig_fixed_spec_d
ens
double 1.e-16 [ 0, 1e32 ] W/Hz
raman_effects enumerated On On, Off
raman_strength_
model
enumerated Absolute Absolute, Fractional
raman_profile enumerated Default Default, Analytic,
File

raman_profile_file
name
string
raman_max_gain double 0.98e-13 [ 0, 1e32 ] m/W
raman_response_
fraction
double 0.18 [ 0, 1 ] none
raman_pump_ref_
lambda
double 1.0e-6 [ 0, 1e32 ] m
raman_analytic_si
g1
double 12.2e-15 [ 0, 1e32 ] s
raman_analytic_si
g2
double 32.0e-15 [ 0, 1e32 ] s
raman_pump_sca
ling
enumerated Default Default, File
raman_pump_sca
ling_filename
string raman_scale.dat
raman_pump_pol
arization
enumerated Unpolarized Unpolarized,
Parallel

raman_self_intera
ction
enumerated Off Off, On
raman_sigsig_int
eraction
raman_pumpsig_i
nteraction
include_rayleigh enumerated Yes No, Yes
rayleigh_model enumerated PowerLaw Constant, PowerLaw,
File

rayleigh_coeff_k double 2.16e-7 [ 0, 1e32 ] m^-1
rayleigh_coeff_m double 2.7 [ 0, 1e32 ] none
rayleigh_filename string
include_spontane
ous
temperature double 298.15 [ 0, 1e32 ] K
noise_adjustment double 1.0 [ 0, 1e32 ] none
filter_noise enumerated Yes Yes, No
include_sbs enumerated No No, Yes
g_B double 3e-11 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] m/W
k_pol double 1.5 [ 1, 2 ]
gain_ref_freq double 193.0 [ 1e-32, 1e32 ] THz
Delta_fB double 40.0 [ 0, 1e32 ] MHz
f_B double 11.0 [ 1e-32, 1e32 ] GHz
force_linewidth enumerated No No, Yes
channel_linewidth double 100.0 [ 0, 1e32 ] MHz
nominal_channel_
width
double 100e9 [ 0, 1e32 ] Hz
include_spm enumerated Yes No, Yes
include_xpm_el enumerated Yes No, Yes
include_xpm_mol enumerated Yes No, Yes
include_dispersio
n
sim_fixed_wavele
ngth_range
enumerated No Yes, No
sim_lambda_lo double 1.2e-6 [ 1e-10, 1e32 ] none
sim_lambda_hi double 1.6e-6 [ 1e-10, 1e32 ] none
iterative_damping double .7 [ .001, 1 ] none
bd_freqStepSize double -1 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] Hz
bd_zStepSize double -1 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] m
bd_tol double 1e-4 [ 1e-32, 1e32 ] none
progressive_solut
ion
enumerated No Yes, No
freq_plot_lo double -1 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] none
freq_plot_hi double -1 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] none
skew double 0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] s
optimizationlevel integer 3 [ 0, 3 ] none
showstatus enumerated Yes Yes, No
logstatus enumerated No No, Yes
physpropFilenam
e
string
physpropSteps integer 20 [ 2, 1e8 ]
generate_plots integer 2 [ 0, 2 ]
frequency_units enumerated um nm, um, m, Hz, GHz,
THz, cm^{-1}, m^{-
1}, rad/s

distance_units enumerated m m, km, Mm
power_units enumerated W uW, mW, W, dBm
power_density_u
nits
enumerated dBm/GHz uW/Hz, uW/GHz,
uW/THz, mW/Hz,
mW/GHz, mW/THz,
W/Hz, W/GHz,
W/THz, dBm/Hz,
dBm/GHz, dBm/THz

test_raman_pump
_lambda
double 1.3e-6 [ 0, 1e32 ] m
test_output enumerated raman_gain loss, dispersion, n2,
rayleigh,
raman_gain,
raman_pump_scaling

denotes a parameter discussed in detail in the Nonlinear Fiber Model documentation

simulation_mode Select type of simulation
length
Length of the fiber

zStepFac
Scaling factor for propagation step-size

zStepSize
Specify user-defined step size or automatic calculation

decreasingStepSize
Toggle use of monotonically decreasing step-size

diameter
Core diameter
aEff
Effective mode area normalized by core area

loss_model
Select constant or file-based loss

loss
Constant fiber attenuation parameter

loss_filename
Data file for attenuation profile

dispersionModel
Select dispersion model

n1
Group index
beta2
Second-order group velocity dispersion

beta3
Third-order group velocity dispersion

dispersionLambda0
Dispersion reference wavelength

dispersionS0
Dispersion slope at DispersionLambda0

dispersionOffset
Dispersion offset at DispersionLambda0

nonlinearity_model
Select nonlinearity model

n2
Constant nonlinear refractive index value

nonlinearity_filename
Data file for nonlinearity coefficient profile

pmd_method
Select PMD model if any

pmd_coef

PMD coefficient
D

pmd_corlen

PMD correlation length
corr
L

pmd_seed
Select randomization mode of PMD

signal_spectrum Toggle source of input signal spectrum
sig_fixed_lambda_lo Lower limit of fixed input signal spectrum
sig_fixed_lambda_hi Upper limit of fixed input signal spectrum
sig_fixed_spec_dens Spectral density of fixed input signal spectrum
raman_effects
Toggle all Raman effects

raman_strength_model
Select Raman strength model

raman_profile
Select Raman response or gain profile model

raman_profile_filename
Data file for Raman gain profile

raman_max_gain
Peak Raman gain at reference pump wavelength

raman_response_fraction
Fraction of nonlinearity that is non-instantaneous

raman_pump_ref_lambda
Reference pump wavelength for Raman gain

raman_analytic_sig1
Coefficient for analytic Raman response function

raman_analytic_sig2
Coefficient for analytic Raman response function

raman_pump_scaling
Toggle additional scaling of Raman gain

raman_pump_scaling_filenam
e

Data file for user-specified Raman pump scaling
raman_pump_polarization Polarization states of Raman pumps
raman_self_interaction
Toggle intra-pulse Raman scattering

raman_sigsig_interaction
Select mode for inter-channel Raman interactions

raman_pumpsig_interaction Select mode for pump-channel Raman interactions
include_rayleigh Toggle inclusion of Rayleigh scattering effects
rayleigh_model The type of model to use for Rayleigh scattering effects
rayleigh_coeff_k Rayleigh scattering coefficient
rayleigh_coeff_m Rayleigh scattering coefficient
rayleigh_filename Filename for Rayleigh gamma data for file-based model
include_spontaneous Toggle inclusion of spontaneous emission noise
temperature Temperature for spontaneous emission strength
noise_adjustment Artificial adjustment of noise strength
filter_noise Toggle removal of pump lines from outgoing noise spectrum
include_sbs
Toggle stimulated Brillouin scattering

g_B
Nominal Brillouin gain value

k_pol
Random polarization factor

gain_ref_freq
Reference frequency for g_B

Delta_fB
Brillouin linewidth
f_B
Brillouin gain peak frequency

force_linewidth
Toggle manual setting of channel linewidths for SBS model

channel_linewidth
Manual channel linewidth for SBS model

nominal_channel_width Frequency bin width for power-based plots
include_spm
Toggle inclusion of SPM

include_xpm_el
Toggle inclusion of electronic (normal) XPM

include_xpm_mol
Toggle inclusion of molecular (Raman) XPM

include_dispersion
Toggle inclusion of dispersion

sim_fixed_wavelength_range Toggle fixed or auto-calculated simulation wavelength domain
sim_lambda_lo Fixed wavelength domain lower limit
sim_lambda_hi Fixed wavelength domain upper limit
iterative_damping Relaxation coefficient for iterative solution scheme
bd_freqStepSize Frequency grid step for power solution
bd_zStepSize Spatial grid step for power solution
bd_tol Convergence tolerance for power solution
progressive_solution Toggle progressive iterative scheme for power solution
freq_plot_lo Lower frequency limit for internal plots
freq_plot_hi Upper frequency limit for internal plots
skew
Time skew added to the output optical signal

optimizationlevel
Simulation optimization level

showstatus
Toggle display of propagation progress

logstatus Toggle logging of propagation progress
physpropFilename Filename for recording physical properties for interior maps
physpropSteps Number of property measurements to make
generate_plots Select which internal plots should be displayed
frequency_units
Frequency units for display of test and internal plots

distance_units Distance units for display of test and internal plots
power_units Power units for display of test and internal plots
power_density_units Spectral density units for display of test and internal plots
test_raman_pump_lambda
Pump wavelength for Raman gain profile test function

test_output
Selection of test function display

Fiber Delay

This model delays the input optical signal(s) by the specified amount to model an ideal fiber delay. This model may be
used anywhere in the topology where a specified optical signal time delay is desired.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical signal
Outputs
#1: Optical signal
Parameter Values

delay double 0 [ 0, 1e32 ] s


delay
Amount to shift the carrier phase of the input optical signal(s) by

OptSim Models Reference: Block Mode Chapter 6: Optical Amplifiers 169
Chapter 6: Optical Amplifiers
This chapter describes the optical amplifiers:

Black Box Optical Amplifier
a simple physical model of an EDFA
Physical EDFA
a full physical model of an EDFA
Physical EYCDFA
a full physical model of an EYCDFA
Semiconductor Optical Amplifier (SOA)
a physical model of a SOA based on travelling wave approximation
Controlled Semiconductor Optical Amplifier (SOA)
a physical model of a controlled SOA with injection current as sum of pump and external control currents
Optical Noise Adder
add spontaneous emission noise without gain
Linewidth Adder
add linewidth to an optical signal as a parameter or as phase noise
Liekki LAD Interface
interface to Liekki Application Designer (LAD)
170 Chapter 6: Optical Amplifiers OptSim Models Reference: Block Mode
Black Box Optical Amplifier

This block models an optical amplifier as a black box, such as an erbium doped fiber amplifier (EDFA). There are two
types of optical amplifier gain models in the black box model: the defined model and the custom model. There are also
several types of optical amplifier noise models: the Uniform model, the Gaussian model, and the Custom model.
Defined Gain Model
In the defined gain model, the gain variations with wavelength of an optical amplifier are not included. This is partially
because the gain flatness depends on the level of saturation of the amplifier and this causes added complexities to the
model. The gain flatness will be a significant factor when WDM systems are modeled. The gain saturation at high input
powers is included in this model, with the power gain specified as,

sat
ave
P
P
G
G
G
0
0
1+
=
where G
0
(gain) is the small signal power gain, P
sat
(Psat) is the saturation output power and P
ave
is the total average
power in the fiber.
Both the signal and the preceding generated spontaneous noise are amplified by the optical power gain G.
Custom Gain Model
Both gain variations with wavelength and the gain saturation are included in the custom gain model, where measured or
theoretical gain spectra at different total input powers are read from the data file. The program will interpolate the
optical gain for every channel under the actual input total power. The custom file is a two column format file which
specifies the wavelength (nm) and the power gain (dB) all separated by spaces. Multiple gain curves (each corresponds
to different input power) are placed one after another within the data file. There is no limit to the number of gain curves
that may be included. The very first line of each gain curve starts with 0 and is followed with spaces and the average
input power (dBm) of the curve. This 0 tells the program the beginning of a new gain curve and must not be changed.
Comments can be added at the end of the line, and each comment is ended with a *. No comment or * is needed in
the gain data rows. The data region is ended with a line -1 -1 at the end of the file. There should be a carriage return
at the end of the last line.
The wavelength-gain curves are passed to the black box optical amplifier module. The black box optical amplifier
module will calculate the input optical average power and interpolate the gain at the WDM channel wavelengths. With
this new power gain spectra, the black box optical amplifier module then interpolates to obtain gain under the
corresponding input power for different channels.
Gain is also applied to the ASE noise spectra according to wavelength in this gain model.
Defined ASE Noise Models
Both the Uniform and Gaussian noise models utilize a Noise Figure number to characterize noise [1]. The amplified
spontaneous noise power density is simulated as,
h n G S
sp sp
= ) 1 (
where 2 /
n sp
F n is the population inversion factor, while F
n
(Fn) is the noise figure of the amplifier. h is the
photon energy. The ASE noise spectrum is defined using the Fn parameter, the noiseShape parameter to define the
shape of the defined noise spectrum, BW parameter to define the noise bandwidth, the noiseCenter parameter to define
the center wavelength of the defined ASE noise spectra, and the noiseResolution parameter to define the spectral
resolution of the generated ASE noise spectra. The resolution should be set to be approximately an order of magnitude
smaller than the bandwidth of the narrowest optical filter in the link.
Custom ASE Noise Model
The Custom noise model uses a wavelength and power dependent ASE noise file of a format similar to the custom gain
model. The noise spectrum is defined in units of dBm at different average input power levels and wavelengths. The
name of the custom noise file is given in the noiseFilename parameter. The noiseResolution parameter is used to set
the resolution of the generated ASE noise spectra. The resolution should be set to be approximately an order of
magnitude smaller than the bandwidth of the narrowest optical filter in the link.
Note: The optical filter is not included in this optical amplifier model, rather it is a separate model.
References
[1] N. A. Olsson, Lightwave systems with optical amplifiers, J. of Lightwave Technology 7, 1071-1082 (1989).
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical signal
Outputs
#1: Optical signal
Parameter Values

type enumerated defined defined, custom
spectraFilename string
noiseFilename string
gain double 30 0 x 1e32 dB
Psat double 18 0 x 1e32 dBm
Fn double 4.0 3 x 1e32 dB
BW double 30e-9 0 x 1e6 m
noiseCenter double 1550e-9 1e-32 x 1e6 m
noiseShape enumerated Uniform Uniform, Gaussian, Custom
NoiseResolution double 0.01e-9 1e-32 x 1e6 m


type defined and custom
spectraFilename Filename of the amplifier gain spectrum (custom only)
noiseFilename Filename of the amplifier noise spectrum (custom only)
gain Optical amplifier small signal amplitude gain (defined only)
Psat Optical amplifier saturation power (defined only)
Fn Noise Figure of the Amplifier
BW Optical amplifier ASE noise bandwidth (defined only)
noiseCenter Optical amplifier ASE noise spectra center wavelength (defined only)
noiseShape Optical amplifier ASE noise shape (Uniform, Gaussian, or Custom)
noiseResolution Optical amplifier ASE noise resolution

Physical EDFA

This block models the operation of an erbium-doped fiber amplifier (EDFA) via a set of well-established
physical equations. The model supports component specifications at different levels of complexity, as well
as a variety of pump and signal configurations. Figure 1 illustrates an OptSim schematic that utilizes the
Physical EDFA model. Forward-propagating optical signals are launched into the EDFA via the first input
node, while backward-propagating signals (e.g., counter-propagating pumps) enter via the second input
node. OptSims multiplexer components can be used to combine signals and pumps at either input. The
EDFA output is available at the output node, and includes any signals, pumps, and amplified spontaneous
emission (ASE) that are exiting the amplifier. The EDFA may also be used to simulate bidirectional signal
propagation, in which case input signals are expected at both input nodes, and an additional backward
output appears at the backward output node.

forward input
backward input
pumps
backward output
(bidirectional mode only)

Figure 1: Basic OptSim topology depicting an EDFA with forward and backward inputs.
Background
The Physical EDFA model is based on a standard set of equations for an EDFAs steady-state atomic
manifold population densities and the evolution of optical powers along the length of the device [1]-[3].
Optical signals propagating along the EDFA interact with the local population densities, resulting in power
gain or loss via stimulated emission and absorption. Spontaneous emission and its subsequent
amplification also occur.
Generally, the erbium atomic manifolds of interest can be reduced to a three-level atomic system, as
illustrated in Fig.2(a), with population densities in each manifold assumed to be Boltzmann-distributed at
thermal equilibrium. Optical signals with wavelengths near 980 nm (henceforth referred to as the 980-
band) are used to pump from the first (
4
I
15/2
) to the third (
4
I
11/2
) level, while 1480-nm signals pump from
the first to the second (
4
I
13/2
) level. In the former case, fast non-radiative decay from the third to the second
level effectively eliminates any stimulated emission from the third to first level, allowing us to simplify the
model to a two-level atomic system with zero stimulated emission in the 980-band [2]. This reduced
arrangement is depicted in Fig.2(b), where R
13
is the stimulated absorption rate for 980-band transitions, R
12

and R
21
are stimulated absorption and emission rates between the
4
I
15/2
and
4
I
13/2
levels, respectively, and
is the spontaneous emission lifetime of the
4
I
13/2
level. The optical signals being amplified by the EDFA
usually have wavelengths ranging from 1530-1580-nm (the C-band) or 1580-1610-nm (the L-band), and
therefore interact with the same atomic populations as 1480-nm pumps. Thus, R
12
and R
21
account for both
signal and pump transitions at wavelengths typically ranging from 1450-1650-nm (henceforth referred to as
the 1550-band). Amplified spontaneous emission (ASE) in the EDFA also occurs in this band of
wavelengths.

4
I
11/2
4
I
13/2
4
I
15/2
1550 nm
980 nm
1480 nm
pumps
level 2
level 1
R
13
R
21
R
12
1/

(a) (b)

Figure 2: Erbium atomic manifolds. (a) Three manifolds involved in predominant erbium atomic transitions. (b)
Simplified two-level model.
In order to describe the interaction between the erbium ions and local signal, pump, and noise powers, the
model uses a set of rate equations for erbium ion densities in each atomic level. However, because the sum
of these two densities should equal the total erbium doping density N, we can in fact adopt a single rate
equation for the level-2 population density N
2
. Furthermore, in most EDFA applications, the long lifetime
of the metastable level-2 population acts to eliminate any significant transient changes in the level
populations, thereby allowing us to set the time rate-of-change for N
2
to zero. In other words, the EDFAs
operating characteristics depend on average optical powers. Thus [2],

2
2 21 1 12 2 21 1 12 1 13
2
0
N
N R N R N R N R N R
dt
dN
ASE ASE
+ + =
(1)
where N
1
= N N
2
is the level-1 population density, R
ASE12
is the stimulated absorption rate for spontaneous
emission, and R
ASE21
is the corresponding stimulated emission rate. Generally, because there is a
continuum of transition frequencies between the erbium atomic manifolds, each of the transition rates R in
Eq.(1) are of the form:

d
h
r
R

=
) ( ) ( ) (
r

(2)
where is the transition frequency, ( ) is the frequency-dependent transition cross section, ( ) is
the local optical spectral density, and ( ) r
v
is the normalized optical mode profile. By assuming
homogeneous broadening of the atomic transitions, we have adopted a single frequency-dependent function
for the transition cross sections [2]. Following the approach in Ref.[2], we can discretize the above integral
over fixed frequency intervals , in which case the transition rates take the form

( )
i i i
i i
P P
R
h

+
+
=

(3)
where we have replaced the optical spectral density with forward (
i
P
+
) and backward (
i
P
) signal powers
in each frequency interval.
To complete the model, rate equations are necessary for describing the evolution of signal, pump, and noise
powers along the EDFA. Separate equations for both forward and backward propagation are required for
980-band signals, 1550-band signals, and 1550-band ASE. Again following the approach taken in [2], we
have adopted the following equations:

dQ
dz
N r r r dr N r r r dr Q
j
a j p a j p
j
j

2
2
2

, ,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
(4)

dP
dz
N r r r dr N r r r dr P
k
e k a k s a k s
k
k
= +

2
2
2

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
, , ,

(5)

( )
, , 2 ,
, 2
2 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
2 ( ) ( ) 2
l l
e l a l s a l s l
e l s l
dA
N r r r dr N r r r dr A
dz
N r r r dr h
(
= +
(

(

(6)
where 980-band powers are denoted by
j
Q
, 1550-band powers by
k
P
, and ASE powers by

l
A
. Intrinsic
background loss is accounted for by , and locally generated spontaneous emission is included via the last
term in Eq.(6).
A number of assumptions are inherent to Eqs.(4)-(6). First, we have assumed that the erbium-doping and
mode profiles have no azimuthal dependence. Second, we have assumed that 980-band signals all have the
same normalized mode profile ( )
p
r ; similarly, all 1550-band signals and ASE use a common profile
( )
s
r . Third, higher order effects such as excited-state absorption (ESA) [1]-[2] are neglected. However,
higher order effects such as upconversion and pair-induced quenching, while not included in the above
equations, are included in the model, and will be explained shortly. Finally, fiber effects such as dispersion
and nonlinearities are also neglected, due to the relatively short lengths of most EDFAs. It should also be
noted that the model assumes no spectral overlap between separate optical signals. In cases where this is
detected, the model will issue an appropriate warning.
Model Implementation
Model Levels
The Physical EDFA block includes a number of implementations of the main equations described above.
These models can be selected via the simulation_mode parameter, and can take on values of giles_params,
constant_overlap, calculated_overlap, cladding_pumped, and spatial.
Level giles_params
As shown in [3], the model equations presented above can be significantly simplified by dealing with the
average level-population densities and eliminating their explicit spatial dependence via measured gain and
loss spectra (as opposed to emission and absorption cross sections) that are weighted by the local doping
and mode profiles. This well known implementation is the Giles model, in which the primary model
parameters are reduced to a set of four, namely the measured gain spectra
e
g , the measured loss spectra
a
g , the intrinsic background loss , and a fiber saturation parameter (fiber_saturation_param),
which accounts for the average doping density N
0
, the fiber transverse area, and the erbium metastable
lifetime. Such a model is generally valid for strongly confined erbium-doping profiles. The complete set
of model equations become:

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
, , ,
2
0
, , , , ,
a j j j a k k k a l l l
j k l j k l
a j j j a k e k k k a l e l l l
j k l j k l
g Q Q g P P g A A
h h h
N
N
g Q Q g g P P g g A A
h h h

+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
+ +
=
+ + + + +
+ + +

(7)

2
, ,
0
j
a j a j j j
dQ
N
g g Q
dz N
(
=
(

(8)

( )
2
, , ,
0
k
a k e k a k k k
dP N
g g g P
dz N
(
= +
(

(9)

( ) ( )
2 2
, , , ,
0 0
2
l
a l e l a l l l e l l
dA N N
g g g A g h
dz N N

( (
= +
( (

(10)
Levels constant_overlap, calculated_overlap
In terms of computational complexity, the constant_overlap and calculated_overlap models are equivalent
to the giles_params model, but support a more thorough parameterized description of the EDFA, including
absorption/emission cross sections, doping profiles, and the metastable lifetime. In these versions of the
model, any explicit transverse spatial dependence is replaced by factors that account for the spatial overlap
between the erbium population densities and optical modes [1]. In the calculated_overlap model, these
overlap factors are determined from explicit doping and mode profiles, whereas in the constant_overlap
model, the user provides these values directly. For 980-band signals, the overlap parameter is
p

(overlap_980), and for 1550-band signals, it is
s
(overlap_1550). Like the giles_params model, the
overlap models are also largely intended for EDFAs with strongly confined erbium-doping profiles. The
complete set of model equations are [1]:

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
, , ,
0
2
, , , , ,
a j j j a k k k a l l l
p s s
j k l j k l
a j j j a k e k k k a l e l l l eff
p s
j k l j k l
Q Q P P A A
N
h h h
N
Q Q P P A A A
h h h

+ + +
+ + +
(
+ + +
( + +
(

=
(
+ + + + +
+ + + (
(

(11)

, 2 , 0
j
p a j p a j j j
dQ
N N Q
dz

( =

(12)

( )
, , 2 , 0
k
s a k e k s a k k k
dP
N N P
dz

(
= +

(13)

( ) ( )
, , 2 , 0 , 2
2
l
s a l e l s a l l l s e l l
dA
N N A N h
dz

(
( = +

(14)
where A
eff
is the effective transverse doping area, and N
0
is a calculated effective doping density. The user
may specify a value for via the metastable_lifetime parameter. Note the similarities between these
equations and those of the Giles model.
Level cladding_pumped
For cladding-pumped devices, the cladding-pumped version of the model should be used. In this case, the
user specifies the core area via the parameter Acore, and the inner cladding area via the parameter Aclad.
These areas are then used to calculate the pump overlap factor [4], with the rest of the model defaulting to
the overlap approach described above.
Level spatial
The most complex version of the model is the spatial model, which directly implements Eq.(1) and Eqs.(4)-
(6), thereby providing a full spatial description of the interplay between the erbium population densities and
optical mode profiles. As such, it requires the largest amount of computational overhead. The simplified
models discussed above are sufficient for most situations of interest. However, in some cases, a detailed
study of the EDFA design is required, in which case the spatial model would be used.
Higher-Order Effects
The above equations ignore higher-order effects such as homogeneous upconversion [5] and pair-induced
quenching [6]. Based on the treatments in [1], [5], and [6], we have incorporated these effects into the
Physical EDFA model. Homogeneous upconversion is accounted for via the parameter
upconversion_coeff (for non-Giles models) or giles_upconversion_coeff (for the Giles model). Pair-
induced quenching is incorporated via the parameter pair_fraction, which should be set equal to the
fraction of Er ions that appear in pairs within the fiber. This parameter is equal to twice the parameter k
from [1] and [6].
EDFA Configurations
In specifying the configuration of the EDFA, the user must always specify a fiber length via the length
parameter. They may also provide coupling losses at both the input and output nodes via the parameters
forward_input_loss, backward_input_loss, and output_loss. Furthermore, they may select to have any
pumps (i.e., optical signals with wavelengths near 980 or 1480 nm) excluded from the model output via the
output_pumps parameter. Setting this option to no is useful in cases where the pump signal no longer
impacts system performance in components that follow the EDFA.
The EDFA model may also be used to simulate bidirectional signal propagation. In this case, the parameter
bidirectional should be set to yes. The user may then provide input signals at both the forward and
backward input nodes. The backward output appears at the backward output node of the model. The user
may specify a backward output coupling loss via the parameter backward_output_loss.
In addition to these basic configuration settings, the Physical EDFA model also supports various EDFA
pump/signal recycling schemes [2]. By placing mirrors at either end of an EDFA, pumps and/or signals
may be recycled, thereby providing the opportunity for enhanced amplification. Such configurations may
be selected through the mirror_configuration parameter. The most basic option is no_mirror, in which no
pump/signal reflectors are included in the EDFA. (This configuration is always activated if bidirectional is
set to yes.) In cases where forward-propagating optical inputs are to be recycled (typically pumps), the
forward_mirror option should be selected. This arrangement is illustrated in Fig.3(a). Alternatively,
backward-propagating inputs may be recycled via the backward_mirror option, shown in Fig.3(b). In this
case, the user may select to have the reflected signal included in the EDFA output via the output_reflected
option. Finally, the user may choose to adopt a signal recycling scheme, such as that depicted in Fig.3(c),
wherein the EDFA input and output are actually at the same end of the device, with an optical circulator
providing separation between the two. Both signal and pump may be recycled in this manner. This option
may be chosen by setting mirror_configuration to signal_mirror.

input
EDFA
output
EDFA
input
output
O
reflector
reflector
input
EDFA
output
reflector
input (bwd)
circulator
(a) (b)
(c)

Figure 3: EDFA pump/signal recycling configurations. (a) Co-propagating pump reflector. (b) Counter-propagating
pump reflector. (c) Signal/pump recycler.
The spectral characteristics of any mirrors included in the EDFA are set via the mirror_model,
mirror_reflectivity, mirror_center, mirror_bandwidth, and mirror_file parameters. Setting mirror_model
to rectangular implements a rectangular spectra with the in-band reflectivity specified by
mirror_reflectivity, a center wavelength specified by mirror_center, and a bandwidth specified by
mirror_bandwidth. The gaussian option for mirror_model uses the same parameters, but of course
implements a Gaussian wavelength dependence. Alternatively, a reflectivity spectrum may be read in
directly from a file by setting mirror_model to file, and providing a file name in mirror_file. The file
format is described in the appendix.
Noise Settings
From the ASE power propagation equations, we can see that the amount of ASE power locally injected at
any point along the length of the EDFA is typically 2 h [2]. The factor of two takes into account
ASE injected in both polarizations. In cases where only a single polarization is desired, the parameter
ASE_polarization should be set to single (as opposed to both). Local ASE injection may be completely
eliminated from the simulation by setting inject_ASE to no.
Absorption/Emission Spectra
For optical signals and ASE in the 1550-band, the user must specify the Giles gain/loss spectra (for the
Giles model), or absorption/emission cross-section spectra (for the other models). By setting the
spectra_1550_model parameter, the user may select either built-in default spectra or device-specific data
that is to be read in from a file.
Two sets of default spectra are available. If spectra_1550_model is set to default_Ge, then spectra for a
germanosilicate fiber are used. If spectra_1550_model is set to default_GeAl, then spectra for an
alumino-germanosilicate fiber are chosen instead. In both cases, the data is based on analytical expressions
taken from [2].
If spectra_1550_model is set to user_specified, then spectra must be provided through input files. For the
Giles model, the appropriate Giles loss/gain files are identified with the parameters giles_loss_1550_file
and giles_gain_1550_file. For the other models, cross-section data files are specified using the parameters
absorption_1550_file and emission_1550_file. The file format is described in the appendix.
A loss or absorption spectrum must also be provided for signals in the 980-band. In this case, three choices
are available via the parameter spectra_980_model. For either a rectangular profile (rectangular) or
Gaussian profile (gaussian), the user must specify a center wavelength (spectra_980_center) and spectral
width (spectra_980_width). For the Giles model, the center-wavelength loss is set via giles_loss_980.
For the other models, the absorption cross-section center-wavelength value is set via absorption_980.
If spectra_980_model is set to file, then the 980-band spectrum must be provided through an input file.
For the Giles model, the Giles loss file is identified with the parameter giles_loss_980_file. For the other
models, the 980-band absorption cross-section data file is specified using the parameter
absorption_980_file. The file format is described in the appendix.
Depending on the provided data, the model can automatically determine the range of wavelengths that
comprise the 980-band and 1550-band based on the range of the gain/loss or emission/absorption spectra.
However, by setting spectra_1550_auto_limit to no, the user may directly limit the 1550-band to a specific
range of wavelengths via the parameters spectra_1550_low and spectra_1550_high. Similarly, by setting
spectra_980_auto_limit to no, the 980-band limits can be set via the parameters spectra_980_low and
spectra_980_high.
Thermal Dependence
Thermal dependence of either the absorption/emission or loss/gain spectra is modeled based on the work of
M. Bolshtyansky et al. in [7]. Given a set of reference spectra
ref
(absorption or loss) and g
ref
(emission or
gain) at a temperature T
ref
, spectra
new
and g
new
at a new temperature T
new
are calculated as:

1 2
1 2
/ /
/ /
( )
( ) ( )
( )
new new
ref ref
T T T T
ref
new ref T T T T
new
T
K e e
T K e e

+
=
+

(15)

1 2
1 2
/ 1
/ /
/ /
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
ref new
new new
ref ref
T T
T T T T
ref ref
new ref T T T T
new ref
T g
K e e
g g
T K e e

(
+
=
(
+
(

(16)
where K(), T
1
, and T
2
are empirical fitting parameters used to fit the thermal dependence to measured data.
K() is equal to F
1
()/F
2
(), where F
1
() and F
2
() are defined in [7].
To activate this model, the user must set thermal_model equal to builtin or user, and specify the
temperature (reference_temp) at which the reference spectra were measured, and the new temperature
(actual_temp) at which the spectra should be modeled. The absorption/emission or loss/gain spectra
specified earlier by the user are considered to be the reference spectra.
For the builtin model, the values given in [7] for K(), T
1
, and T
2
are used, as these were reported to give
good agreement with experimental results for a wide range of silica-based aluminum co-coped EDFAs with
varying levels of germanium and aluminum. If the user has their own measured spectra that they would like
to use, then they should select the user model. For both the 980- and 1550-band spectra, they must specify
a data file for K() (F1F2_ratio_1550_file and F1F2_ratio_980_file) and values for T
1
(T1_1550 and
T1_980) and T
2
(T2_1550 and T2_980). The format for the data files is described in the appendix. Given a
set of measured spectra at reference temperature T
ref
, and additional spectra at temperatures T
a
, T
b
, T
c
, etc.,
the following procedure is suggested for determining optimal values for the empirical parameters K(), T
1
,
and T
2
:
1. Select values for T
1
and T
2
.
2. At each temperature T
a
, T
b
, T
c
, etc., use equations (15) and (16) to determine K() for each
additional gain and loss spectra.
3. To minimize the differences between the different calculations of K(), select new values for T
1

and T
2
. Repeat steps 2 and 3, optimizing T
1
and T
2
until the error between the different
calculations of K() is minimized. Select one of the K() functions for use in the model.
Doping Profile
A number of choices are available for specifying the EDFA erbium doping profile. These options are
available through the doping_model parameter. For both rectangular and gaussian doping profiles, a
doping radius and peak density must be provided via the parameters doping_radius and doping_density,
respectively. Alternatively, the user may choose to provide a data file containing the doping density profile
by setting doping_model to file and specifying a file name through the parameter doping_file. The file
Mode Profiles
For the calculated_overlap and spatial models, 980-band and 1550-band mode profiles are required.
Different mode shapes may be selected using the parameter mode_model. If mode_model is set to lp,
then LP
01
mode solutions [2] are determined for a fiber with the specified numerical aperture (fiber_NA)
and fiber core radius (fiber_core_radius). For all 1550-band signals, a wavelength of 1550 nm is used in
the calculation, whereas a 980-nm wavelength is adopted for all 980-band signals.
If a rectangular or gaussian set of mode shapes is chosen, then relevant mode widths must be specified via
the mode_1550_width and mode_980_width parameters. Because the calculated mode shapes are
normalized, no additional information is required.
Mode shapes can also be input from a data file by setting mode_model to file. The 1550-band file name
must be provided through the mode_1550_file parameter, while the 980-band file name must be entered
through the mode_980_file parameter. The file format is described in the appendix.
Background Loss
In most simulations, fiber background loss can be neglected [2], in which case the parameter
background_loss_model should be set to no_loss. However, other options are available if required.
If background_loss_model is set to constant, then uniform background loss is assumed, the value of
which may be specified with the parameter background_loss. Alternatively, different loss values can be
provided for signals in the 1550- and 980-bands by setting background_loss_model to two_constant and
specifying an additional 980-band loss value through the background_loss_980 parameter. Finally, a
background loss spectrum may be read in from a file by setting background_loss_model to file and
specifying a file name with the background_loss_file parameter. The file format is described in the
appendix.
Encrypted Data Files
Note that all of the model characteristics that may be specified via a data file support encrypted file
formats. Data files from vendors may be provided in this manner. In this case, an accompanying password
file would be included with the data file, and should be placed in the same directory as the link topology, or
in the directory containing the RSoft software license files.
Numerical Settings
A number of numerical parameters are available to optimize the numerical solution of the bidirectional rate
equations for the pump/signal/ASE power evolution. Adjustment of these parameters may help overcome
any convergence difficulties encountered during a simulation.
The numerical integration of the power evolution rate equations is handled via a constant-step-size fourth-
order Runge-Kutta algorithm. The integration step along the length of the EDFA may be adjusted using the
z_step parameter. Similarly, the nominal width for the discretized frequency intervals in the 980- and
1550-bands may be set using the spectral_step parameter. As this parameter is set in units of nanometers,
an equivalent spectral step in Hertz is calculated internally by the model. The resolution of transverse
calculations may also be adjusted by setting the radial_points parameter to the desired number of points in
the radial direction.
The bidirectional nature of the power-evolution rate equations requires an iterative solution scheme, the
control of which may be achieved through the iterative_damping and convergence_tolerance
parameters. The iterative_damping controls the rate at which the solution is allowed to progress to a final
answer. Larger values slow down this process, and may be required when convergence is difficult to
achieve. Parameter convergence_tolerance is the convergence criterion. Convergence is achieved when
the largest change in the power solution between successive iterations is less than convergence_tolerance.
To limit the time spent on a poorly converging solution, the maximum number of iterations may be set with
the parameter max_iterations.
Finally, when amplifying or attenuating any incoming optical signals, the model applies its calculated gain
spectrum to a Fourier-domain representation of these signals. Normally, the spectral variation in the gain
across the frequency band of each signal is fully accounted for by setting the parameter gain_application
to continuous. However, given the narrow-band nature of most signals relative to typical spectral
variations in EDFA gain, it sometimes may be easier to use a constant gain value for each signal based on
its carrier wavelength. In this case, gain_application should be set to carrier. This approach may prove
useful when discontinuities in an optical inputs phase at the signal boundaries lead to anomalous output
waveforms.
Reference Plots
In order to help study the performance of an EDFA within an optical link, a variety of reference plots can
be generated by the model in order to study internal power evolution, signal gain, noise figure, and the
atomic-manifold population densities. What plots are generated is determined via the parameters
power_plots, spectra_plots, density_plots, and gain_nf_plot (by setting them to either yes or no); they
may be displayed at the conclusion of a simulation by double-clicking on the EDFAs icon. The units for
the displayed data may be selected via the parameters spectral_units, power_units, length_units,
radial_units, density_3d_units, and signal_gain_units (for gain and noise figure data). Below we
summarize the different plots that may be generated, listing them by their root WinPlot file names.
power_plots
signal_ase_evolution.pcs:
Displays the evolution of total power in the 1550-band signals (1480-nm pumps excluded)
and ASE along the length of the EDFA. Both forward and backward directions of
propagation are included.
pump_evolution.pcs:
Displays the evolution of forward- and backward-propagating optical powers for pump
wavelengths near 980 and 1480 nm.
gain_evolution.pcs:
Displays the evolution of signal gain along the EDFA.
1550_forward_solution.pcs:
Displays a contour plot of the complete forward-propagating 1550-band power spectra
solution along the length of the EDFA.
1550_backward_solution.pcs:
Displays the corresponding contour plot for the backward-propagating 1550-band power
spectra solution.
spectra_plots
1550_power_spectra.pcs:
Displays the input/output signal and ASE power spectra in the 1550-band.
1550_power_spectra_bwd.pcs:
Bidirectional mode only. Displays the backward input/output signal and ASE power spectra in
the 1550-band.
Displays the input and output 980-band power spectra.
Bidirectional mode only. Displays the backward input and output 980-band power spectra.
ase_power_spectra.pcs:
Displays the internal ASE power spectra at both ends of the EDFA.
gain.pcs:
Displays the overall 1550-band signal gain spectra (1480-nm pumps excluded).
gain_bwd.pcs:
Bidirectional mode only. Displays the overall backward 1550-band signal gain spectra (1480-
nm pumps excluded).
absolute_gain.pcs:
Displays a spectrum of the absolute change in input-signal power.
absolute_gain_bwd.pcs:
Bidirectional mode only. Displays a spectrum of the absolute change in backward input-signal
power.
noise_figure.pcs:
Displays the overall 1550-band noise figure, calculated as a function of signal gain ( ) G
and output ASE spectral density ( )
ASE
[1]:

( ) 1
1
( )
ASE
NF
G h

(
= +
(

noise_figure_bwd.pcs:
Bidirectional mode only. Displays the overall backward 1550-band noise figure
density_plots
average_densities.pcs:
Displays the average population densities along the length of the EDFA in both the upper and
lower atomic levels.
n2(r)_vs_z.pcs:
(spatial model only) Displays a contour plot of the transverse population density along the
EDFA for the upper atomic level.
gain_nf_plot
gain_scan.pcs:
Displays the gain of the EDFA at the wavelength specified via the parameter
target_wavelength. If the topology is simulated via a parameter scan, then this plot shows the
gain as a function of the scanned parameters. This plot can be useful for gain optimization of
the EDFA.
gain_scan_bwd.pcs:
Bidirectional mode only. Displays the backward gain of the EDFA at the wavelength
specified via the parameter target_wavelength.
noise_figure_scan.pcs:
Displays the noise figure of the EDFA at the wavelength specified via the parameter
noise figure as a function of the scanned parameters.
noise_figure_scan_bwd.pcs:
Bidirectional mode only. Displays the backward noise figure of the EDFA at the wavelength
Test Functions
In selecting the input parameters for a particular EDFA, it may at times be necessary to visualize the
various input spectra, doping profiles, and mode shapes. By setting the test_function parameter to the
desired output and clicking the Test button in the component-parameter editing window, the user may
display the EDFA characteristics summarized below. Furthermore, the default plot ranges for each
characteristic may be overridden by setting test_default_settings to no, and specifying values for
test_function_x_low, test_function_x_high, and test_function_points (the number of data points to
plot). The appropriate units for each characteristics overrides are listed in parentheses below. Units for
the displayed plots may be specified using the parameters spectral_units, radial_units,
cross_section_units, density_3d_units, loss_units, and reflectivity_units.
1550_spectra(nm):
Plots the 1550-band gain/loss (for the Giles model), or emission/absorption cross section
spectra (for the other models).
980_spectra(nm):
Plots the 980-band loss (for the Giles model), or absorption cross section spectrum (for the
other models).
doping(um):
Plots the erbium doping profile as a function of radius.
modes(um):
Plots the 1550- and 980-band normalized mode profiles as functions of radius.
background_loss(nm):
Plots the background-loss spectrum.
mirror(nm):
Plots the mirror reflectivity spectrum (if a mirror is specified).
References
[1] P. C. Becker, N. A. Olsson, and J. R. Simpson, Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifiers: Fundamentals and
Technology. (San Diego, Academic Press, 1999).
[2] E. Desurvire, Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifiers. (New York, Wiley, 1994).
[3] C. R. Giles and E. Desurvire, Modeling erbium-doped fiber amplifiers, Journal of Lightwave
Technology 9, 271-283 (1991).
[4] M. Sderlund, S. Tammela, P. Pyhnen, M. Leppihalme, and N. Peyghambarian, Amplified
spontaneous emission in cladding-pumped L-band erbium-doped fiber amplifiers, IEEE Photonics
Technology Letters, 13, 22-24 (2001).
[5] P. Blixt, J. Nilsson, T. Carlnas, and B. Jaskorzynska, Concentration-dependent upconversion in Er
3+
-
doped fiber amplifiers: Experiments and modeling, IEEE Photonics Technology Letters, 3, 996-998
(1991).
[6] E. Delevaque, T. Georges, M. Monerie, P. Lamouler, and J.-F. Bayon, Modeling of pair-induced
quenching in erbium-doped silicate fibers, IEEE Photonics Technology Letters, 5, 73-75 (1993).
[7] M. Bolshtyansky, P. Wysocki, and N. Conti, Model of temperature dependence for gain shape of
erbium-doped fiber amplifier, Journal of Lightwave Technology, 18, 1533-1540 (2000).
Properties
Inputs
#1: Forward-propagating optical signals
#2: Backward-propagating optical signals
Outputs
#2: Backward-propagating optical signals (bidirectional mode only)
Parameter Values

simulation_mode enumerated giles_params giles_params,
constant_overlap,
calculated_overlap, spatial,
cladding_pumped

bidirectional enumerated no yes, no
mirror_configuration enumerated no_mirror no_mirror, forward_mirror,
backward_mirror,
signal_mirror

output_reflected enumerated yes yes, no
output_pumps enumerated yes yes, no
inject_ASE enumerated yes yes, no
ASE_polarization enumerated both both, single
forward_input_loss double 0 -1e32 x 1e32 dB
backward_input_loss double 0 -1e32 x 1e32 dB
output_loss double 0 -1e32 x 1e32 dB
backward_output_loss double 0 -1e32 x 1e32 dB
length double 20 0 x 1e32 m
metastable_lifetime double 10 0 x 1e32 ms
fiber_saturation_param double 3e15 0 x 1e32 m
-1
s
-1
overlap_1550 double 0.35 0 x 1e32
Acore double 3.14e-12 0 x 1e32 m
2

Aclad double 7.068e-8 0 x 1e32 m
2

pair_fraction double 0.0 0 x 1
upconversion_coeff double 0.0 0 x 1e32 m
3
/s
giles_upconversion_coeff double 0.0 0 x 1e32 m
-1
s
-1
spectra_1550_model enumerated default_Ge default_Ge, default_GeAl,
user_specified

spectra_1550_auto_limit enumerated yes yes, no
spectra_1550_low double 1400 0 x 1e32 nm
spectra_1550_high double 1650 0 x 1e32 nm
giles_loss_1550_file string
giles_gain_1550_file string
absorption_1550_file string
emission_1550_file string
spectra_980_model enumerated rectangular rectangular, gaussian, file

giles_loss_980 double 6.2 0 x 1e32 dB/m
absorption_980 double 2e-25 0 x 1e32 m
2

spectra_980_center double 980 0 x 1e32 nm
spectra_980_width double 20 0 x 1e32 nm
thermal_model enumerated none builtin, user, none
reference_temp double 25 -273.15 x 1e32 C
actual_temp double 25 -273.15 x 1e32 C
F1F2_ratio_1550_file string
T1_1550 double 90 -1e32 x 1e32 K
T2_1550 double 650 -1e32 x 1e32 K
T1_980 double 90 -1e32 x 1e32 K
T2_980 double 650 -1e32 x 1e32 K
doping_model enumerated rectangular rectangular, gaussian, file
doping_radius double 1 0 x 1e32 m
doping_density double 1e19 0 x 1e32 cm
-3
doping_file string
mode_model enumerated lp lp, gaussian, rectangular,
file

fiber_NA double 0.3 0 x 1e32
fiber_core_radius double 1 0 x 1e32 m
mode_1550_width double 1 0 x 1e32 m
mode_1550_file string
background_loss_model enumerated no_loss no_loss, constant,
two_constant, file

background_loss double 0 0 x 1e32 dB/km
background_loss_980 double 0 0 x 1e32 dB/km
background_loss_file string
mirror_model enumerated rectangular rectangular, gaussian, file
mirror_reflectivity double 1 0 x 1e32
mirror_center double 980 0 x 1e32 nm
mirror_bandwidth double 10 0 x 1e32 nm
mirror_file string
z_step double 0.1 0 x 1e32 m
spectral_step double 1 0 x 1e32 nm
iterative_damping double 0.7 0 x 1
convergence_tolerance double 1e-4 0 x 1e32
max_iterations integer 2500 4 x 100000
radial_points integer 100 2 x 100000
gain_application enumerated continuous continuous, carrier
power_plots enumerated yes yes, no
spectra_plots enumerated yes yes, no
density_plots enumerated yes yes, no
gain_nf_plot enumerated yes yes, no
target_wavelength double 1550 1 x 2000 nm
spectral_units enumerated nm nm, um, m, Hz, GHz, THz,
cm^-1, m^-1, s^-1

length_units enumerated m um, mm, cm, m, km, Mm
radial_units enumerated um um, mm, cm, m, km, Mm
cross_section_units enumerated m^2 um^2, mm^2, cm^2, m^2,
km^2, Mm^2

density_3d_units enumerated cm^-3 um^-3, mm^-3,
cm^-3, m^-3, km^-3, Mm^-3

loss_units enumerated dB/km nm^-1, um^-1,
cm^-1, m^-1, km^-1, Mm^-1,
dB/nm, dB/um, dB/cm, dB/m,
dB/km, dB/Mm

signal_gain_units enumerated dB linear, dB, %
reflectivity_units enumerated linear linear, dB, %
test_function enumerated 1550_spectra(nm) 1550_spectra(nm),
980_spectra(nm),
doping(um), modes(um),
background_loss(nm),
mirror(nm)

test_function_x_low double 1400 0 x 1e32
test_function_x_high double 1650 0 x 1e32
test_function_points integer 201 2 x 100000


simulation_mode model-level options
bidirectional switch for simulating bidirectional signal propagation
mirror_configuration pump/signal recycling options
output_reflected switch for including any reflected backward inputs in the output
output_pumps switch for including pump signals in the output
inject_ASE switch for injecting ASE within the EDFA
ASE_polarization switch for injecting ASE into one or two polarizations
forward_input_loss forward-propagating input coupling
backward_input_loss backward-propagating input coupling
output_loss output coupling
backward_output_loss output coupling of backward signal when simulating bidirectional operation
length EDFA length
metastable_lifetime metastable-level lifetime
fiber_saturation_param Giles-model fiber-saturation parameter
overlap_1550 constant 1550-band overlap factor
Acore area of core for double-clad devices
Aclad area of inner cladding for double-clad devices
pair_fraction fraction of dopant ions that are paired
upconversion_coeff upconversion coefficient for non-Giles models
giles_upconversion_coeff upconversion coefficient for Giles model
spectra_1550_model 1550-band signal spectra options
spectra_1550_auto_limit option for automatically determining 1550-band spectral range
spectra_1550_low lowest wavelength for 1550-band spectra
spectra_1550_high highest wavelength for 1550-band spectra
giles_loss_1550_file user-specified 1550-band Giles loss-spectrum data file
giles_gain_1550_file user-specified 1550-band Giles gain-spectrum data file
absorption_1550_file user-specified 1550-band absorption cross-section data file
emission_1550_file user-specified 1550-band emission cross-section data file
spectra_980_model 980-band signal spectrum options
giles_loss_980 center-value of 980-band Giles loss spectrum
absorption_980 center-value of 980-band absorption cross-section
spectra__980_center center-wavelength of 980-band spectrum
spectra_980_width bandwidth of 980-band spectrum
thermal_model option for determining thermal dependency of gain/loss or
emission/absorption spectra
reference_temp temperature at which gain/loss or emission/absorption spectra were measured
actual_temp actual operating temperature of amplifier
F1F2_ratio_1550_file empirical F
1
/F
2
thermal data file for 1550-band spectra
T1_1550 empirical T
1
thermal parameter for 1550-band spectra
T2_1550 empirical T
2
1
/F
2
T1_980 empirical T
1
T2_980 empirical T
2
doping_model erbium-doping density options
doping_radius doping radius
doping_density center doping density (at r = 0)
doping_file user-specified doping-profile data file
mode_model optical mode shape options
fiber_NA fiber numerical aperture
fiber_core_radius fiber core radius
mode_1550_width 1550-band optical-mode width
mode_1550_file user-specified 1550-band mode-profile data file
background_loss_model background-loss options
background_loss 1550-band background-loss value
background_loss_980 980-band background-loss value
background_loss_file user-specified background-loss data file
mirror_model mirror power-reflectivity spectrum options
mirror_reflectivity mirror power reflectivity at center wavelength
mirror_center mirror-spectrum center wavelength
mirror_bandwidth mirror-spectrum bandwidth
mirror_file user-specified mirror-spectrum data file
z_step integration step along EDFA length
spectral_step spacing between wavelengths in discretized power spectra
iterative_damping iterative damping factor for numerical solution
convergence_tolerance convergence tolerance for numerical solution
max_iterations maximum number of iterations during bidirectional solution
radial_points number of radial points
gain_application method of applying gain to each input signal
power_plots switch for power-solution reference plots
spectra_plots switch for power-spectra reference plots
density_plots switch for level-density reference plots
gain_nf_plot switch for plots of gain and noise-figure scans
target_wavelength target wavelength for plots of gain and noise-figure scans
spectral_units units for spectral data
power_units units for power data
length_units units for positional data
radial_units units for radial data
cross_section_units units for cross-section data
density_3d_units units for density data
loss_units units for loss data
signal_gain_units units for gain and noise figure results
reflectivity_units units for mirror data
test_function test-function output selection
test_default_settings switch for plotting test-function output using default settings
test_function_x_low user-specified lowest x-value for test-function output
test_function_x_high user-specified highest x-value for test-function output
test_function_points user-specified number of points for test-function output
For all data files, the X-values should be monotonically increasing or decreasing. Furthermore, the field
<num_pts> specifies the number of data lines in the file, while the choice of settings for the various unit
fields are as follows:
<frequency_units>: [nm], [um], [m], [Hz], [GHz], [THz], [cm^-1], [m^-1], [s^-1]
<loss_units>: [nm^-1], [um^-1], [cm^-1], [m^-1], [km^-1], [Mm^-1], [dB/nm], [dB/um],
[dB/cm], [dB/m], [dB/km], [dB/Mm]
<area_units>: [um^2], [mm^2] , [cm^2] , [m^2] , [km^2] , [Mm^2]
<density_units>: [um^-3], [mm^-3] , [cm^-3] , [m^-3] , [km^-3] , [Mm^-3]
<distance_units>: [um], [mm] , [cm] , [m] , [km] , [Mm]
<reflectivity_units>: [linear], [dB] , [%]
Giles Gain/Loss Spectra
Data files with gain and loss spectra for the Giles model are specified through the parameters
giles_gain_1550_file, giles_loss_1550_file, and giles_loss_980_file. The X-values are in units of
frequency, and the Y-values are in units of loss per distance.
Format:
GilesFormat1 <frequency_units> <loss_units>
<num_pts>
<frequency 1> <gain/loss 1>
...
Example:
GilesFormat1 [nm] [dB/m]
5
1450 0.3
1500 0.6
1530 2.0
1550 1.2
1600 0.4
Absorption/Emission Cross Sections
Data files with absorption/emission cross sections are specified through the parameters
absorption_1550_file, emission_1550_file, and absorption_980_file. The X-values are in units of
frequency, and the Y-values are in units of area.
Format:
CrossSectionFormat1 <frequency_units> <area_units>
<num_pts>
<frequency 1> <cross_section 1>
...
Example:
CrossSectionFormat1 [nm] [m^2]
5
1450 0.7e-25
1500 2.4e-25
1530 7.0e-25
1550 4.3e-25
1600 0.2e-25
Thermal K( ) Profile
The data files for the K() data used in the models thermal dependence are specified via the parameters
F1F2_ratio_1550_file and F1F2_ratio_980_file. The X-values are in units of frequency, and the Y-values
are unitless.
Format:
SpectralUnitlessFormat1 <frequency_units>
<num_pts>
<frequency 1> <value 1>
...
Example:
SpectralUnitlessFormat1 [nm]
5
1500 0.40
1510 0.45
1520 0.50
1530 0.45
1540 0.40
Doping Profile
A user-specified doping profile may be specified via the parameter doping_file. The X-values are in units
of distance, and the Y-values are in units of cubic density.
Format:
DopingFormat1 <distance_units> <density_units>
<num_pts>
<radius 1> <density 1>
...
Example:
DopingFormat1 [um] [cm^-3]
5
0 1.00e19
0.25 1.00e19
0.50 1.00e19
0.75 0.50e19
1.00 0.25e19
Mode Profiles
Data files with mode shapes may be specified using the parameters mode_1550_file and mode_980_file.
The X-values are in units of distance, and the Y-values are considered unitless (the mode profiles are
automatically normalized by the model).
Format:
ModeProfileFormat1 <distance_units>
<num_pts>
<radius 1> <value 1>
...
Example:
ModeProfileFormat1 [um]
5
0 1
1 0.7
2 0.4
3 0.25
5 0.15
Background Loss
A data file with the background-loss spectrum may be specified using the background_loss_file
parameter. The X-values are in units of frequency, and the Y-values are in units of loss per distance.
Format:
FiberLossFormat1 <frequency_units> <loss_units>
<num_pts>
<frequency 1> <loss 1>
...
Example:
FiberLossFormat1 [um] [dB/km]
5
1.40 0.25
1.45 0.21
1.50 0.19
1.55 0.17
1.60 0.21
Mirror Reflectivity Spectrum
A data file with the mirror reflectivity spectrum may be specified using the parameter mirror_file. The X-
values are in units of frequency, and the Y-values are in units of power-reflectivity.
Format:
ReflectivityFormat1 <frequency_units> <reflectivity_units>
<num_pts>
<frequency 1> <reflectivity 1>
...
Example:
ReflectivityFormat1 [nm] [%]
5
970 10
975 100
980 100
985 100
990 10
Physical EYCDFA

This block models the operation of an erbium-ytterbium co-doped fiber amplifier (EYCDFA). The model
supports component specifications at different levels of complexity, as well as a variety of pump and signal
configurations. Figure 1 illustrates an OptSim schematic that utilizes the Physical EYCDFA model.
Forward-propagating optical signals are launched into the EYCDFA via the first input node, while
backward-propagating signals (e.g., counter-propagating pumps) enter via the second input node. OptSims
multiplexer components can be used to combine signals and pumps at either input. The EYCDFA output is
available at the output node, and includes any signals, pumps, and amplified spontaneous emission (ASE)
that are exiting the amplifier. The EYCDFA may also be used to simulate bidirectional signal propagation,
in which case input signals are expected at both input nodes, and an additional backward output appears at
the backward output node.

forward input
backward input
pumps
backward output
(bidirectional mode only)

Figure 1: Basic OptSim topology depicting an EYCDFA with forward and backward inputs.
Background
The Physical EYCDFA model is based on a standard set of equations for an EYCDFAs steady-state
atomic manifold population densities and the evolution of optical powers along the length of the device [1]-
[5]. Optical signals propagating along the EYCDFA interact with the local population densities, resulting
in power gain or loss via stimulated emission and absorption. Spontaneous emission and its subsequent
amplification also occur. Both the erbium and ytterbium ions are pumped, with the ytterbium transferring
its energy to the erbium via cross relaxation.
The erbium and ytterbium atomic manifolds of interest are illustrated in Fig. 2 [4], with population
densities in each manifold assumed to be Boltzmann-distributed at thermal equilibrium. On the erbium
side, levels 1 through 4 represent atomic levels
4
I
15/2
,
4
I
13/2
,
4
I
11/2
, and
4
I
9/2
, respectively. On the ytterbium
side, levels 5 and 6 represent atomic levels
2
F
7/2
and
2
F
5/2
, respectively. The erbium and ytterbium
manifolds are linked via the cross-relaxation rates R
61
(R61) and R
35
(R35). R
56
and R
65
are the ytterbium
stimulated absorption and emission rates, respectively, between atomic levels 5 and 6 due to signals near
980-nm (henceforth referred to as the 980-band). ASE in this band also contributes to these stimulated
rates.
65
(metastable_lifetime_Yb) is the spontaneous emission lifetime of the upper ytterbium level. In
the case of erbium, R
13
represents the simulated absorption rate between the atomic levels 1 and 3. R
12
and
R
21
are the erbium stimulated absorption and emission rates, respectively, between the atomic levels 1 and 2
due to signals and amplified spontaneous emission (ASE) with wavelengths typically ranging from 1450-
1650 nm (henceforth referred to as the 1550-band).
2
2
CN accounts for homogeneous upconversion in
erbium from level 2, where C (upconversion_coeff) is the upconversion coefficient . Finally,
21

(metastable_lifetime) is the spontaneous emission lifetime of level 2,
32
(third_level_lifetime) is the
decay lifetime of level 3, and
43
is the decay lifetime of level 4.

Figure 2: Erbium and ytterbium atomic manifolds
In order to describe the interaction of the erbium and ytterbium ions with local signal, pump, and noise
powers, the model uses a set of rate equations for erbium and ytterbium ion densities in each atomic level.
In most EYCDFA applications, the dopants long metastable lifetimes act to eliminate any significant
transient changes in the atomic level populations, thereby allowing us to set the time rate-of-change of all
the rate equations to zero. In other words, the EYCDFAs operating characteristics depend on average
optical powers. Furthermore, since decay out of the
4
I
9/2
erbium level is typically extremely fast, we neglect
this atomic level in the model [4]. The resulting set of atomic rate equations are [4],[5]:

2 3 2 2
12 1 21 2 2
32 21
0 2
N dN N
R N R N CN
dt
= +
(1)

2 3 3
2 13 1 61 1 6 35 3 5
32
0
dN N
CN R N R N N R N N
dt
= + + +
(2)

1 2 3 Er
N N N N = + +
(3)

6 6
56 5 65 6 61 1 6 35 3 5
65
0
dN N
R N R N R N N R N N
dt
= +
(4)

5 6 Yb
N N N = +
(5)
where N
Er
is the erbium doping density, N
Yb
is the ytterbium doping density, and N
i
is the population
density of atomic level i.
Generally, because there is a continuum of transition frequencies between the erbium atomic manifolds,
each of the transition rates R in the above equations are of the form:

d
h
r
R

=
) ( ) ( ) (
r

(6)
where is the transition frequency, ( ) is the frequency-dependent transition cross section, ( ) is
the local optical spectral density, and ( ) r
v
is the normalized optical mode profile. By assuming
homogeneous broadening of the atomic transitions, we have adopted a single frequency-dependent function
for the transition cross sections [2]. Following the approach in [2], we can discretize the above integral
over fixed frequency intervals , in which case the transition rates take the form

( )
n n n
n
n
P P
R
h

+
+
=

(7)
n
P
+
) and backward (
n
P
) signal powers
in each frequency interval. In the case of our EYCDFA model, the relevant transition rates are:

, ,
13
( ) ( )
a j j j p a l l l p
j l
j l
P P A A
R
h h

+ +
+ +
= +

(8)

, ,
12,21
( ) ( )
a ei i i s a ek k k s
i k
i k
P P A A
R
h h

+ +
+ +
= +

(9)

, ,
56,65
( ) ( )
Yb Yb
a ej j j p a el l l p
j l
j l
P P A A
R
h h

+ +
+ +
= +

(10)
where 1550-band signal powers are denoted by
i
P
, 980-band signal powers by

j
P
, 1550-band ASE
powers by
k
A
, and 980-band ASE powers by

l
A
. Furthermore,
a
represents the erbium absorption
cross section,
e
is the erbium emission cross section,
Yb
a
is the ytterbium absorption cross section,
Yb
e

is the ytterbium emission cross section,
p
is the 980-band mode profile, and
s
is the 1550-band mode
profile.
To complete the model, rate equations are necessary for describing the evolution of signal, pump, and noise
powers along the EYCDFA. Separate equations for both forward and backward propagation are required
for signals and ASE in both the 980- and 1550-bands. Following the approach taken in [2],[4]-[5], we have
adopted the following equations:

, , 2 ,
2 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
i i
e i a i s a i s i
dP
dz
(
= +
(

(11)

, , 6 ,
, 2 ,
2 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
2 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
j j Yb Yb Yb
e j a j p a j Yb p j
a j p a j Er p j
dP
dz
(
= +
(

(

(12)

( )
, , 2 ,
, 2
2 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
2 ( ) ( ) 2
k k
e k a k s a k Er s k
e k s k
dA
dz
N r r r dr h
(
= +
(

(

(13)

( )
, , 6 ,
, 2 ,
, 6
2 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
2 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 ( ) ( ) 2
Yb Yb Yb l l
e l a l p a l Yb p l
a l p a l Er p l
Yb
e l p l
dA
dz
N r r r dr h
(
= +
(

(

(

(14)
Intrinsic background loss is accounted for by , and locally generated spontaneous emission is included
via the last terms in Eqs. (13) and (14).
A number of assumptions are inherent to Eqs. (11)-(14). First, we have assumed that the doping and mode
profiles have no azimuthal dependence. Second, we have assumed that 980-band signals and ASE all have
the same normalized mode profile ( )
p
r ; similarly, all 1550-band signals and ASE use a common profile
( )
s
r . Third, higher order effects such as excited-state absorption (ESA) [1]-[2] are neglected. Finally,
fiber effects such as dispersion and nonlinearities are also neglected, due to the relatively short lengths of
most EYCDFAs. It should also be noted that the model assumes no spectral overlap between separate
optical signals. In cases where this is detected, the model will issue an appropriate warning.
Model Levels
The Physical EYCDFA block includes a number of implementations of the main equations described
above. These models can be selected via the simulation_mode parameter, and can take on values of
giles_params, constant_overlap, calculated_overlap, cladding_pumped, and spatial. Note that in all
versions, the model can be simplified to treat the erbium atomic manifold as a two-level system by setting
the parameter include_third_level to no.
Level giles_params
Following the approach described in [3], the model equations presented above can be significantly
simplified by dealing with the average level-population densities and eliminating their explicit spatial
dependence via measured gain and loss spectra (as opposed to emission and absorption cross sections) that
are weighted by the local doping and mode profiles. This well known implementation is the Giles model.
For EYCDFAs, this results in a much smaller set of primary model parameters. In this model, instead of
providing data for cross-section spectra, doping profiles, and mode profiles, the user must supply the
measured erbium gain spectra
e
g and loss spectra
a
g , the measured ytterbium gain spectra
Yb
e
g and loss
spectra
Yb
a
g , the erbium fiber saturation parameter (fiber_saturation_param), and the ytterbium fiber
saturation parameter
Yb
(fiber_saturation_param_Yb). Such a model is generally valid for strongly
confined doping profiles. The complete set of model equations become:

2
3 2 2 21
12 12 21 12
0 0 32 0
2
0 ( 1)
g
g g g g
C
N N N
r r r r
N N N

| | | |
= + + +
| |
\ . \ .

(15)

2
3 2 21 2
13 13 13
0 32 0 0
61 35
3 6 6 3 2
0 0 0 0 0
0
1 1
g
g g g
g g
Yb Yb
C
N N N
r r r
N N N
R R
N N N N N
N N N N N

| | | |
= + + +
| |
\ . \ .
| | | |

| |
\ . \ .

(16)

( )
61 35
6 3 6 6 3 2
56 56 65
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
g g
g g g
Yb Yb Yb Yb Yb
R R
N N N N N N
r r r
N N N N N N
| | | |
= + + +
| |
\ . \ .

(17)

, ,
13
( ) ( )
a j j j a l l l
g
j l
j l
g P P g A A
r
h h
+ +
+ +
= +

(18)

, ,
12,21
( ) ( )
a ei i i a ek k k
g
i k
i k
g P P g A A
r
h h
+ +
+ +
= +

(19)

, ,
56,65
( ) ( )
Yb Yb
a ej j j a el l l
g
j l
Yb j Yb l
g P P g A A
r
h h
+ +
+ +
= +

(20)
2
, , ,
0
( )
i
e i a i a i i i
dP N
g g g P
dz N
(
= +
(

(21)

6 2
, , , , ,
0 0
( )
j Yb Yb Yb
e j a j a j j j a j a j j
Yb
dP
N N
g g g P g g P
dz N N

( (
= +
( (

(22)
( )
2 2
, , , ,
0 0
( ) 2
k
e k a k a k k k e k k
dA N N
g g g A g h
dz N N

( (
= +
( (

(23)
( )
6 6 2
, , , , , ,
0 0 0
( ) 2
Yb Yb Yb Yb l
e l a l a l l l a l a l l e l l
Yb Yb
dA N N N
g g g A g g A g h
dz N N N

( ( (
= +
( ( (

(24)
In these equations, C
g
(giles_upconversion_coeff) is the Giles upconversion coefficient, R
g61
(R61_giles)
and R
g35
(R35_giles) are the Giles cross-relaxation coefficients, N
0
is the average erbium doping density,
and N
Yb0
is the average ytterbium doping density. All other atomic levels densities are considered to be
average values as well. When using the above version of the model, instead of specifying the spontaneous
lifetimes directly, you only need to specify the ratio
32
/
21
(giles_lifetime_ratio).
In terms of computational complexity, the constant_overlap and calculated_overlap models are equivalent
to the giles_params model, but support a more thorough parameterized description of the EYCDFA,
including absorption/emission cross sections, doping profiles, and the metastable lifetimes. In these
versions of the model, any explicit transverse spatial dependence is replaced by factors that account for the
spatial overlap between the dopant population densities and optical modes [1],[4]-[5]. In the
calculated_overlap model, these overlap factors are determined from explicit doping and mode profiles,
whereas in the constant_overlap model, the user provides these values directly. For 980-band signals, the
erbium overlap parameter is
p
s
(overlap_1550). The
ytterbium overlap parameter for 980-band signals is
p
(overlap_Yb). Like the giles_params model, the
overlap models are also largely intended for EYCDFAs with strongly confined doping profiles. The
complete set of model equations are:

0
2 21
12 12 21 2 21 2 12 3
32
0 ( ) 2
s s s eff eff s
r N r r A N CN A r N

| |
= + + +
|
\ .

(25)

( ) ( )
2 21
13 0 13 2 13 3 21 2
32
21 61 0 2 3 6 21 35 0 6 3
0
p p eff p
Yb
r N r N A r N CN
R N N N N R N N N

| |
= + + +
|
\ .

(26)

( )
( ) ( )
56 0 56 65 6
65 61 0 2 3 6 65 35 0 6 3
0
Yb
Yb Yb Yb Yb eff
Yb
r N r r A N
R N N N N R N N N

= + +
+

(27)

21 , 21 ,
13
( ) ( )
a j j j a l l l
j l
j l
P P A A
r
h h

+ +
+ +
= +

(28)

21 , 21 ,
12,21
( ) ( )
a ei i i a ek k k
i k
i k
P P A A
r
h h

+ +
+ +
= +

(29)

65 , 65 ,
56,65
( ) ( )
Yb Yb
a ej j j a el l l
j l
j l
P P A A
r
h h

+ +
+ +
= +

(30)
, , 2 , 0
( )
i
s e i a i s a i i i
dP
N N P
dz

( = +

(31)

, , 6 , 0 , 2 , 0
( )
j Yb Yb Yb
Yb e j a j Yb a j Yb j j p a j p a j j
dP
N N P N N P
dz

( ( = +

(32)
( )
, , 2 , 0 , 2
( ) 2
k
s e k a k s a k k k s e k k
dA
N N A N h
dz

( ( = +

(33)

( )
, , 6 , 0
, 2 , 0 , 6
( )
2
Yb Yb Yb l
Yb e l a l Yb a l Yb l l
Yb
p a l p a l l Yb e l l
dA
N N A
dz
N N A N h

( = +

( (

(34)
where A
eff
is the effective transverse erbium doping area,
Yb
eff
A is the effective transverse ytterbium doping
area, N
0
is a calculated effective erbium doping density, and N
Yb0
is a calculated effective ytterbium doping
density. All atomic level densities are considered to be effective values as well.
Level cladding_pumped
For cladding-pumped devices, the cladding-pumped version of the model should be used. In this case, the
user specifies the core area via the parameter Acore, and the inner cladding area via the parameter Aclad.
These areas are then used to calculate the pump overlap factor [4], with the rest of the model defaulting to
the overlap approach described above.
Level spatial
The most complex version of the model is the spatial model, which directly implements Eqs. (1)-(5), (8)-
(10), and (11)-(14), thereby providing a full spatial description of the interplay of the erbium and ytterbium
population densities with the optical mode profiles. As such, it requires the largest amount of
computational overhead. The simplified models discussed above are sufficient for most situations of
interest. However, in some cases, a detailed study of the EYCDFA design is required, in which case the
spatial model would be used.
EYCDFA Configurations
In specifying the configuration of the EYCDFA, the user must always specify a fiber length via the length
parameter. They may also provide coupling losses at both the input and output nodes via the parameters
forward_input_loss, backward_input_loss, and output_loss. Furthermore, they may select to have any
pumps (i.e., optical signals with wavelengths near 980 or 1480 nm) excluded from the model output via the
output_pumps parameter. Setting this option to no is useful in cases where the pump signal no longer
impacts system performance in components that follow the EYCDFA.
The EYCDFA model may also be used to simulate bidirectional signal propagation. In this case, the
parameter bidirectional should be set to yes. The user may then provide input signals at both the forward
and backward input nodes. The backward output appears at the backward output node of the model. The
user may specify a backward output coupling loss via the parameter backward_output_loss.
In addition to these basic configuration settings, the Physical EYCDFA model also supports various
EYCDFA pump/signal recycling schemes [2]. By placing mirrors at either end of an EYCDFA, pumps
and/or signals may be recycled, thereby providing the opportunity for enhanced amplification. Such
configurations may be selected through the mirror_configuration parameter. The most basic option is
no_mirror, in which no pump/signal reflectors are included in the EYCDFA. (This configuration is always
activated if bidirectional is set to yes.) In cases where forward-propagating optical inputs are to be recycled
(typically pumps), the forward_mirror option should be selected. This arrangement is illustrated in
Fig.3(a). Alternatively, backward-propagating inputs may be recycled via the backward_mirror option,
shown in Fig.3(b). In this case, the user may select to have the reflected signal included in the EYCDFA
output via the output_reflected option. Finally, the user may choose to adopt a signal recycling scheme,
such as that depicted in Fig.3(c), wherein the EYCDFA input and output are actually at the same end of the
device, with an optical circulator providing separation between the two. Both signal and pump may be
recycled in this manner. This option may be chosen by setting mirror_configuration to signal_mirror.

Figure 3: EYCDFA pump/signal recycling configurations. (a) Co-propagating pump reflector. (b) Counter-
propagating pump reflector. (c) Signal/pump recycler.
The spectral characteristics of any mirrors included in the EYCDFA are set via the mirror_model,
mirror_reflectivity, mirror_center, mirror_bandwidth, and mirror_file parameters. Setting mirror_model
to rectangular implements a rectangular spectra with the in-band reflectivity specified by
mirror_reflectivity, a center wavelength specified by mirror_center, and a bandwidth specified by
mirror_bandwidth. The gaussian option for mirror_model uses the same parameters, but of course
implements a Gaussian wavelength dependence. Alternatively, a reflectivity spectrum may be read in
directly from a file by setting mirror_model to file, and providing a file name in mirror_file. The file
Noise Settings
From the ASE power propagation equations, we can see that the amount of ASE power locally injected at
any point along the length of the EYCDFA is typically 2 h [2]. The factor of two takes into
account ASE injected into both polarizations. In cases where only a single polarization is desired, the
parameter ASE_polarization should be set to single (as opposed to both). Local ASE injection may be
completely eliminated from the simulation by setting inject_ASE to no.
For optical signals and ASE in the 1550-band, the user must specify the erbium Giles gain/loss spectra (for
the Giles model), or absorption/emission cross-section spectra (for the other models). By setting the
spectra_1550_model parameter, the user may select either built-in default spectra or device-specific data
that is to be read in from a file.
germanosilicate fiber are used. If spectra_1550_model is set to default_GeAl, then spectra for an
alumino-germanosilicate fiber are chosen instead. In both cases, the data is based on analytical expressions
taken from [2].
If spectra_1550_model is set to user_specified, then spectra must be provided through input files. For the
Giles model, the appropriate Giles loss/gain files are identified with the parameters giles_loss_1550_file
and giles_gain_1550_file. For the other models, cross-section data files are specified using the parameters
absorption_1550_file and emission_1550_file. The file format is described in the appendix.
An erbium loss or absorption spectrum must also be provided for signals in the 980-band. In this case,
three choices are available via the parameter spectra_980_model. For either a rectangular profile
(rectangular) or Gaussian profile (gaussian), the user must specify a center wavelength
(spectra_980_center) and spectral width (spectra_980_width). For the Giles model, the center-
wavelength loss is set via giles_loss_980. For the other models, the absorption cross-section center-
wavelength value is set via absorption_980.
If spectra_980_model is set to file, then the 980-band spectrum must be provided through an input file.
For the Giles model, the Giles loss file is identified with the parameter giles_loss_980_file. For the other
models, the 980-band absorption cross-section data file is specified using the parameter
absorption_980_file. The file format is described in the appendix.
Finally, 980-band ytterbium loss/gain or absorption/emission cross-section spectra must also be provided.
Two choices are available via the parameter spectra_Yb_model. For a rectangular profile (rectangular),
the user must specify a center wavelength (spectra_Yb_center) and spectral width (spectra_Yb_width).
For the Giles model, the center-wavelength loss and gain are specified via the parameters giles_loss_Yb
and giles_gain_Yb, respectively. For the other models, the absorption and emission cross-section center-
wavelength values are set via absorption_Yb and emission_Yb, respectively.
If spectra_Yb_model is set to file, then the 980-band ytterbium spectra must be provided through input
files. For the Giles model, the loss and gain files are identified with the parameters giles_loss_Yb_file and
giles_gain_Yb_file, respectively. For the other models, the absorption and emission cross-section data files
are specified using the parameters absorption_Yb_file and emission_Yb_file, respectively.
Depending on the provided data, the model can automatically determine the range of wavelengths that
comprise the 980-band and 1550-band based on the range of the gain/loss or emission/absorption spectra.
However, by setting spectra_1550_auto_limit to no, the user may directly limit the 1550-band to a specific
range of wavelengths via the parameters spectra_1550_low and spectra_1550_high. Similarly, by setting
spectra_980_auto_limit to no, the 980-band limits can be set via the parameters spectra_980_low and
spectra_980_high.
Doping Profiles
A number of choices are available for specifying the EYCDFA erbium doping profile. These options are
available through the doping_model parameter. For both rectangular and Gaussian doping profiles, a
doping radius and peak density must be provided via the parameters doping_radius and doping_density,
respectively. Alternatively, the user may choose to provide a data file containing the doping density profile
by setting doping_model to file and specifying a file name through the parameter doping_file. The file
Similar options are available for specifying the ytterbium doping profile. The associated parameters are
Yb_doping_model, Yb_doping_radius, Yb_doping_density, and Yb_doping_file.
Mode Profiles
For the calculated_overlap and spatial models, 980-band and 1550-band mode profiles are required.
Different mode shapes may be selected using the parameter mode_model. If mode_model is set to lp,
then LP
01
mode solutions [2] are determined for a fiber with the specified numerical aperture (fiber_NA)
and fiber core radius (fiber_core_radius). For all 1550-band signals, a wavelength of 1550 nm is used in
the calculation, whereas a 980-nm wavelength is adopted for all 980-band signals.
If a rectangular or Gaussian set of mode shapes is chosen, then relevant mode widths must be specified via
the mode_1550_width and mode_980_width parameters. Because the calculated mode shapes are
normalized, no additional information is required.
Mode shapes can also be input from a data file by setting mode_model to file. The 1550-band file name
must be provided through the mode_1550_file parameter, while the 980-band file name must be entered
through the mode_980_file parameter. The file format is described in the appendix.
Background Loss
In most simulations, fiber background loss can be neglected [2], in which case the parameter
If background_loss_model is set to constant, then uniform background loss is assumed, the value of
which may be specified with the parameter background_loss. Alternatively, different loss values can be
provided for signals in the 1550- and 980-bands by setting background_loss_model to two_constant and
specifying an additional 980-band loss value through the background_loss_980 parameter. Finally, a
background loss spectrum may be read in from a file by setting background_loss_model to file and
specifying a file name with the background_loss_file parameter. The file format is described in the
appendix.
Note that all of the model characteristics that may be specified via a data file support encrypted file
formats. Data files from vendors may be provided in this manner. In this case, an accompanying password
file would be included with the data file, and should be placed in the same directory as the link topology, or
in the directory containing the RSoft software license files.
Numerical Settings
A number of numerical parameters are available to optimize the numerical solution of the bidirectional rate
equations for the pump/signal/ASE power evolution. Adjustment of these parameters may help overcome
convergence difficulties encountered during a simulation.
The numerical integration of the power evolution rate equations is handled via a constant-step-size fourth-
order Runge-Kutta algorithm. The integration step along the length of the EYCDFA may be adjusted using
the z_step parameter. Similarly, the nominal width for the discretized frequency intervals in the 980- and
1550-bands may be set using the spectral_step parameter. As this parameter is set in units of nanometers,
an equivalent spectral step in Hertz is calculated internally by the model. The resolution of transverse
calculations may also be adjusted by setting the radial_points parameter to the desired number of points in
the radial direction.
The bidirectional nature of the power-evolution rate equations requires an iterative solution scheme, the
control of which may be achieved through the iterative_damping and convergence_tolerance
parameters. The iterative_damping controls the rate at which the solution is allowed to progress to a final
answer. Larger values slow down this process, and may be required when convergence is difficult to
achieve. Parameter convergence_tolerance is the convergence criterion. Convergence is achieved when
the largest change in the power solution between successive iterations is less than convergence_tolerance.
To limit the time spent on a poorly converging solution, the maximum number of iterations may be set with
the parameter max_iterations.
For some simulations, the iterative solution must be calculated more slowly in order to achieve
convergence. In these cases, the parameter progressive_solution should be set to yes, and the parameter
progressive_steps set to a suitable value, typically between 1 and 10. The larger the number of steps
chosen, the more slowly the iterative solution is calculated.
Finally, when amplifying or attenuating any incoming optical signals, the model applies its calculated gain
spectrum to a Fourier-domain representation of these signals. Normally, the spectral variation in the gain
across the frequency band of each signal is fully accounted for by setting the parameter gain_application
to continuous. However, given the narrow-band nature of most signals relative to typical spectral
variations in EYCDFA gain, it sometimes may be easier to use a constant gain value for each signal based
on its carrier wavelength. In this case, gain_application should be set to carrier. This approach may
prove useful when discontinuities in an optical inputs phase at the signal boundaries lead to anomalous
output waveforms.
Reference Plots
In order to help study the performance of an EYCDFA within an optical link, a variety of reference plots
can be generated by the model in order to study internal power evolution, signal gain, noise figure, and the
atomic-manifold population densities. What plots are generated is determined via the parameters
power_plots, spectra_plots, density_plots, and gain_nf_plot (by setting them to either yes or no); they
may be displayed at the conclusion of a simulation by double-clicking on the EYCDFAs icon. The units
for the displayed data may be selected via the parameters spectral_units, power_units, length_units,
radial_units, density_3d_units, and signal_gain_units (for gain and noise figure data). Below we
summarize the different plots that may be generated, listing them by their root WinPlot file names.
power_plots
Displays the evolution of total power in the 1550-band signals (1480-nm pumps excluded)
and ASE along the length of the EYCDFA. Both forward and backward directions of
propagation are included.
pump_evolution.pcs:
Displays the evolution of forward- and backward-propagating optical powers for pump
wavelengths near 980 and 1480 nm.
gain_evolution.pcs:
Displays the evolution of signal gain along the EYCDFA.
Displays a contour plot of the complete forward-propagating 1550-band power spectra
solution along the length of the EYCDFA.
Displays the corresponding contour plot for the backward-propagating 1550-band power
spectra solution.
spectra_plots
Bidirectional mode only. Displays the backward input/output signal and ASE power spectra in
the 1550-band.
980_ase_output_power_spectrum.pcs:
Displays the output 980-band ASE power spectrum.
980_ase_output_power_spectrum_bwd.pcs:
Bidirectional mode only. Displays the backward output 980-band ASE power spectrum.
Displays the internal ASE power spectra at both ends of the EYCDFA.
ase980_power_spectra.pcs:
Displays the internal 980-band ASE power spectra at both ends of the EYCDFA.
gain.pcs:
gain_bwd.pcs:
Bidirectional mode only. Displays the overall backward 1550-band signal gain spectra (1480-
nm pumps excluded).
absolute_gain.pcs:
Bidirectional mode only. Displays a spectrum of the absolute change in backward input-signal
power.
noise_figure.pcs:
Displays the overall 1550-band noise figure, calculated as a function of signal gain ( ) G
and output ASE spectral density ( )
ASE
[1]:

( ) 1
1
( )
ASE
NF
G h

(
= +
(

density_plots
Displays the average erbium population densities along the length of the EYCDFA
n2(r)_vs_z.pcs:
(spatial model only) Displays a contour plot of the transverse population density along the
EYCDFA for the second erbium atomic level (
4
I
13/2
).
gain_nf_plot
gain_scan.pcs:
Displays the gain of the EYCDFA at the wavelength specified via the parameter
gain as a function of the scanned parameters. This plot can be useful for gain optimization of
the EYCDFA.
gain_scan_bwd.pcs:
Bidirectional mode only. Displays the backward gain of the EYCDFA at the wavelength
Displays the noise figure of the EYCDFA at the wavelength specified via the parameter
noise figure as a function of the scanned parameters.
Bidirectional mode only. Displays the backward noise figure of the EYCDFA at the
wavelength specified via the parameter target_wavelength.
Test Functions
In selecting the input parameters for a particular EYCDFA, it may at times be necessary to visualize the
various input spectra, doping profiles, and mode shapes. By setting the test_function parameter to the
desired output and clicking the Test button in the component-parameter editing window, the user may
display the EYCDFA characteristics summarized below. Furthermore, the default plot ranges for each
characteristic may be overridden by setting test_default_settings to no, and specifying values for
test_function_x_low, test_function_x_high, and test_function_points (the number of data points to
plot). The appropriate units for each characteristics overrides are listed in parentheses below. Units for
the displayed plots may be specified using the parameters spectral_units, radial_units,
cross_section_units, density_3d_units, loss_units, and reflectivity_units.
1550_spectra(nm):
Plots the 1550-band erbium gain/loss (for the Giles model), or emission/absorption cross
section spectra (for the other models).
980_spectra(nm):
Plots the 980-band erbium loss (for the Giles model), or absorption cross section spectrum
(for the other models).
Yb_spectra(nm):
Plots the 980-band ytterbium gain/loss (for the Giles model), or emission/absorption cross
section spectra (for the other models).
doping(um):
Plots the erbium doping profile as a function of radius.
Yb_doping(um):
Plots the ytterbium doping profile as a function of radius.
modes(um):
Plots the 1550- and 980-band normalized mode profiles as functions of radius.
mirror(nm):
References
[3] C. R. Giles and E. Desurvire, Modeling erbium-doped fiber amplifiers, Journal of Lightwave
Technology 9, 271-283 (1991).
[4] M. Achtenhagen, R. J. Beeson, F. Pan, B. Nyman, and A. Hardy, Gain and noise in ytterbium-
sensitized erbium-doped fiber amplifiers: Measurements and simulations, Journal of Lightwave
Technology, vol. 19, no. 10, pp. 1521-1526, October 2001.
[5] E. Yahel and A. A. Hardy, Modeling and optimization of short Er
3+
-Yb
3+
codoped fiber lasers, IEEE
Journal of Quantum Electronics, vol. 39, no, 11, pp. 1444-1451, November 2003.
Properties
Inputs
Outputs
#2: Backward-propagating optical signals (bidirectional mode only)
Parameter Values

constant_overlap,
calculated_overlap, spatial,
cladding_pumped

metastable_lifetime_Yb double 1 0 x 1e32 ms
include_third_level enumerated yes yes, no
third_level_lifetime double 10e-3 0 x 1e32 ms
giles_lifetime_ratio double 10e-3 0 x 1e32
R61 double 1e-22 0 x 1e32 m
3
/s
R61_giles double 1e17 0 x 1e32 m
-1
s
-1

R35 double 1e-22 0 x 1e32 m
3
/s
R35_giles double 1e17 0 x 1e32 m
-1
s
-1

-1
s
-1
fiber_saturation_param_Yb double 3e17 0 x 1e32 m
-1
s
-1
overlap_Yb double 0.7 0 x 1e32
Acore double 3.14e-12 0 x 1e32 m
2

Aclad double 7.068e-8 0 x 1e32 m
2

upconversion_coeff double 0.0 0 x 1e32 m
3
/s
-1
s
-1
user_specified


2

two_constant, file

spectra_Yb_model enumerated rectangular rectangular, file
giles_loss_Yb double 10.0 0 x 1e32 dB/m
giles_gain_Yb double 10.0 0 x 1e32 dB/m
absorption_Yb double 1e-24 0 x 1e32 m
2

emission_Yb double 1e-24 0 x 1e32 m
2

spectra_Yb_center double 1000 0 x 1e32 nm
spectra_Yb_width double 200 0 x 1e32 nm
giles_loss_Yb_file string
giles_gain_Yb_file string
absorption_Yb_file string
emission_Yb_file string
doping_model enumerated rectangular rectangular, Gaussian, file
-3
doping_file string
mode_model enumerated lp lp, Gaussian, rectangular,
file

Yb_doping_model enumerated rectangular rectangular, gaussian, file
Yb_doping_radius double 1 0 x 1e32 m
Yb_doping_density double 1e20 0 x 1e32 cm
-3
Yb_doping_file string
backward_mirror,
signal_mirror

mirror_model enumerated rectangular rectangular, gaussian, file
mirror_file string
progressive_solution enumerated no yes, no
progressive_steps integer 1 1 x 100
gain_application enumerated continuous Continuous, carrier
cm^-1, m^-1, s^-1

km^2, Mm^2

cm^-3, m^-3, km^-3, Mm^-3

cm^-1, m^-1, km^-1, Mm^-1,
dB/km, dB/Mm

980_spectra(nm),
Yb_spectra(nm),
doping(um), Yb_doping(um),
modes(um),
mirror(nm)


backward_output_loss output coupling of backward signal when simulating bidirectional operation
length EYCDFA length
metastable_lifetime erbium metastable-level lifetime
metastable_lifetime_Yb ytterbium metastable-level lifetime
include_third_level option for including third erbium level (
4
I
11/2
)
third_level_lifetime lifetime of third erbium level (
4
I
11/2
)
giles_lifetime_ratio ratio of the lifetimes for the third and second erbium levels (
32
/
21
)
R61 ytterbium-erbium cross-relaxation coefficient
R61_giles Giles ytterbium-erbium cross-relaxation coefficient
R35 erbium-ytterbium cross-relaxation coefficient
R35_giles Giles erbium-ytterbium cross-relaxation coefficient
fiber_saturation_param Giles-model erbium fiber-saturation parameter
fiber_saturation_param_Yb Giles-model ytterbium fiber-saturation parameter
overlap_1550 constant 1550-band erbium overlap factor
overlap_980 constant 980-band erbium overlap factor
overlap_Yb constant 980-band ytterbium overlap factor
Acore area of core for double-clad devices
Aclad area of inner cladding for double-clad devices
upconversion_coeff erbium upconversion coefficient for non-Giles models
giles_upconversion_coeff erbium upconversion coefficient for Giles model
spectra_1550_model 1550-band erbium signal spectra options
giles_loss_1550_file user-specified 1550-band Giles loss-spectrum data file for erbium
giles_gain_1550_file user-specified 1550-band Giles gain-spectrum data file for erbium
absorption_1550_file user-specified 1550-band erbium absorption cross-section data file
emission_1550_file user-specified 1550-band erbium emission cross-section data file
spectra_980_model 980-band erbium signal spectrum options
giles_loss_980 center-value of 980-band Giles loss spectrum for erbium
absorption_980 center-value of 980-band erbium absorption cross-section
spectra_980_center center-wavelength of 980-band erbium spectrum
spectra_980_width bandwidth of 980-band erbium spectrum
giles_loss_980_file user-specified 980-band Giles loss-spectrum data file for erbium
absorption_980_file user-specified 980-band erbium absorption cross-section data file
spectra_Yb_model 980-band ytterbium signal spectrum options
giles_loss_Yb center-value of 980-band Giles loss spectrum for ytterbium
giles_gain_Yb center-value of 980-band Giles gain spectrum for ytterbium
absorption_Yb center-value of 980-band ytterbium absorption cross-section
emission_Yb center-value of 980-band ytterbium emission cross-section
spectra_Yb_center center-wavelength of 980-band ytterbium spectrum
spectra_Yb_width bandwidth of 980-band ytterbium spectrum
giles_loss_Yb_file user-specified 980-band Giles loss-spectrum data file for ytterbium
giles_gain_Yb_file user-specified 980-band Giles gain-spectrum data file for ytterbium
absorption_Yb_file user-specified 980-band ytterbium absorption cross-section data file
emission_Yb_file user-specified 980-band ytterbium emission cross-section data file
doping_model erbium-doping density options
doping_radius erbium doping radius
doping_density center erbium doping density (at r = 0)
doping_file user-specified erbium doping-profile data file
mode_model optical mode shape options
fiber_NA fiber numerical aperture
fiber_core_radius fiber core radius
Yb_doping_model ytterbium-doping density options
Yb_doping_radius ytterbium doping radius
Yb_doping_density center ytterbium doping density (at r = 0)
Yb_doping_file user-specified ytterbium doping-profile data file
inject_ASE switch for injecting ASE within the EYCDFA
z_step integration step along EYCDFA length
progressive_solution option for progressive iterative solution
progressive_steps number of iterations to use during progressive solution
For all data files, the X-values should be monotonically increasing or decreasing. Furthermore, the field
<num_pts> specifies the number of data lines in the file, while the choice of settings for the various unit
<loss_units>: [nm^-1], [um^-1], [cm^-1], [m^-1], [km^-1], [Mm^-1], [dB/nm], [dB/um],
[dB/cm], [dB/m], [dB/km], [dB/Mm]
Data files with gain and loss spectra for the Giles model are specified through the parameters
giles_gain_1550_file, giles_loss_1550_file, giles_loss_980_file, giles_gain_Yb_file, and
giles_loss_Yb_file. The X-values are in units of frequency, and the Y-values are in units of loss per
distance.
Format:
<num_pts>
...
Example:
5
1450 0.3
1500 0.6
1530 2.0
1550 1.2
1600 0.4
Data files with absorption/emission cross sections are specified through the parameters
absorption_1550_file, emission_1550_file, absorption_980_file, absorption_Yb_file, and
emission_Yb_file. The X-values are in units of frequency, and the Y-values are in units of area.
Format:
<num_pts>
...
Example:
5
1450 0.7e-25
1500 2.4e-25
1530 7.0e-25
1550 4.3e-25
1600 0.2e-25
Doping Profile
User-specified doping profiles may be specified via the parameters doping_file and Yb_doping_file. The
X-values are in units of distance, and the Y-values are in units of cubic density.
Format:
<num_pts>
...
Example:
5
0 1.00e19
0.25 1.00e19
0.50 1.00e19
0.75 0.50e19
1.00 0.25e19
Mode Profiles
Data files with mode shapes may be specified using the parameters mode_1550_file and mode_980_file.
The X-values are in units of distance, and the Y-values are considered unitless (the mode profiles are
Format:
<num_pts>
...
Example:
5
0 1
1 0.7
2 0.4
3 0.25
5 0.15
Background Loss
A data file with the background-loss spectrum may be specified using the background_loss_file
parameter. The X-values are in units of frequency, and the Y-values are in units of loss per distance.
Format:
<num_pts>
...
Example:
5
1.40 0.25
1.45 0.21
1.50 0.19
1.55 0.17
1.60 0.21
A data file with the mirror reflectivity spectrum may be specified using the parameter mirror_file. The X-
values are in units of frequency, and the Y-values are in units of power reflectivity.
Format:
<num_pts>
...
Example:
5
970 10
975 100
980 100
985 100
990 10

This module simulates a Semiconductor Optical Amplifier (SOA). The SOA is a highly nonlinear device.
It can be used not only for signal amplification but also for other optical signal processing applications,
such as wavelength converting, switching and optical time domain demultiplexing [1].
The SOA is modeled as a travelling wave amplifier. It takes into consideration the time dependence of the
gain caused by the saturation effect and the time-dependent phase change due to the gain-index coupling.
Figure 1 shows a typical SOA geometry.

Figure 1: Typical SOA geometry
Model Description
In the active region of amplifier shown in Fig.1, the material gain coefficient g(N) (per unit length) is
dependent on the carrier (electrons and holes) density N. Their relation can be described as:

2 2
) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
p tran p tran
N N S N N
dN
dg
N g = =
(1)
where dg/dN is the differential gain which defines the slope of the dependence of g(N) on N assuming
linear gain model and will be denoted as S next (). The parameter N
tran
(Carrier_Density_Transp) is the
carrier density at transparency point. In Eq.(1) the material gain per unit length assumes a parabolic shape
for the gain dependence on wavelength. Parameter (Curvature_SpectralGain) is the curvature of
spectral gain, is wavelength,
p
(Wavelength_PeakGain) is the peak gain wavelength. The flag
SpectralGainShape allows to switch between flat and parabolic spectral gain shape models. If the flag set
to Flat or setting = 0 (default), the material gain will be independent of wavelength. The parameters S,
N
tran
, and
p
will be input by users.
The total gain coefficient of the amplifier is related to the optical confinement factor defined as a
fraction of the mode power within the active layer (Confinement_Factor) and to the waveguide scattering
loss
s
(Internal_Loss) as,

s tot
N g N g = ) ( ) (
(2)
where and
s
are input parameters. Then the total gain (in the sense of power) at the location z (along
the active region length L), G(N,z), can be calculated as
] ) ) ( exp[( ] ) ( exp[ ) , ( z N g z N g z N G
s tot
= =
(3)
Note, in Eq.(3) a constant carrier density over the amplifier length was assumed. Using Eq.(3) the average
light power P
av
(N,t) over the amplifier length can be calculated as

s
s in
L
s
in
L
in av
N g
L N g
L
t P
dz z N g
L
t P
dz z N G t P
L
t N P

=
= =

) (
1 ] ) ) ( exp[( ) (
] ) ) ( exp[(
) (
) , ( ) (
1
) , (
0 0

(4)
The dynamic rate equation for the carrier density N, which is a function of time t (hence, from now on, N is
replaced by N(t)), can be written as

Vhf
L t t N P t N g
t N R
qV
I
dt
t dN
av
) ), ( ( )) ( (
)) ( (
) (
=
(5)
where I is the injection current (Pump_Current) into the active region, which can be determined by the
bias voltage V
f
and the material characteristics of the amplifier. Here I is an input parameter of the model, q
is the electron charge, V = Lwd is the volume of the active region, L (Length) is length, w (Width) is
width and d (Thickness) is height, respectively. L, w and d are inputs to the model. The last term of
Eq.(5) describes a depletion of inversion due to the stimulated emission. This stimulated emission can be
caused by the input signals and the entering ASE noise. The depletion of inversion due to the internally
generated ASE noise, i.e. the spontaneous emission has not been accounted for in Eq.(5). f denotes the
light frequency and h is the Planck constant. The second term of Eq.(5), R(N(t)), recombination rate can be
expressed as

3 2
) ( ) ( ) ( )) ( ( t CN t BN t AN t N R + + =
(6)
where A (Recomb_ConstA), B (Recomb_ConstB), and C (Recomb_ConstC) are constants representing
the different type of recombinations. The inverse of linear term coefficnet A is a carrier lifetime , the
quadratic term represents radiative recombination, and cubic - Auger recombination.
Taking Eqs.(1), (4), and (6) into (5), Eq.(5) can be written as

Vhf
N t N S
L N t N S
t P N t N S
t CN t BN t AN
qV
I
dt
t dN
s p tran
s p tran
in p tran

=
] ) ( ) ) ( ( [
1 } ) ] ) ( ) ) ( ( [ exp{(
) ( ] ) ( ) ) ( ( [
) ( ) ( ) (
) (
2
2
2
3 2

(7)
In Eq.(7) N(t) is the only unknown quantity, which will be solved numerically with an initial carrier density
given by user.
Once N(t) is obtained the optical field output, ) (t E
out
r
is determined by
( ) ( )
(
+ = L N g j t E t E
tot in out
) ( ) 1 (
2
1
exp
r r
,
( )
s p tran tot
N t N S t N g = ) ) ( ) ) ( ( ( ) (
2

(8)
where (Linewidth_Enhance) is the linewidth enhancement factor (input by user), which accounts for the
coupling between the gain and the refractive index of the active layer.
In case of parabolic again shape the FWHM bandwidth for the total gain can be estimated as:

L
=
2 ln
2 2
Note that Eq.(7) is only valid for a single channel signal (single frequency component, strictly). For multi-
channel signals, the term
f
t P
in
) (
in (7) should be replaced by
k k
k
in
f
t P ) (
, where f
k
and ) (t P
k
in
are the
central frequency and the input signal power of the k-th channel respectively.
Noise Treatment
The model takes into account noise in the incoming optical signal. The contribution of the ASE noise in
bins (as opposed to the noise contained within the signal, which will be treated as the signal) to Eq.(7) can
be accounted for by replacing P
in
(t) by the averaged input noise power. Specifically, in analogy with the
contribution to Eq.(7) from the signal, the contribution to Eq.(7) from the noise can be expressed as [2]:

df
f
f R
Vh N t N S
df L
f
f R
Vh N t N S
L N t N S
df
f
f R
Vh N t N S
N t N S
df L
f
f R
Vh N t N S
L N t N S N t N S
df
Vhf
N t N S
L N t N S
f R N t N S
ASE p
s tran
p
ASE p
s tran
s tran
ASE
s tran
tran
p
ASE
s tran
s tran tran
s p tran
s p tran
ASE p tran

) ( ) (
} )] ) ( ( [ {
1
) ) ( exp(
) ( ) (
} )] ) ( ( [ {
] ) ) ) ( ( exp[(
) (
} )] ) ( ( [ {
)] ) ( ( [
) ) ( exp(
) (
} )] ) ( ( [ {
] ) ) ) ( ( exp[( )] ) ( ( [
] ) ( ) ) ( ( [
1 } ) ] ) ( ) ) ( ( [ exp{(
) ( ] ) ( ) ) ( ( [
2
2
2
2
2
2
2

(9)
where R
ASE
is the spectral density of the ASE entering the amplifier. Hence, in this SOA model, the noise
will saturate the amplifier. The output noise can be evaluated as

] ) ( exp[ ] ) ) ( exp[(
} ] ) ( ) ) ( ( [ exp{
2
_
2
_ _
L t SN L SN P
L L N t N S P P
s p tran in n
s p tran in n out n
=
=

(10)
where P
n_in
and P
n_out
are input and output noise power respectively and the angle brackets denotes the
time averaging.
In this model the gain saturation caused by the entering ASE has been taken into consideration, but the
internally generated ASE noise is neglected. To take into account internal noise we added phenomeno-
logical rather than physical model where user has to specify Noise Figure of amplifier. To activate this
model user has to switch flag includeNoise to Yes and specify value of Noise Figure in dB in parameter
noiseFigure. If the incoming optical signal has a noise component then the gain apllied to the noise will
be increased by Noise Figure value. However, if the input signal has no noise or noise is contained in signal
(i.e. stochastically defined) then the noise figure model will not be applied.
Simulation Techniques
To solve rate equation for carrier density (Eqs.(5) or (7)) we aplly Runge-Kutta method. Two Runge-Kutta
equation solvers are available: Runge-Kutta 4th-order and Runge-Kutta 5th-order Adaptive. In the Runge-
Kutta4th method, the step size equals to the signal step size (in time domain), but this may not be the case
for the Runge-Kutta5th with adaptive step size method. For the case when the signal sampling rate is high
the Runge-Kutta5th with adaptive step size method may consume less time solving the rate equation
compared to the Runge-Kutta4th method. In case of and Runge-Kutta 5th-order Adaptive method user can
specify relative expected error (Relative_Error), initial step size (Stepsize_Initial), minimum step size
allowed (Stepsize_Min), and maximum number of steps allowed (MAXSTP).
Additional Notes
Usually the operation of the SOAs depends on the polarization state of light. This SOA gain model
assumes it is polarization independent. However, if a user knows expected PDG from measurement or
device specifications he can enter its value into parameter PDG in dB units and then the SOA gain applied
to x- and y-poalrization components will be accordingly modified.
The input to the SOA model can be a single- or multi-channel signals. If the input is multi-channel signals,
the model requires that all the signals have identical time steps and number of data points.
The model could be also used to simulate the nearly travelling wave optical amplifier with low facet
reflectivity (R = 10^(-4 -5)). In this model the carrier density over the length of amplifier is assumed to
be constant. .
The saturation power of SOA can be computed from stationary solution fo the rate equation (i.e. left part of
Eq.(5) is zero). In the case of flat gain shape, and negligible radiative and Auger recombination
components (B, C = 0) the saturation power can estimated using the following equation [3]:
2 ln
_
S
wdE
P
sat out

=
(11)
Where E is the photon energy, and (equal to 1/A) is the carrier lifetime.
References
[1] M. J. Connelly, Semiconductor Optical Amplifiers, (Boston, Kluwer Acdemic Publishers, 2002)
[2] L. Gillner, E. Goobar, L. Thylen, M. Gustavsson, Semiconductor laser amplifier optimization: an
analytical and experimental study, IEEE J of Quantum Electronics 25, 1822-1827 (1989).
[3] M.J.OMahony, Semiconductor laser optical amplifiers for use in future fiber systems, J. of
Lightwave Technology 6, 531-544 (1988).
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical signal
Outputs
#1: Optical signal
Parameter Values

Pump_Current Double 0.15 0.0~1.0e32 A
SpectralGainShape Enumerated Flat Flat, Parabolic None
Curvature_SpectralGain Double 0.0 0.0~1.0e32 m^(-3)
Wavelength_PeakGain Double 1.52e-6 0.0~1.0e32 m
Linewidth_Enhance Double 5.0 -1.0e32~1.0e32 None
PDG Double 0 -1000~1000 dB
includeNoise Enumerated No Yes, No None
noiseFigure Double 6.0 3~1.0e32 dB
Confinement_Factor Double 0.15 0.0~1.0 None
Internal_Loss Double 4000.0 0.0~1.0e32 m^(-1)
Gain_Slope Double 2.78e-20 0.0~1.0e32 m^2
Recomb_ConstA Double 1.43e8 0.0~1.0e32 s^(-1)
Recomb_ConstB Double 1.0e-16 0.0~1.0e32 m^(3)s^(-1)
Recomb_ConstC Double 3.0e-41 0.0~1.0e32 m^(6)s^(-1)
Carrier_Density_Start Double 3.0e24 0.0~1.0e32 m^(-3)
Carrier_Density_Transp Double 1.4e24 0.0~1.0e32 m^(-3)
Length Double 5.0e-4 0.0~1.0e32 m
Width Double 3.0e-6 0.0~1.0e32 m
Thickness Double 8.0e-8 0.0~1.0e32 m
Equation_Solver Enumerated Runge-
Kutta5thAdapt
Runge-
Kutta5thAdapt,
Runge-Kutta4th
None
Relative_Error Double 1.0e-8 0.0~1.0e32 None
Stepsize_Initial Double 1.0e-12 0.0~1.0e32 s
Stepsize_Min Double 0.0 0.0~1.0e32 s
MAXSTP Integer 100000 1~1e8 None

Pump_Current bias current
SpectralGainShape switch between Flat and Parabolic gain models
Curvature_SpectralGain curvature of spectral gain curve
Wavelength_PeakGain wavelength at peak gain
Linewidth_Enhance linewidth enhance factor
PDG PDG in dB
includeNoise swith On/Off internal noise
noiseFigure Noise Figure in dB
Confinement_Factor confinement factor
Internal_Loss internal loss
Gain_Slope slope of gain curve
Recomb_ConstA recombination coefficient A
Recomb_ConstB recombination coefficient B
Recomb_ConstC recombination coefficient C
Carrier_Density_Transp carrier density at transpency
Carrier_Density_Start initial carrier density
Length active region length
Width active region width
Thickness active region thickness
Equation_Solver methods to solve the carrier density rate equations
Relative_Error relative error expected
Stepsize_Initial initial step size tried
Stepsize_Min minimum step size allowed
MAXSTP maximum number of steps allowed
Controlled SOA

This module simulates a Controlled Semiconductor Optical Amplifier (SOA). The model is identical to the
standard SOA model described earlier except it has now an input port for electrical signal. The total
injection current is now a sum of internal bias current (Pump_Current) and external current:
I(t) = I
bias
+ I
ext
(t)
(1)
The rate equation for carier dynamics (Eq.(5) of SOA model description) will be modified with time-
dependent injectrion current I(t) instead of constant bias current I.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical signal
Outputs
#1: Optical signal
Parameter Values

Pump_Current Double 0.15 0.0~1.0e32 A
SpectralGainShape Enumerated Flat Flat, Parabolic None
Curvature_SpectralGain Double 0.0 0.0~1.0e32 m^(-3)
Wavelength_PeakGain Double 1.52e-6 0.0~1.0e32 m
Linewidth_Enhance Double 5.0 -1.0e32~1.0e32 None
PDG Double 0 -1000~1000 dB
includeNoise Enumerated No Yes, No None
noiseFigure Double 6.0 3~1.0e32 dB
Confinement_Factor Double 0.15 0.0~1.0 None
Internal_Loss Double 4000.0 0.0~1.0e32 m^(-1)
Gain_Slope Double 2.78e-20 0.0~1.0e32 m^2
Recomb_ConstA Double 1.43e8 0.0~1.0e32 s^(-1)
Recomb_ConstB Double 1.0e-16 0.0~1.0e32 m^(3)s^(-1)
Recomb_ConstC Double 3.0e-41 0.0~1.0e32 m^(6)s^(-1)
Carrier_Density_Start Double 3.0e24 0.0~1.0e32 m^(-3)
Carrier_Density_Transp Double 1.4e24 0.0~1.0e32 m^(-3)
Length Double 5.0e-4 0.0~1.0e32 m
Width Double 3.0e-6 0.0~1.0e32 m
Thickness Double 8.0e-8 0.0~1.0e32 m
Equation_Solver Enumerated Runge-
Kutta5thAdapt
Runge-
Kutta5thAdapt,
Runge-Kutta4th
None
Relative_Error Double 1.0e-8 0.0~1.0e32 None
Stepsize_Initial Double 1.0e-12 0.0~1.0e32 s
Stepsize_Min Double 0.0 0.0~1.0e32 s
MAXSTP Integer 100000 1~1e8 None


Pump_Current bias current
SpectralGainShape switch between Flat and Parabolic gain models
Curvature_SpectralGain curvature of spectral gain curve
Wavelength_PeakGain wavelength at peak gain
Linewidth_Enhance linewidth enhance factor
PDG PDG in dB
includeNoise swith On/Off internal noise
noiseFigure Noise Figure in dB
Confinement_Factor confinement factor
Internal_Loss internal loss
Gain_Slope slope of gain curve
Recomb_ConstA recombination coefficient A
Recomb_ConstB recombination coefficient B
Recomb_ConstC recombination coefficient C
Carrier_Density_Transp carrier density at transpency
Carrier_Density_Start initial carrier density
Length active region length
Width active region width
Thickness active region thickness
Equation_Solver methods to solve the carrier density rate equations
Relative_Error relative error expected
Stepsize_Initial initial step size tried
Stepsize_Min minimum step size allowed
MAXSTP maximum number of steps allowed
Comprehensive Model

This module simulates a Semiconductor Optical Amplifier (SOA), as well as a Reflective SOA (RSOA). These devices
are highly nonlinear and can be used for signal amplification, signal modulation, and optical signal processing
applications such as wavelength conversion, switching and optical time domain demultiplexing [1].
The user selects whether to model an SOA or an RSOA via the parameter RSOA. With this parameter set to No, the
model simulates an SOA. Figure 1 shows a typical device geometry, with optical signals input at one facet and output at
the other. In this model, we treat the SOA as a traveling wave amplifier, with negligible facet reflections. The model
takes into consideration the time dependence of the gain caused by the saturation effect, the time-dependent phase
change due to the gain-index coupling, and the internal generation of amplified spontaneous emission (ASE) noise. With
RSOA set to Yes, the model simulates an RSOA. In this case, the input and output optical signals use the same facet, and
the opposite facet is made highly reflective. In this device, signals experience two passes through the SOA before
exiting. The user specifies the RSOA power reflectivity via the parameter Reflectivity.
The model has two input ports and one output port. The first input accepts optical signals, which can consist of one or
more optical channels. The second input accepts an optional electrical modulation current. Finally, the output port
generates the resulting output optical signal. The user controls the input and output coupling losses, in dB, via the
parameters Input_Loss and Output_Loss. Note that the model does not support cw optical signals, and all signals input
to the SOA must have identical time steps and number of data points. If the user connects an electrical modulation
current (I
mod
) to the SOA, then it is added to the specified bias current I
bias
(Pump_Current) to form the total injection
current:
( ) ( )
bias mod
I t I I t = + (1)

Figure 1. Typical SOA geometry. In an RSOA, light enters and exits via the same facet, and the opposite facet is highly reflective.
Model Description
The comprehensive SOA model uses a reservoir approach as described in [2]-[4] and largely equivalent to the models
presented in [5]-[7]. Instead of treating the SOA cavity as a distributed element, the model uses a lumped approach that
assumes an average carrier density along the length of the cavity. The model is derived from the following equations for
the signal power propagation, ASE power propagation, and local carrier density:
( )
i
i s i
dP
g P
dz
= (2)

( )
,
j
j s j j sp j
dA
g A R
dz

= h (3)
( )
( ) ( )
2 i i i j j j
i j
i j
g P P g A A
dN I
R N
dt qV A A

+ +
+ +

=

h h
(4)
Equation (2) models the signal power propagation down the length z of the SOA cavity, with
i
P
representing the
forward (+) and backward (-) signal powers at wavelength
i
. (Confine_Factor)is the optical confinement factor, while
g
i
is the material gain at
i
and
s
is the background loss (both of which are functions of carrier density, to be discussed
below).
Equation (3) models the propagation of the forward (+) and backward (-) ASE noise power
j
A
in a bin of width
j

centered about
j
. It is equivalent to Equation (2), with an additional term R
sp,j
for ASE noise generation (also a function
of carrier density, to be discussed below).
j
is the optical radial frequency. Note that the inclusion of R
sp,j
is controlled
via the parameter includeNoise. If it is set to Yes, then the user must also specify a wavelength range in meters for the
ASE generation (ASE_min_wavelength to ASE_max_wavelength) along with a bin width (ASE_bin_width).
Finally, Eq. (4) is the rate equation for the local carrier density N along the length of the cavity, where the two
summations account for stimulated emission due to optical signals and ASE, respectively. (Curr_Inj_Efficiency) is the
current injection efficiency, q is the electron charge, I(t) is the total injection current, V is the total cavity volume (equal
to Lwd ), L (Length) is the cavity length, w (Width) is the cavity width, d (Thickness) is the cavity thickness, and A
is the cavity cross-sectional area (equal to wd). The carrier recombination R(N) is calculated as

2 3
( ) R N A N B N C N = + + (5)
where A (Recomb_ConstA) is the linear recombination coefficient, B (Recomb_ConstB) is the quadratic recombination
coefficient, and C (Recomb_ConstC) is the Auger recombination coefficient.
These equations can be simplified considerably via the following procedure. First, we substitute Eqs. (2) and (3) into (4).
Next, we integrate over the length of the amplifier and divide through by the length. Finally, we assume a constant
carrier density along the cavity length in order to properly calculate the output powers as a function of the input, as well
as the average powers along the cavity. This results in the following set of SOA model equations.
First, the reservoir rate equation for the average carrier density N is

( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
,
,
,
2
1
1
1
2 4
1
i s
j s
j s
g L
in i
i
i i i s
g L
j in
g L j j sp j
j s
j j j j s
j s
P e
g dN I
R N
dt qV V g
A e
g g R
e g L
V g V
g

| |
=
|

\ .

| |
(
|
( |

\ .

h
h
(6)
where P
in,i
is the time-dependent input signal power at
i
and A
in,j
is the input ASE power at
j
. For simplicity, instead of
using the average of R(N) along the cavity length, we treat the recombination as a function of the average carrier density
itself. Similar considerations apply to calculation of the average value for R
sp,j
.
The output signal and ASE powers are calculated as

( )
, ,
i s
g L
out i in i
P P e

= (7)

( )
( )
( ) ,
, ,
1
j s j s
g L g L j sp j
out j in j
j s
R
A A e e
g

(
= +
(

h
(8)
where P
out,i
is the time-dependent output signal power at
i
, A
out,j
is the output ASE power at
j
, and the brackets denote
time averaging.
The model also accounts for phase changes due to variations in the cavity carrier density, i.e. chirp. In this case, the
output phase
out,i
as a function of input phase
in,i
is

, ,
1
2
out i in i i
g L = (9)
where (Linewidth_Enhance) is the linewidth enhancement factor.
Taking into account Eqs. (7) and (9), the time-dependent output signal at
i
is thus

,
, ,
out i
j
out i out i
E P e
= (10)
Following a similar procedure, the set of equations for an RSOA with a mirror power reflectivity R
2
(where the subscript
2 is used to emphasize that the input facet is nonreflective) are

( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
,
2
,
2
2 ,
2 2
2 2
1
1
1
1
2
1
4
1 1
2 2
i s
i s
j s
j s
j s j s
g L
in i
g L i
i i i s
g L
in j
g L j
j j j s
g L g j sp j
j s
j
j s
P e
g dN I
R N R e
dt qV V g
A e
g
R e
V g
g R
R R
e R g L e L
V
g

| |
(
= +
|

\ .

| |
(
+ |
( |

\ .
(
+ +
(

h
h
(11)

( ) 2
, 2 ,
i s
g L
out i in i
P R P e

= (12)

, , out i in i i
g L = (13)

( )
( )
( ) ( ) 2 ,
, 2 , 2
1 1
j s j s j s
g L g L g L j sp j
out j in j
j s
R
A R A e e R e
g

( (
= + +
( (

h
(14)
Equation (10) remains the same as before.
Gain, Loss, and Spontaneous Emission Models
In the active region of the amplifier, the material gain coefficient g(N,) and the spontaneous emission R
sp
(N,) are
dependent on the carrier density N and the wavelength . The SOA model provides a number of alternatives for
modeling these features, which can be selected via the parameter SpectralGainShape. In all cases, the background loss
is modeled with a linear carrier-density dependence [2],[8]-[9]:

0 1 s
K K N = + (15)
where K
0
(Internal_Loss) is the background loss in the absence of carriers and K
1
(Internal_Loss_Slope) is
proportional to the slope of the background loss versus carrier density.
Flat, Parabolic, and Cubic Gain
The Flat, Parabolic, and Cubic Gain models are all based on the following equations for the material gain and gain peak
wavelength [5],[10]-[12], which model the gains parabolic and cubic dependence on wavelength:
( ) ( ) ( )
2 3
1 3
( , ) ( ) ( )
o p p
g N a N N a N a N = + (16)

( )
2
( )
p po ref
N a N N = (17)
where a (Gain_Slope) is the linear gain coefficient, N
o
(Carrier_Density_Transp) is the carrier transparency density, a
1

(Curvature_SpectralGain) is the quadratic coefficient of the gains spectral dependence, a
3
(CubicCoeff_SpectralGain)
is the cubic coefficient of the gains spectral dependence,
po
(Wavelength_PeakGain) is the peak-gain wavelength at
the reference density N
ref
(Wavelength_PeakGain_RefDensity), and a
2
(Wavelength_PeakGain_Slope) is the slope of
the peak-gain wavelength versus carrier density.
When SpectralGainShape is set to Flat, the coefficients a
1
through a
3
are set equal to zero and the gain is simply a
linear function of the carrier density. When SpectralGainShape is set to Parabolic, only a
3
is set equal to zero, and the
gain then includes both the carrier-density dependence of the peak gain wavelength as well as the quadratic dependence
on wavelength; this approach is a common one for dealing with an SOAs spectral gain dependence [5],[10]. Finally, if
SpectralGainShape is set to Cubic, all terms are included and the model accounts for the gains cubic dependence on
wavelength as well [11]-[12].
In all three cases, the spontaneous emission is modeled via the following expression [4]-[5],[13]:
( , ) ( , )
sp sp
R N n g N = (18)
where the spontaneous emission factor n
sp
is defined as

sp
o
N
n
N N
=
(19)
Parabolic-in-Frequency Gain
By setting SpectralGainShape to Parabolic_Freq, the user may select an alternative equation for modeling the gain,
this time using a quadratic frequency dependence [14]-[15]:
( )
( )
2
( , ) 1 1
gap
o
o
c c
g N a N N
C N N

(

(
=
`
(

(

)
(20)
where c is the velocity of light in a vacuum,
gap
(Wavelength_Bandgap) is the active-region bandgap wavelength, and
C
(Gain_Bandwidth_Slope) is the gain-bandwidth slope.

For this model, the spontaneous emission is modeled using Eqs. (18) and (19) above.
Bulk Quantum Gain
In some cases, the user may want a more detailed description of the gain for bulk devices, in which case the bulk
quantum gain model may be appropriate. By setting SpectralGainShape to Bulk, the user invokes the following
quantum gain model for bulk active regions [8]:
( )
( )
( )
3/ 2
2
3/ 2 2
1
2
( , )
4 2
g
e hh
rad rad c v
e hh
E
m m c
g N A B N f f
m m h n

| |
= +
|
|
+
\ .
h
(21)
where n
1
(Active_Region_neff) is the active region effective index, A
rad
(Recomb_ConstArad) is the linear radiative
recombination coefficient, B
rad
(Recomb_ConstBrad) is the quadratic radiative recombination coefficient, m
e

(Effective_Mass_Electron) is the electron effective mass, m
hh
(Effective_Mass_HeavyHole) is the heavy-hole effective
mass, and m
lh
(Effective_Mass_LightHole) is the light-hole effective mass.
E
g
is the active region bandgap, and it is carrier-density dependent:

1/ 3
( )
g go g
E N E K N = (22)
where E
go
(Bandgap_NoInjection) is the zero-injection bandgap and K
g
(Bandgap_Shrinkage_Coeff) is the bandgap
shrinkage coefficient.
f
c
and f
v
are the Fermi-Dirac distributions for the conduction and valence bands, respectively, and are functions of carrier
density, wavelength, and temperature T (Bulk_Temperature):

1
1 exp
c
a fc
f
E E
kT
=
| |
+
|
\ .
(23)

1
1 exp
v
b fv
f
E E
kT
=
| |
+
|
\ .
(24)

hh
a g
e hh
m hc
E E
m m
| |
=
|
+
\ .
(25)

e
b g
e hh
m hc
E E
m m
| |
=
|
+
\ .
(26)

( )
{ }
1/ 4
ln 64 0.05524 64
fc
E kT
(
= + + +

(27)

( )
{ }
1/ 4
ln 64 0.05524 64
fv
E kT
(
= + + +

(28)
/
c
N N = (29)
/
v
N N = (30)

3/ 2
2
2
2
e
c
m kT
N
| |
=
|
\ .
h
(31)

( )
3/ 2
2/ 3
3/ 2 3/ 2
2
2
2
hh lh
v
m m kT
N
| |
+
|
=
|
\ .
h
(32)
where k is Boltzmanns constant.
In addition, the spontaneous emission is modeled as [2],[7]-[8]:

( ) 1
( , ) ( , )
c v
sp
c v
f f
R N g N
f f

=
(33)
Note that the default settings for this gain model are taken from [8].
File-Based Gain
In the most general case, the SOA may be modeled using tabulated values for the spectral and carrier density dependence
of the gain and spontaneous emission, such as described in [2] and [16]:
( , ) ( ) ( ( ))
o
g N a N N = (34)
( , ) ( , )
sp em
R N g N = (35)

1
( , ) ( ) ( ( ))
em em
g N a N N = (36)
where g
em
(N,) is the emission gain coefficient. a() is the wavelength-dependent linear gain coefficient, and the user
specifies the file name for this coefficients tabulated values via the parameter Gain_Slope_File. N
o
() is the
wavelength-dependent transparency carrier density, and the user specifies the file name for this densitys tabulated
values via the parameter Carrier_Density_Transp_File. a
em
() is the wavelength-dependent linear emission gain
coefficient, and the user specifies the file name for this coefficients tabulated values via the parameter
Emission_Gain_Slope_File. Finally, N
1
() is the wavelength-dependent emission-gain transparency carrier density, and
the user specifies the file name for this densitys tabulated values via the parameter EmGain_Density_Transp_File.
For all data files, the x values should be monotonically increasing or decreasing. Furthermore, in the following
description, <num_pts> specifies the number of data lines in the file, while the choice of settings for the various unit
For the data files Gain_Slope_File and Emission_Gain_Slope_File, the x values are in units of frequency and the y
values are in units of area. These files should use the following format.
Format:
AreaVsWavelength <frequency_units> <area_units>
<num_pts>
<frequency 1> <slope value 1>
etc.
Example:
AreaVsWavelength [nm] [m^2]
5
1500 7e-20
1525 8e-20
1550 8.5e-20
1575 8.2e-20
1600 7.5e-20
For the data files Carrier_Density_Transp_File and EmGain_Density_Transp_File, the x values are in units of
frequency and the y values are in units of cubic density. These files should use the following format.
Format:
DensityVsWavelength <frequency_units> <density_units>
<num_pts>
<frequency 1> <density value 1>
etc.
Example:
DensityVsWavelength [nm] [m^-3]
5
1500 1.1e24
1525 1.0e24
1550 8.5e23
1575 7e23
1600 5.5e23
In all cases, the policy for extrapolating values beyond the range of the tabulated data is controlled via the parameter
Boundary_Policy. zero sets all values outside of the tabulated data range to zero, while extend uses the endpoint values.
Polarization Effects
Usually the operation of an SOA depends on the polarization state of the optical input signals. While the model described
above neglects this polarization dependence, if a user knows the expected PDG from measurement or device
specifications, he can enter its value (in dB) into the model via the parameter PDG. In this way the SOA gain applied to
the x- and y-polarization components will be accordingly modified.
Numerical Settings
To solve the carrier rate equation, the model uses one of two Runge-Kutta-based differential equation solvers, selectable
via the parameter Equation_Solver: Runge-Kutta 4
th
-order (Runge-Kutta4th) and Adaptive Runge-Kutta 5
th
-order
(Runge-Kutta5thAdapt). In the 4
th
-order method, the step size is held constant, whereas this may not be the case for the
adaptive 5
th
-order method. For the case when the signal sampling rate is high, the 5
th
-order method may consume less
time in solving the rate equation. If the user selects this method, then they can specify the relative expected error
(Relative_Error) and the minimum allowed step size (Stepsize_Min). For both solvers, the user may specify an initial
step size (Stepsize_Initial) and the maximum number of allowed steps (MAXSTP).
Also, please note that while the model internally solves for the initial carrier density, the user can speed up this process
by specifying an initial guess for its solution using the parameter Carrier_Density_Start.
Test Functions
The SOA model provides a number of test plots for visualizing the expected performance of a device. By setting the
Test_function parameter to the desired output and clicking the Test button in the component-parameter editing dialog,
the user may display the SOA characteristics described below. Note that the units for the various results may be
controlled via the parameters Test_gain_units (for gain values), Test_ASE_units (for ASE values),
Test_wavelength_units (for wavelength values), Test_power_units (for optical power values), and
Test_current_units (for bias current values).
gain_vs_wavelength
Plots the device gain as a function of input signal wavelength at different values of bias current. The
wavelength range in meters is specified via the parameters Test_wavelength_min and
Test_wavelength_max, and the number of wavelengths to use is specified via Test_wavelength_points.
The bias current range in Amperes is specified via the parameters Test_Ibias_min and Test_Ibias_max,
and the number of bias currents to use is specified via Test_Ibias_points. The input signal power in Watts
is specified via Test_Pin.
gain_vs_pin
Plots the device gain as a function of input signal power at different values of bias current. The input-power
range in Watts is specified via the parameters Test_Pin_min and Test_Pin_max, and the number of
powers to use is specified via Test_Pin_points. The bias current range in Amperes is specified via the
parameters Test_Ibias_min and Test_Ibias_max, and the number of bias currents to use is specified via
Test_Ibias_points. The input signal wavelength in meters is specified via Test_input_wavelength.
ase_vs_wavelength
Plots the device output ASE spectrum (in the presence of an input signal) at different values of bias current.
The wavelength range and number of points to plot are controlled via the models ASE generation
parameters (ASE_min_wavelength, ASE_max_wavelength, and ASE_bin_width). The bias current range
in Amperes is specified via the parameters Test_Ibias_min and Test_Ibias_max, and the number of bias
currents to use is specified via Test_Ibias_points. The input signal power in Watts is specified via
Test_Pin, and the input signal wavelength in meters is specified via Test_input_wavelength.
References
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1999.
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[15] G. Talli and M. J. Adams, Amplified spontaneous emission in semiconductor optical amplifiers: Modelling and
experiments, Optics Communications, vol. 218, pp. 161-166, 2003.
[16] K. Obermann, I. Koltchanov, K. Petermann, S. Diez, R. Ludwig, and H. G. Weber, Noise analysis of frequency
converters utilizing semiconductor-laser amplifiers, IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics, vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 81-
88, January 1997.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical signal
Outputs
#1: Optical signal
Parameter Values
RSOA enumerated No No, Yes
Reflectivity double 1 [ 0, 1 ]
Pump_Current double 0.15 [ 0, 1e32 ] A
Curr_Inj_Efficiency double 1.0 [ 0, 1e32 ]
Input_Loss double 0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] dB
Output_Loss double 0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] dB
Length double 5.0e-4 ( 0, 1e32 ] m
Width double 3.0e-6 ( 0, 1e32 ] m
Thickness double 8.0e-8 ( 0, 1e32 ] m
Confine_Factor double 0.15 [ 0, 1]
Linewidth_Enhance double 5.0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ]
Recomb_ConstA double 1.43e8 [ 0, 1e32 ] s
-1

Recomb_ConstB double 1.0e-16 [ 0, 1e32 ] m
3
/s
Recomb_ConstC double 3.0e-41 [ 0, 1e32 ] m
6
/s
PDG double 0 [ -1000, 1000 ] dB
includeNoise enumerated No No, Yes
ASE_min_wavelength double 1500e-9 ( 0, 1e32 ] m
ASE_max_wavelength double 1600e-9 ( 0, 1e32 ] m
ASE_bin_width double 1e-9 ( 0, 1e32 ] m
SpectralGainShape enumerated Flat Flat, Parabolic,
Cubic,
Parabolic_Freq, Bulk,
File

Gain_Slope double 2.78e-20 [ 0, 1e32 ] m
2

Carrier_Density_Transp double 1.4e24 [ 0, 1e32 ] m
-3

Curvature_SpectralGain double 0.0 [ 0, 1e32 ] m
-3

Wavelength_PeakGain double 1.52e-6 [ 0, 1e32 ] m
Wavelength_PeakGain_Slope double 0 [ 0, 1e32 ] m
4

Wavelength_PeakGain_RefDensity double 1.4e24 [ 0, 1e32 ] m
-3

CubicCoeff_SpectralGain double 0.0 [ 0, 1e32 ] m
-4

Wavelength_Bandgap double 1600e-9 ( 0, 1e32 ] m
Gain_Bandwidth_Slope double 5e-12 ( 0, 1e32 ] m
3
/s
Effective_Mass_Electron double 4.1e-32 ( 0, 1e32 ] kg
Effective_Mass_HeavyHole double 4.19e-31 ( 0, 1e32 ] kg
Effective_Mass_LightHole double 5.06e-32 ( 0, 1e32 ] kg
Bulk_Temperature double 25 [ -273.15, 1e32 ]
C
Active_Region_neff double 3.22 ( 0, 1e32 ]
Recomb_ConstArad double 1.0e7 [ 0, 1e32 ] s
-1

Recomb_ConstBrad double 5.6e-16 [ 0, 1e32 ] m
3
/s
Bandgap_NoInjection double 0.777 [ 0, 1e32 ] eV
Bandgap_Shrinkage_Coeff double 0.9e-10 [ 0, 1e32 ]
eVm
Gain_Slope_File file
Carrier_Density_Transp_File file
Emission_Gain_Slope_File file
EmGain_Density_Transp_File file
Boundary_Policy enumerated zero zero, extend
Internal_Loss double 4000.0 [ 0, 1e32 ] m
-1

Internal_Loss_Slope double 0 [ 0, 1e32 ] m
2

Carrier_Density_Start double 3.0e24 [ 0, 1e32 ] m
-3

Equation_Solver enumerated Runge-
Kutta5thAdapt
Runge-Kutta4th,
Runge-Kutta5thAdapt

Stepsize_Initial double 1.0e-12 [ 0, 1e32 ] s
Stepsize_Min double 0.0 [ 0, 1e32 ] s
Relative_Error double 1.0e-8 [ 0, 1e32 ]
MAXSTP integer 100000 [ 1, 100000000 ]
Test_function enumerated gain_vs_wavelength gain_vs_wavelength,
gain_vs_pin,
ase_vs_wavelength

Test_wavelength_min double 1500e-9 ( 0, 1e32 ] m
Test_wavelength_max double 1600e-9 ( 0, 1e32 ] m
Test_wavelength_points integer 101 [ 1, 100000 ]
Test_Ibias_min double 100e-3 [ 0, 1e32 ] A
Test_Ibias_max double 100e-3 [ 0, 1e32 ] A
Test_Ibias_points integer 1 [ 1, 20 ]
Test_Pin double 1e-3 [ 0, 1e32 ] W
Test_input_wavelength double 1550e-9 ( 0, 1e32 ] m
Test_Pin_min double 1e-3 [ 0, 1e32 ] W
Test_Pin_max double 10e-3 [ 0, 1e32 ] W
Test_Pin_points integer 101 [ 1, 100000 ]
Test_gain_units enumerated dB linear, dB
Test_ASE_units enumerated dBm/Hz uW/Hz, mW/Hz, W/Hz,
dBm/Hz

Test_wavelength_units enumerated nm nm, um, m
Test_power_units enumerated dBm uW, mW, W, dBm
Test_current_units enumerated mA nA, uA, mA, A
RSOA Switch between regular SOA and reflective SOA
Reflectivity Mirror reflectivity in RSOA
Pump_Current Bias current
Curr_Inj_Efficiency Current injection efficiency
Input_Loss Input coupling loss
Output_Loss Output coupling loss
Length Active region length
Width Active region width
Thickness Active region thickness
Confine_Factor Optical confinement factor
Linewidth_Enhance Linewidth enhancement factor
Recomb_ConstA Linear recombination coefficient
Recomb_ConstB Quadratic recombination coefficient
Recomb_ConstC Auger recombination coefficient
PDG PDG in dB
includeNoise Switch on/off internal ASE noise generation
ASE_min_wavelength Minimum wavelength of internal ASE generation
ASE_max_wavelength Maximum wavelength of internal ASE generation
ASE_bin_width Bin width of internal ASE generation
SpectralGainShape Switch between different gain models
Gain_Slope Linear gain coefficient for the Flat, Parabolic, Cubic, and
Parabolic_Freq gain models
Carrier_Density_Transp Transparency carrier density for the Flat, Parabolic, Cubic, and
Parabolic_Freq gain models
Curvature_SpectralGain Quadratic curvature of the gain for the Parabolic and Cubic gain models
Wavelength_PeakGain Peak-gain wavelength at the reference carrier density for the Parabolic
and Cubic gain models
Wavelength_PeakGain_Slope Slope of peak-gain wavelength versus carrier density for the Parabolic
and Cubic gain models
Wavelength_PeakGain_RefDensity Peak-gain wavelength reference carrier density for the Parabolic and
Cubic gain models
CubicCoeff_SpectralGain Cubic curvature of the gain for the Cubic gain model
Wavelength_Bandgap Bandgap wavelength for the Parabolic_Freq gain model
Gain_Bandwidth_Slope Gain-bandwidth slope for the Parabolic_Freq gain model
Effective_Mass_Electron Electron effective mass for the Bulk gain model
Effective_Mass_HeavyHole Heavy-hole effective mass for the Bulk gain model
Effective_Mass_LightHole Light-hole effective mass for the Bulk gain model
Bulk_Temperature Bulk temperature for the Bulk gain model
Active_Region_neff Active-region effective index for the Bulk gain model
Recomb_ConstArad Linear radiative recombination coefficient for the Bulk gain model
Recomb_ConstBrad Quadratic radiative recombination coefficient for the Bulk gain model
Bandgap_NoInjection Bandgap under zero injection for the Bulk gain model
Bandgap_Shrinkage_Coeff Bandgap shrinkage coefficient for the Bulk gain model
Gain_Slope_File Name of the file containing the linear gain coefficient data for the File
gain model
Carrier_Density_Transp_File Name of the file containing the transparency density data for the File gain
model
Emission_Gain_Slope_File Name of the file containing the linear emission-gain coefficient data for
the File gain model
EmGain_Density_Transp_File Name of the file containing the emission gains transparency density data
for the File gain model
Boundary_Policy Policy for treating file-based data beyond the data end points
Internal_Loss Internal loss
Internal_Loss_Slope Slope of internal loss versus carrier density
Carrier_Density_Start Initial carrier density
Equation_Solver Method for solving the carrier density rate equation
Stepsize_Initial Initial step size tried by the differential equation solver
Stepsize_Min Minimum step size allowed by the Adaptive 5
th
-order Runge-Kutta
method
Relative_Error Relative error used by the Adaptive 5
th
-order Runge-Kutta method
MAXSTP Maximum number of steps allowed by the differential equation solvers
Test_function Test-plot output selection
Test_wavelength_min Minimum value when varying the test input wavelength
Test_wavelength_max Maximum value when varying the test input wavelength
Test_wavelength_points Number of values when varying the test input wavelength
Test_Ibias_min Minimum value when varying the test bias current
Test_Ibias_max Maximum value when varying the test bias current
Test_Ibias_points Number of values when varying the test bias current
Test_Pin Single value of test input power
Test_input_wavelength Single value of test input wavelength
Test_Pin_min Minimum value when varying the test input power
Test_Pin_max Maximum value when varying the test input power
Test_Pin_points Number of values when varying the test input power
Test_gain_units Units when displaying gain data
Test_ASE_units Units when displaying ASE data
Test_wavelength_units Units when displaying wavelength data
Test_power_units Units when displaying power data
Test_current_units Units when displaying current data
Optical Noise Adder

This model provides a mechanism for directly manipulating the ASE noise of an optical spectrum. Additional noise can
be added to the signal with various profiles. The representation of the noise can also be altered the noise may be
incorporated as a stochastic component to the signal rather than as a power spectral density.
Direct addition of noise
Several components in OptSim can generate ASE noise, including the EDFA and Bi-Directional Nonlinear Fiber model
(BDNF) (used as a Raman amplifier). The noise generated by these components has important impacts on bit error rates,
eye diagrams etc. At times, the user may be interested in the dependence of such quantities on the noise level, but less
interested in modeling the origin of the noise sources. In such a case it is inconvenient to have to use the EDFA or
BDNF models just to generate the noise, particularly as these models also affect the optical signals through gain and
attenuation. The present model acts as a black-box noise generator, that has no impact on the signal outside of the
generation and addition of noise.
With the parameter noiseShape, the user may select noise distributions with Uniform, Gaussian, Custom, or
ExistingASEOnly profiles. If the incoming signal contains an existing ASE spectrum, the new noise is added
incoherently to the existing spectrum. The profiles are defined in terms of the center wavelength
0
(noiseCenter),
wavelength-FWHM B (noiseBW), and peak spectral density S
0
as follows:
Uniform
( )
0 0
0
,
2
0,
2
B
S
S
B
>

where /
0
c = and /( / 2) /( / 2)
o o
B c B c B
= + .
Gaussian
( ) ( )
( )
( )
2
0
0 2
exp log 2
/ 2
S S
B
| |
| =
|
\ .

Custom
The Custom noise model uses a wavelength and power dependent ASE noise file with the same format as
the custom noise model in the optical amplifier (EDFA) model. The noise spectra is defined in units of
dBm at different average input power levels and wavelengths. The program will interpolate the ASE noise
for every channel under the actual input total power. The name of the custom noise file is given in the
noiseFilename parameter. The noiseResolution parameter is used to set the resolution of the generated
ASE noise spectra. The resolution should be set to be approximately an order of magnitude smaller than
the bandwidth of the narrowest optical filter in the link.
The Custom file is a two column format file which specifies the wavelength (nm) and the ASE noise (dBm)
all separated by spaces. Multiple noise curves (each corresponds to different input power) are placed one
after another within the data file. There is no limit to the number of noise curves that may be included.
The very first line of each curve starts with 0 and is followed with spaces and the average input power
(dBm) that corresponds to the curve. This 0 tells the program the beginning of a new curve and must not
be changed. Comments can be added at the end of the line, and each comment is ended with a *. No
comment or * is needed in the curve data rows. The data region is ended with a line -1 -1 at the end of
the file. There should be a carriage return at the end of the last line.
ExistingASEOnly
The ExistingASEOnly noise model simply takes the ASE noise already present in the signal as part of the
ASE noise bins representation and adds it into the signal waveform. It does not add new ASE noise to the
signal, but merely changes its representation from a power spectral density to a stochastic component in the
signal waveform.
Normalization
If noiseNormalization=Absolute, the peak spectral density
0
S is specified directly by noisePeak in units of W/Hz. If
noiseNormalization=SNR, the spectral density of the signal is sampled in bins of width noiseSNR_BW to find the
maximum value
max
s
S . The peak noise density is then chosen as
max
0 s
S S = noiseSNR .
The sampling rate of the noise is specified in Hz with the noiseResolution parameter and should be chosen to
adequately resolve the features of the noise.

Figure 1: Optical spectrum before and after addition of uniform noise profile
Figure 1 shows the optical spectrum before and after the addition of a uniform noise profile with bandwidth 5 nm.
Stochastic representation of noise
Generally, OptSim represents optical signals and ASE noise as separate entities signals as time dependent complex
waveforms, and ASE noise as a frequency-dependent power spectral density. For most purposes, this is a useful
separation since it allows quasi-analytical estimation of bit-error rates, and for the noise to span much larger bandwidths
than individual optical signals.
One disadvantage of this separation, however, is that it requires that a number of fiber propagation effects are not applied
to the noise. That is, the noise does not experience either dispersion or nonlinear interactions with the signal. In
problems in which ASE noise dominates over receiver noise sources, this approximation may not be justified. For
example, four wave mixing can significantly amplify noise close to a signal channel. To enable modeling of such
effects, the ASE noise can be transferred from the power spectral density representation, into a stochastic component of
the optical signal. This is accomplished by setting the noiseRepn parameter to InSignal, instead of the default value
InNoiseBins. This is implemented by Fourier transforming the optical signal, and adding a complex random number
related to the local spectral noise density. In the ensemble average, the same noise power is present in the signal as was
originally present in the noise power spectrum. If the power spectrum is broader than the bandwidth of the signal, parts
of the power spectrum outside the signal bandwidth are unchanged.
Figure 2 shows the optical spectrum and signal from Fig.1 with the noise transferred to the signal. If the incoming signal
is a multi-channel signal, the noise is transferred to each signal according to the local spectral density of the noise. Note
that if the different signal bandwidths overlap, there is no sensible way to divide the noise amongst the competing
channels. The result is an overestimate of the noise power in that region. OptSim will issue a warning in this situation,
and the user should either alter the signal bandwidths so that they do not overlap, or convert to single-channel mode,
which may be more efficient anyway.
In transferring noise to the signal, it is important to consider the way in which the polarization of the noise is treated in
OptSim. The numerical value of a noise bin represents the sum of the noise powers in each polarization at that
frequency. Thus when the noise is transferred to the signal, half of the noise bin power is assigned to each polarization.
This fact is especially significant if the incoming signal has only an E
x
component and no E
y
component. In this case,
half the noise is transferred to the x component, and the other half is discarded. The whole noise energy is only
transferred when both polarization components are present. This can always be accomplished, if required, by preceding
the Noise Adder with the Polarization Controller set to provide a zero rotation, which creates an empty E
y
component.

Figure 2: Spectrum for Figure 1 with stochastic representation of noise: a) spectrum, b) time series.
The user may control the seeding of the random number generator used to implement the stochastic representation. This
satisfies 1e8 <= noise_seed <= 1 with the following behavior:
noise_seed < 0
The generator is seeded with the actual value of noise_seed on every run of the simulation. This is useful
for obtaining repeatable results.
noise_seed = 0
The generator is seeded with an integer hashed from the string value of the components name. This is a
convenient way to obtain repeatable results on subsequent runs within a single fiber, but different noise
fields in a series of fiber components which have different names. This would be appropriate in a set of
parallel WDM inputs to a fiber, for instance.
noise_seed = 1
unrepeatable.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical signal
Outputs
#1: Optical signal
Parameter Values

noiseNormalization enumerated Absolute Absolute, SNR,
Photons/SpatialMode

noiseShape enumerated Uniform Uniform, Gaussian, Custom,
ExistingASEOnly

noiseFilename string
noisePeak double 1e-15 0 x 1e32 W/Hz
noiseS double 20 0 x 1e32 dB
noiseSNR_BW double 50e9 0 x 1e32 m
noiseCenter double 1.425 1e-32 x 1e6 m
noiseBW double 30e-9 0 x 1e6 m
noiseResolution double 0.01e-9 1e-32 x 1e32 m
noiseRepn enumerated InNoiseBins InNoiseBins, InSignal
noiseSeed int 0 -1000000 x 1


noiseNormalization Select absolute or relative (SNR) noise intensity
noiseShape Select shape of noise profile
noiseFilename Filename for custom noise profile
noisePeak Peak spectral density for absolute noise intensities
noiseSNR Peak SNR for relative noise intensities
noiseSNR_BW Sampling bin width for signal spectral density
noiseCenter Center of added noise spectrum
noiseBW Full bandwidth of added noise spectrum
noiseResolution Bin spacing for noise bin representation of noise spectrum
noiseRepn Toggle representation of noise in bins or as stochastic signal
noiseSeed Random number seed for stochastic representation
Linewidth Adder

This model inserts source linewidth into any optical signals at its input. The linewidth is inserted as either a constant
parameter, or via the introduction of phase noise into the signal. The model does not check whether the incoming optical
signal already accounts for any source linewidth.
Inclusion of a source linewidth in the optical output is controlled via the parameter linewidth_model, which by default is
set to phase_ noise. In this case, if the optical signal is not a power-value cw signal, then linewidth is added to the output
via random phase variations, which are seeded via the randomSeed parameter. This results in a Lorentzian output
power spectrum under cw conditions [1]. If linewidth_model=value, then the constant linewidth value is attached to
each optical signal. linewidth_model=none deactivates the model.
linewidth_units=frequency, then linewidth is specified in Hz. If linewidth_units=wavelength, then linewidth is
specified in meters.
References
[1] G. P. Agrawal and N. K. Dutta, Semiconductor Lasers, 2nd. ed. (Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1993).
Properties
Inputs
#1-N: Optical signal
Outputs
Parameter Values

linewidth_model enumerated phase_noise none, phase_noise,
value

wavelength



randomSeed Random number seed for phase randomization. (Standard OptSim seed
i )
convention).

Liekki LAD Interface

The Liekki LAD Interface provides the user with an interface to Liekki Application Designer (LAD), Liekkis fiber
amplifier and laser simulation tool. This interface allows users to embed LAD designs within their OptSim schematic. At
simulation time, the Interface calls LAD to simulate the LAD design.

The Interface is used as follows. After placing the Liekki LAD Interface block in a schematic, open its Properties dialog.
To load an LAD design, select one from the pull-down selection box at the top of the dialog and click on the Load
button. To appear in the pull-down selection box, an LAD project file should be located in the Workgroup directory, User
directory or products/optsim/block_mode/usermodels directory of the OptSim installation. Alternatively, if
you want to load an LAD project file from disk, select From Disk in the selection box and click on the Load
button. Once you have loaded the design, the project_file parameter will be updated to display the path to the selected
file, and input and output ports will be added to the Interface block, reflecting the definition of input and output ports in
the LAD design file. You may now connect the Interface block to other components in your design and run a simulation.

Note that at each input port of the interface, ASE is ignored and each input signal is treated as a single optical channel.
Furthermore, the input ports in the LAD schematic determine which inputs are considered signals within LAD, and which
are considered pumps. Finally, at the output ports, ASE is included, and both LAD signals and pumps are treated as
OptSim optical signals (i.e., OptSim does not maintain a distinction between the two). Currently, all output signals will
be cw.
Properties
Inputs:
Optical signals, one for each input port in the LAD project file.
Outputs:
Optical signals, one for each output port in the LAD project file.
Parameter Values

project_file file


project_file Name of LAD project file.
OptSim Models Reference: Block Mode Chapter 7: Optical Components 247
Chapter 7: Optical Components
This chapter describes following optical components:
Optical Attenuator
attenuate an optical signal by a specified level
Optical Power Normalizer
normalize input optical signal(s) to the specified average output power level
Optical Phase Shift
shift the carrier phase of the input optical signal(s)
Optical Phase Conjugator
generate an optical signal having phase opposite to that of the input optical signal
Polarization Transformer
transform the polarization of the input optical signal(s)
Ideal Frequency Converter
shift the carrier frequency of the input optical signal(s)

248 Chapter 7: Optical Components OptSim Models Reference: Block Mode
Optical Attenuator

This model attenuates the input optical signal by the specified level of attenuation. This model may be used anywhere
in the topology where a specified level of optical attenuation is desired. It has two parameters. The first and primary
parameter is the attenuation value in units of dB. This attenuation is applied to the x polarization portion of the signal.
If the signal contains a y polarization component as well, then the second parameter, xy_differential, is used to set the
attenuation of the y polarization component. The attenuation of the y polarization component (y_attenuation) is
expressed as follows:
y_attenuation = attenuation xy_differential

Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical signal
Outputs
#1: Optical signal
Parameter Values

attenuation double 0.0 [ -1e16, 0 ] dB
xy_differential double 0.0 [ -1e16, 1e16 ] dB


attenuation Amount to attenuate the x polarization component of the input optical signal by
xy_differential Differential amount to attenuate the y polarization component compared to the x polarization component
attenuation

Optical Power Normalizer

This model normalizes the optical signal power by attenuating the input optical signal(s) to the specified average output
power level. This model is most often used to control the input optical power at the receiver when preparing a BER vs.
received optical power curve plot. The model may be used to attenuate all input optical signals to the same average
output power regardless of their different average input powers, or it may be used to attenuate all input optical signals by
the same amount such that the signal with the largest average input power has the specified average output power.

Properties
Inputs
Outputs
Parameter Values

AttenuationType enumerated Uniform Uniform, Nonuniform
AvePowerOut double -20 [ -1e16, 1e16 ] dBm


AvePowerOut Average output optical power of the optical power normalizer
AttenuationType Uniform attenuates all input optical signals by the same amount such that the optical signal with the
largest input average power has the specified average output power;
Nonuniform attenuates all input optical signals by different amounts such that each output optical signal
has the specified average output power

Optical Phase Shift

This model shifts the carrier phase of the input optical signal(s) by the specified amount. This model may be used
anywhere in the topology where a specified optical phase shift is desired.

Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical signal
Outputs
#1: Optical signal
Parameter Values

PhaseShift double 0 [ -180, 180 ] degrees


PhaseShift Amount to shift the carrier phase of the input optical signal(s) by

Optical Phase Conjugator

This model simulates an ideal phase conjugator, i.e. a device that ideally generates an optical output signal whose phase
is opposite with respect to the one of the input signal. An efficiency parameter and a constant phase_shift
shift
are
taken into account. The usual frequency-shift introduced by real phase-conjugator device is not taken into account.

)) ( exp( ) ( ) ( t j t E t E
in in
=
) exp( )) ( exp( ) ( ) (
shift in out
j t j t E t E =

Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical signal
Outputs
#1: Optical signal
Parameter Values

efficiency double 1 [ 0, 1 ] none
phase_shift double 0 [ 0, 360 ] degrees


efficiency Efficiency of the component referred to the signal amplitude
phase_shift Constant phase shift applied to the output optical signal
Polarization Transformer

This model transforms the polarization of the input optical signal(s) according to the specified parameters. This model
may be used anywhere in the topology where a specified polarization transformation is desired.
There are several modes of transformations supported. The modes are described below:
Custom
In the custom mode, the input optical signals polarization is transformed according to the specified
complex matrix:

(
=
(
i
i
o
o
Y
X
c c
c c
Y
X
22 21
12 11

Rotation
In the Rotation mode, the polarization is rotated by the specified angle.
LinearPolarizer
In the LinearPolarizer mode, the polarization is made to be linear at the specified angle.
CircularLeft
In the CircularLeft mode, the polarization is made to be circular in the left direction.
CircularRight
In the CircularRight mode, the polarization is made to be circular in the right direction.
PolarizationController
In the PolarizationController mode, the polarization states of the output signals are controlled by the
parameters azimuth, ellipticity, symmetryFactor_x and symmetryFactor_y to simulate an ideal
polarization controller. The polarization states of the outputs do not depend on the input polarization while
the optical power is preserved.
Assume the input signal is expressed as

|
|
.
|
\
|
=
)] ( exp[ | ) ( |
)] ( exp[ | ) ( |
) (
t j t E
t j t E
t E
in
y y
in
x x
in
v
v
v
,
and the output signal is expressed as

2 2
| | | |
)] ( exp[
)] ( exp[ 1
) (
y x
out
y
out
x
out
E E
t j k
t j k
t E
v v v
+
|
|
.
|
\
|

where k is the power splitting parameter. The phases of the input and output signals can be related as

out out
y x
=


y
x
in
y
out
y
in
x
out
x

where

k
k k
2 1
cos ) 1 (
2 ) 2 tan(

sin ) 1 ( 2 ) 2 sin( k k =
x
a is called symmetryFactor_x,
y
a is called symmetryFactor_y, h is called azimuth and e is called ellipticity.
These parameters are specified by the user.
An optical loss may also be included in the transformation via the loss parameter.

Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical signal
Outputs
#1: Optical signal
Parameter Values

mode enumerated Custom Custom, Rotation,
LinearPolarizer,
CircularLeft,
CircularRight,
PolarizationController

loss double 0 [ 0, 1e32 ] dB
angle double 0 [ -180, 180 ] degree
azimuth double 0 [ -90, 90 ] degree
ellipticity double 0 [ -45, 45 ] degree
symmetryFactor_x double 0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] none
symmetryFactor_y double 1 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] none
coef11r double 1 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] none
coef11i double 0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] none


mode Parameterized mode or Custom mode
loss Optical loss at input ports
angle Amount to adjust the polarization state by
coef11r Real portion of c
11

coef11i Imaginary portion of c
11

12

12

21

21

22

22

azimuth Azimuth of the signal polarization ellipse
ellipticity Ellipticity of the signal polarization ellipse
symmetryFactor_x Related to the phase change for the x polarization component
symmetryFactor_y Related to the phase change for the y polarization component

Ideal Frequency Converter

This model shifts the carrier frequency of the input optical signal(s) by the specified amount, which may be in either
frequency units of Hz or wavelength units of meters. This model may be used anywhere in the topology where a
specified optical carrier frequency conversion is desired.

Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical signal
Outputs
#1: Optical signal
Parameter Values

specMode enumerated Wavelength Frequency, Wavelength
shift double 0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] Hz or m

shift Amount to shift the carrier frequency of the input optical signal(s) by
specMode Whether shift amount is specified in frequency or wavelength units

Sagnac Effect model for Interferometric Fiber Optic
Gyroscope (I-FOG)

This block models the differential phase shift belonging to the Sagnac effect between the clockwise and counter-
clockwise propagating optical signals in a fiber optic loop.
The Sagnac effect is an interferometric phenomenon that manifests itself in a ring setup undergoing rotation. A beam of
light is split and the two beams are made to follow trajectories in opposite directions, enclosing a given area and
producing interferometry upon recombination. The light transmission can be guided through fiber optics.
The phase difference belonging to the Sagnac effect
S
is proportional to the dot product of the rotation rate vector
r
by the area vector A
r
enclosed by the optical path:
=
r r
A
c
S 2
4

where is the angular frequency of the light source and c is the light velocity in vacuum.
In multi-turn fiber coils the sensitivity is enhanced multiplying the enclosed area A by a certain number of turns N. The
Sagnac effect phase difference can then be rewritten as:
//
2
=
c
LD
S

where L is the total coil length, Dis the coil diameter, is the light source wavelength, and
//
is the rotation rate
component parallel to the rotation axis.
In the Sagnac effect OptSim model the rotation can be constant during the simulation time or instantaneous. The block
property parameter rotation_rate controls the constant rotation rate, while the electrical input enables the user to provide
an electrical signal representing the instantaneous rotation rate in degrees/second.

References
[1] H. Lefevre: The Fiber-Optic Gyroscope (Artech House, Boston, 1993)

Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical Signal propagating clockwise in the I-FOG
#2: Optical Signal propagating counter-clockwise in the I-FOG
#3: Electrical Signal representing the instantaneous I-FOG rotation in degrees/second

Outputs
#1: Optical Signal propagating clockwise in the I-FOG with Sagnac effect phase shift
#2: Optical Signal propagating counter-clockwise in the I-FOG with Sagnac effect phase shift

Parameter Values
fiber_length Double 200 ( 0, 1e32 ] m
coil_diameter Double 3 ( 0, 1e32 ] cm
rotation_rate Double 0 Deg/s
fiber_length Total length of the fiber used for the I-FOG multiturn coil
coil_diameter Diameter of the I-FOG multiturn coil
rotation_rate I-FOG rotation rate, constant during the simulation time

OptSim Models Reference: Block Mode Chapter 8: WDM Components 259
Chapter 8: WDM Components
This chapter describes following WDM components:

Optical Splitter (1 N)
ideally split the optical signal
Optical Coupler (2 2)
couple the input optical signals
Controlled Optical Coupler
couple the input optical signals according to control signal
Optical Filter
model a various types of optical filters
Fiber Bragg Grating Filter
model a fiber Bragg grating filter
Optical Multiplexer (N 1 MUX)
multiplex N optical signals
Optical DeMultiplexer (1 N DEMUX)
demultiplex incoming optical signal
Optical Add Multiplexer
add an optical signal to the WDM signal
Optical Drop Multiplexer
drop an optical signal from the WDM signal
Optical Add/Drop Multiplexer
add and drop optical signal to/from the WDM signal
General Multiport Optical Device (N M and WDM)
represent a general NM multiport optical WDM device via a data-driven transfer matrix
Jones Matrix Transfer Function
represent an optical device via a data-driven (experiment or theory) linear transfer function model based on
the Jones matrix
260 Chapter 8: WDM Components OptSim Models Reference: Block Mode
Optical Splitter (1xN)

This model represents an ideal optical splitter. It takes a single input signal, and divides it equally among N
output ports with 1/N splitting loss, plus excess loss determined by the transmission model parameter.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical signal
Outputs
Parameter Values

transmission double 1.0 [ -1e30, 1e30 ] none


transmission
overall transmission coefficient to account for excess loss

Optical Coupler (2x2)

This model represents an optical coupler. It takes an optical input signal on each port, and uses one of two
ways to couple the optical signals together. If the mode is set to Parameterized, it uses the following
complex matrix to couple the signals, where A represents the complex optical field amplitude:

(
=
(
2
1
2
1
1
1
i
i
o
o
A
A
j
j
A
A

If the mode is set to Custom, the following complex matrix is used to couple the signals:

(
=
(
2
1
22 21
12 11
2
1
i
i
o
o
A
A
c c
c c
A
A

There is also a loss factor that may be applied to both input signals
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical signal
#2: Optical signal
Outputs
#1: Optical signal
#2: Optical signal
Parameter Values

mode enumerated Parametric Parametric, Custom
alpha double 0.5 [ 0, 1 ] none


mode Parameterized mode or Custom mode
alpha Parameter for parameterized mode
coef11r real portion of c11
coef11i imaginary portion of c11

Controlled Optical Coupler (2x2)

This model represents an optical coupler controlled by a separate control signal. It takes an optical input
signal on each port, and uses the following complex matrix to couple the signals where A represents the
complex optical field amplitude and is alpha_on if the control signal is 1, and alpha_off if the control
signal is 0:

(
=
(
2
1
2
1
1
1
i
i
o
o
A
A
j
j
A
A

There is also a loss factor that may be applied to both input signals
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical signal
#2: Optical signal
#3: Binary signal
Outputs
#1: Optical signal
#2: Optical signal
Parameter Values

loss double 0.0 [ 0, 1e32 ] dB
alpha_off double 0.0 [ 0, 1 ] none
alpha_on double 1.0 [ 0, 1 ] none


alpha_on Parameter for 1 state of control signal
alpha_off Parameter for 0 state of control signal

Optical Filter

This model represents one of the following types of optical filters: Fabry Perot, Gaussian, RaisedCosine,
Lorentzian, Trapezoidal, Ideal, Custom1, Custom2, and Custom3. Each filter type except for the custom
types may also be inverted. A wavelength signal whose filtered peak power does not exceed the user-
specified drop threshold will not be passed by the filter.
The Ideal filter type is an ideal filter in which the response is 1 from 2 /
0
Bw to 2 /
0
Bw + and
zero outside this range.
The Trapezoidal filter type uses a Trapezoidal filter response to filter the optical signal amplitude. The
user specifies the bandwidth in the wavelength domain (units of m) for the flat portion of the response as
BW0dB. The user also specifies the 3dB bandwidth in the wavelength domain.
The Gaussian filter type uses a Gaussian filter response to filter the optical signal amplitude. The user
specifies the 3dB bandwidth in the wavelength domain, and the order of the filter.
The Fabry-Perot option models a Fabry-Perot filter. The optical filter will affect both the optical signal
and the noise level and bandwidth. The transfer function for the Fabry-Perot resonant cavity model is
computed as,

L e R
e R
T
i
i
1
1
) 1 (
) (
2 /

where L is the insertion loss of the filter, R is the power reflectivity of the facets (assuming equal
reflection at both facets), is a phase delay,

F
nl
2 cos 4
= =
where, n is the refractive index of the medium, l is the separation between the facets, is the incident
angle, is the optical signal wavelength, v is the optical frequency,
F
is the free spectral range (FSR).

2 / 1
= F
F

F is the finesse factor,

R
R
F
=
1

2 / 1
is the 3 dB bandwidth in frequency, and is calculated as,
) 2 / /( ) 2 / /(
0 0 2 / 1
Bw c Bw c + =
where
0
is the filter center wavelength, Bw the user input 3 dB optical bandwidth in wavelength.
The free spectral range may be input by the user in units of wavelength (m), or it may be calculated from
the reflectivity. If the reflectivity is desired to be entered directly, it should be set to a nonzero value. If the
FSR is desired to be entered directly, the reflectivity should be set to 0.
The RaisedCosine filter applies the following transfer function to the optical signal amplitude:
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
0 0 1/ 2
0 1/ 2 0 1/ 2 0 0 1/ 2
0 1/ 2
0 0 1/ 2
1, 1
1
1 sin , 1 1
2 2
0, 1
R
T R R
R
R

<
| | (
= < < +
| (
|
\ .
> +

The Lorentzian filter type uses a multiple-stage Lorentzian filter response to filter the optical signal
amplitude. The transfer function for the Lorentzian filter type is computed as,
N
o
T
|
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
(
+
=
2
2 / 1
2
) ( 2
1
1
) (

where user specify N as order of the filter (or number of stages), center wavelength as a wavelength and 3-
dB bandwidth of a filter in wavelength domain as BW. Values of
0
and
2 / 1
will be calculated the
same way as for Fabry-Perot filter.
There are three custom filter types supported. These are specified as Custom1, Custom2, and Custom3.
Each of these custom filter types uses the data file, as per the format of the NxM multiport optical device,
to specify the filter response in the wavelength domain. The Custom1 filters response at each wavelength
is taken directly from the data file.
The Custom2 type treats the data file as a normalized optical filter response, in which the 3dB bandwidth is
1 and the center wavelength is zero. The user specifies the center wavelength as the wavelength parameter
of the filter. In practice, whatever the center wavelength of the filter data in the data file is, the wavelength
parameter is added to it. The bandwidth of the filter is also multiplied by the BW parameter of the model.
The overall effect of this filter type is to shift the center wavelength of the filter specified in the data file by
the center wavelength specified in the model parameter, and scale the bandwidth of the filter specified in
the data file by the BW parameter specified in the model.
The Custom3 type treats the data file as a regular optical filter response which the user wishes to shift and
scale to have a different center wavelength and a different bandwidth. The user specifies the desired center
wavelength of the filter as the wavelength parameter. The user specifies the desired wavelength range
which the filter data should be scaled to occupy in the BW parameter. The overall effect of this filter type
is to map the filter response specified in the data file to a new center wavelength (wavelength instead of
Lmax+Lmin/2.0) and covering a different wavelength range (wavelength-BW/2.0 to wavelength+BW/2.0
instead of Lmin to Lmax).
Carrier shifting
The model may be used to shift the carrier frequency of the optical signal(s) output from the filter. When
the signals being filtered are of the multiple channel representation, in which each channels signal is
represented in its own frequency band centered about a specified carrier frequency, this option would not
be desired. When the optical filter is being used to filter a particular channel out of a single channel
representation, in which all channels are represented together in one frequency band, this option can be
used to reset the center frequency of the filtered frequency band to match the center of the filter. If the
desired channel is centered at the center wavelength of the filter, using this option will ensure that the
center wavelength of the signal output from the filter is the desired channels center wavelength.
Test Parameters
The wavelength and frequency response of the optical filters may be viewed graphically by using the Test
function button on the parameter editing window.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical signal
Outputs
#1: Optical signal
Parameter Values

type enumerated Gaussian Ideal, Trapezoidal,
Gaussian,
RaisedCosine,
Lorentzian,
FabryPerot,
Custom1, Custom2,
Custom3

filename string
wavelength double 1550e-9 [ 1e-32, 1 ] meters
reflectivity double 0 [ 0, 1 ] none
FSR double 100e-9 [ 0, 1e32 ] meters
BW double 0.1e-9 [ 1e-32, 1e32 ] meters
BW0dB double 0.0 [ 0, 1e32 ] meters
order integer 1 [ 1, 128 ] none
rolloff double 0.1 [0, 1] none
alpha double 1 [0, 1e32] none
inversion enumerated None None, Power
shiftcarrier enumerated No No, Yes
dropThreshold double 0 [ 0, 1e32 ] Watt


type
Type of filter operation: several filter types are supported
filename File name for the custom filter types
inversion Whether to invert the power response of optical filter (except custom)
dropThreshold Signals whose peak value does not exceed threshold will be dropped
wavelength Optical filter center wavelength
BW 3dB filter bandwidth in wavelength
BW0dB Zero dB bandwidth for Trapezoidal filter type
FSR Free spectral range of Fabry Perot optical filter
reflectivity Reflectivity of Fabry Perot optical filter (set to 0 when FSR is specified)
loss Optical Filter Insertion Loss
order Order of Gaussian or Lorentzian optical filter
rolloff Rolloff parameter for RaisedCosine filter
alpha alpha parameter for RaisedCosine filter
shiftcarrier Whether to shift the carrier wavelength specification of the signal to match filter
Fiber Bragg Grating Filter

This model simulates a fiber Bragg grating filter. It can be described in the scattering matrix S or the
transfer matrix T as in the following diagram.

a
1
b
1
a
2
b
2
S S, T

where
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
1
a
a
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
1
b
b
b represents the reflection waves. , Sa b =
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
22 21
12 11
S S
S S
S . On the other hand, the relationship of the inputs and the outputs can be expressed as
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
1
1
2
2
b
a
T
b
a
,
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
22 21
12 11
T T
T T
T . The transfer matrix was used because it is convenient to deal with
the cascaded blocks, i.e., the transfer matrix of the cascaded blocks equals to the multiplication of the
transfer matrix of each block. The transformation from the transfer matrix to the scattering matrix is as
,
22
21
11
T
T
S = ,
1
22
12 21
T
S S = =
22
12
22
T
T
S = .
This model is implemented as shown in the following diagram:

a
1
a
2
=0
b
2
b
1
S S,T

where
2
b

(from the first output port)

is the transmitted wave and
1
b

(from the second output port) is the
reflected wave of the grating.
For uniform fiber Bragg gratings, the effective refractive index of the core at a location z can be expressed
as
)
2
cos( ) ( z n n z n
eff
0
+ =

where
eff
n

is the effective background refractive index of the host fiber, n is the amplitude of the
effective refractive index modulation (index modulation depth) and
0
is the grating period. For this
uniform fiber Bragg grating the transfer matrix T can be obtained from the solution of the coupled-mode
equations (Raman Kashyap, Fiber Bragg Gratings, Academic Press,1999 and Turan Erdogan, Fiber
Grating Spectra, J of Lightwave Tech. 15(8), pp1277-1294, August, 1997), i.e.,

) sinh(
) cosh(
11
L
j L T =

) sinh(
) cosh(
22
L
j L T + =

) sinh(
12
L
j T
ac
=

) sinh(
21
L
j T
ac
=
where L is the length of the grating,
ac
represents the coupling between the counter-propagation fields
and can be calculated as
n
n
eff
ac
=
0
2

and

0 0
2

eff
n

2 2
= ac
where is the wavelength.
For a linearly chirped fiber Bragg grating with an apodised refractive index modulation profile, its effective
refractive index can be expressed as
)
) (
2
cos( ) ( ) ( ) ( z
z
z n z n z n
eff
+ =

where the grating period, ) (z can be written as

L
z
z

+ =
0
) (
where is the linear chirp coefficient and will be given by the user. This amount of linear chirp will
produce a primary reflection over a spectral range =
eff
n 2 .
) ( z n is the apodised refractive index modulation amplitude and can be expressed as
) ( ) ( z A n z n =
where ) (z A , the apodisation profile, represents the refractive index modulation envelope along z . In the
current model, following apodisation patterns are supported, in which a generalised parameter ,
apodisation coefficient, is used to specify the details of each apodisation profile.
Uniform Grating
L z L z A 5 . 0 5 . 0 1 ) ( =
Quarter-Cosine Apodisation
) 5 . 0 ( | | 1 ) ( < = L z z A
L z L
L
L z
z A 5 . 0 | | ) 5 . 0 ( ]
) 5 . 0 ( | |
2
cos[ ) (
+
=

Raised-Sinusoid Apodisation
) 5 . 0 ( | | 1 ) ( < = L z z A
L z L
L
L z
z A 5 . 0 | | ) 5 . 0 ( ]}
) 5 . 0 ( | |
2
cos[ 1 { 5 . 0 ) (
+
+ =

Tanh Apodisation
L z L
z
z A 5 . 0 5 . 0
) tanh(
|)] | 2 1 ( tanh[
) (

Blackman Apodisation
L z L
z z
z A 5 . 0 5 . 0
) 1 ( 2
) 4 cos( ) 2 cos( ) 1 ( 1
) (
+
+ + +
=

To calculate the transfer matrix for the chirped fiber Bragg grating with an apodised refractive index
modulation, one can discretize the grating into short sections which can be approximated to uniform
gratings. The transfer matrix of the grating will be the multiplication of the transfer matrix of each section.
For analyzing the characteristics of the grating, a text file named as fbgcurve.txt will be generated
after the simulation is done. In this text file, there are five columns. The first column is the wavelength
(nm). The second and third columns are the reflectivity of the grating without unit and in dB respectively.
The fourth column is the time delay (ps) introduced by the reflection of the grating, and the fifth column is
the phase of reflection coefficient (radian). This characteristic is useful for simulating the dispersion
compensation effect of fiber Bragg gratings.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical signal
Outputs
#2: Optical signal
Parameter Values

period double 5.35355e-7 [ 0, 1e32 ] m
length double 1.0e-2 [ 0, 1e32 ] m
ModulationDept
h
double 1.0e-4 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] none
RefractiveIndex double 1.45 [ 0, 1e32 ] none
LinearChirp double 0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] nm
ApodisationPat
tern
enumerated UniformGrating UniformGrating,
Cosine,
RaisedSinusoid,
Tanh, Blackman

ApodisationCo
ef
double 0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] none
temperature double 20.0 [ 0, 1e32 ] C


ApodisationCoef Apodisation coefficient.
ApodisationPattern Apodisation pattern (Uniform Grating, Cosine, RaisedSinusoid, Tanh, Blackman).
LinearChirp Linear chirp coefficient.
ModulationDepth The effective refractive index modulation depth.
RefractiveIndex The effective background refractive index of the host fiber.
Length The length of grating.
Period The period of the grating.
Temperature The operation temperature of the grating.

Optical Multiplexer (Nx1 MUX)

This model represents an optical WDM multiplexer (see also the General Multiport Optical Device
described below). It accepts multiple optical signals at its input ports and produces a WDM optical signal
at its output port which includes all the input WDM optical signals.
There are two signal representations that may be used at the output, depending on whether four wave
mixing is desired for use in the fiber model. The multiple-band mode will put each optical signal band in
its own signal representation, thereby decreasing the overall memory load of the simulation by not
including the unused frequency bands between the bands. This approximation can only be made when the
bands do not overlap significantly. If there is significant overlap, or it is desired to include the effects of
four wave mixing in the fiber simulation, the single-band mode must be used.
To use the single-band mode, the samples per bit (pointsPerBit) in the signal generator for all the bands
must be set high enough to include all the frequency components of each of the bands in the frequency
domain representation of the signal. A good rule of thumb is that the simulation bandwidth be chosen to be
about 3 times the total signal bandwidth (number of bands times band spacing). The simulation bandwidth
is given by the following:

sPerBit po
s
sPerBit po
s
sim
bitRate
T
bitRate
T
BW
int
int
2
1
2
1
=
= =

where BW
sim
is the simulation bandwidth, T
s
is the time step between data points, bitRate is the bit rate
specified in the PRBS generator, and pointsPerBit is the sampling rate specified in the electrical signal
generator. The pattern length, samples per bit and bit rate must be equal for all the bands. These may be
set conveniently through user defined variables in the symbol table.
To represent a more realistic optical MUX, an optical filter may be specified for the input channels. For
details on the optical filter types supported, see the documentation on the Optical Filter model. When the
filter is used, the spacing between the filters may be uniform in either frequency or wavelength, depending
on the setting of the filterSpecMode parameter. If this parameter is set to Frequency, then all filter
bandwidths and centers are specified in units of Hz, along with the spacing between the filter centers.
When the custom filter types are used, different custom filter responses may be specified for each of the
input ports by using the file format of the General Multiport Optical Device and specifying that file in the
filename parameter.
Properties
Inputs
Outputs
#1: Optical signal
Parameter Values

Representation enumerated MultiBand MultiBand,
SingleBand

filterType enumerated None None, Ideal,
Trapezoidal,
Gaussian,
FabryPerot,
Custom1, Custom2,
Custom3

filename string
filterSpecMode enumerated Wavelength Frequency,
Wavelength

filterBW double 0.1e-9 [ 1e-32, 1e32 ] Hz or meters
filterBW0dB double 0.0 [ 0, 1e32 ] Hz or meters
filterOrder integer 1 [ 1, 128 ] none
filterSpacing double 0.8e-9 [ 1e-32, 1e32 ] Hz or meters
firstFilterCenter double 1550e-9 [ 1e-32, 1e32 ] Hz or meters
filterFSR double 100e-9 [ 1e-32, 1e32 ] Hz or meters


Representation Whether to use multiple-band or single-band representation for WDM optical signals
filterType Type of filter operation on input ports: several filter types are supported
filterSpecMode Whether filter specs are in frequency or wavelength units
firstFilterCenter First input ports optical filter center frequency or wavelength
filterSpacing Spacing between filter centers from one input port to the next
filterBW 3dB filter bandwidth in wavelength
filterBW0dB Zero dB bandwidth for Trapezoidal filter type
filterFSR Free spectral range of Fabry Perot optical filter
loss Optical Filter Insertion Loss
filterOrder Order of Gaussian optical filter

Optical DeMultiplexer (1xN DEMUX)

This model represents an optical WDM demultiplexer (see also the General Multiport Optical Device
described below). It accepts a WDM optical signal at its input port and produces N single channel optical
signals at its output ports, one channel per port. This is accomplished by applying the specified filter to the
input signal for each of the output ports. For details on the optical filter types supported, see the
documentation on the Optical Filter model. The spacing between the filters may be uniform in either
frequency or wavelength, depending on the setting of the filterSpecMode parameter. If this parameter is
set to Frequency, then all filter bandwidths and centers are specified in units of Hz, along with the spacing
between the filter centers. When the custom filter types are used, different custom filter responses may be
specified for each of the output ports by using the file format of the General Multiport Optical Device and
specifying that file in the filename parameter.
The carrier frequency of the output optical signal(s) may be shifted to match the center frequency of the
filters if desired. The user may choose to let the program decide automatically whether to do this, or to turn
this feature on or off. The automatic mode will shift the carrier frequency if the signal is not a multiple
frequency band WDM signal.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical signal
Outputs
Parameter Values

filterType enumerated Gaussian Ideal, Trapezoidal,
Gaussian,
FabryPerot,
Custom1, Custom2,
Custom3

filename string
filterSpecMode enumerated Wavelength Frequency,
Wavelength

filterBW double 0.1e-9 [ 1e-32, 1e32 ] Hz or meters
filterBW0dB double 0.0 [ 0, 1e32 ] Hz or meters
filterSpacing double 0.8e-9 [ 1e-32, 1e32 ] Hz or meters
firstFilterCenter double 1550e-9 [ 1e-32, 1e32 ] Hz or meters
filterFSR double 100e-9 [ 1e-32, 1e32 ] Hz or meters
shiftcarrier enumerated Auto No, Yes, Auto
dropThreshold double 0 [ 0, 1e32 ] Watt


filterType Type of filter operation: several filter types are supported
filterSpecMode Either Frequency or Wavelength specifications
firstFilterCenter Optical filter center frequency or wavelength of first output channel
filterSpacing Either uniform frequency or wavelength spacing between output channels
filterBW 3dB filter bandwidth in either frequency or wavelength
filterBW0dB Zero dB bandwidth for Trapezoidal filter type, either frequency or wavelength
filterFSR Free spectral range of Fabry Perot optical filter, either frequency or wavelength
loss Optical Filter insertion loss
shiftcarrier Whether to shift carrier frequency of signal (Auto, Yes, No)
dropThreshold Signals whose peak value does not exceed threshold will be dropped

Optical Add Multiplexer

This model represents an optical WDM add multiplexer (see also the general multiport optical device
described below). It accepts a WDM optical signal at its first input port, and a single-band optical signal at
second input port (WDM signals may be used due to the filtering operation performed on them). The
signals from the first input port pass through a notch filter to remove the channel being added from the
second input port. The signals from the second input port are filtered with a bandpass filter to separate out
the desired channel to add to the WDM signal at the output. The output is a WDM optical signal with the
channel from the second input port added to the WDM signal provided at the first input port.
The filter used to filter out the desired channel from the first input ports WDM signal is an inverse of the
filter used to select the desired channel from the second input ports optical signal. For details on the
optical filter types supported, see the documentation on the optical filter model. The filter specifications
are provided in units of wavelength. Specific custom defined filters may be specified for these by using
one of the custom filter types. In this case, each of the two input filters would be specified independently
using the NM multiport optical device file format.
including the unused frequency bands between the channels. This approximation can only be made when
the channels do not overlap significantly. If there is significant overlap, or it is desired to include the
effects of four wave mixing in the fiber simulation, the single-band mode must be used.
must be set high enough to include all the frequency components of each of the channels in the frequency

sPerBit po
s
sPerBit po
s
sim
bitRate
T
bitRate
T
BW
int
int
2
1
2
1
=
= =

where BW
sim
s
generator. The pattern length, samples per bit and bit rate must be equal for all the channels. These may be
The carrier frequency of the optical signal being added may be shifted to match the center frequency of the
filter if desired. The user may choose to let the program decide automatically whether to do this, or to turn
this feature on or off. The automatic mode will shift the carrier frequency if the signal is not a multiple
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical signal
#2: Optical signal
Outputs
#1: Optical signal
Parameter Values

SingleBand

Gaussian,
FabryPerot,
Custom1, Custom2,
Custom3

filename string
filterBW double 0.1e-9 [ 1e-32, 1e32 ] meters
filterBW0dB double 0.0 [ 0, 1e32 ] meters
filterCenter double 1550e-9 [ 1e-32, 1e32 ] meters
filterFSR double 100e-9 [ 0, 1e32 ] meters


Representation Whether to use multiple-band or single-band representation for WDM optical
signals
filterCenter Optical filter center wavelength of channel being added
filterBW0dB Zero dB bandwidth for Trapezoidal filter type, wavelength
filterFSR Free spectral range of Fabry Perot optical filter, wavelength
shiftcarrier Whether to shift center frequency of added optical signal (carrier frequency)

Optical Drop Multiplexer

This model represents an optical WDM drop multiplexer (see also the general multiport optical device
described below). It accepts a WDM optical signal at its input port, and outputs the WDM signal minus the
dropped channel at the first output port, and the dropped channel itself at the second output port. The
signals from the input port pass through a notch filter to remove the channel being dropped from the first
output port. The signals from the input port are filtered with a bandpass filter to separate out the desired
drop channel to the second output port.
The filter used to filter out the dropped channel from the first output ports WDM signal is an inverse of
the filter used to select the desired channel for the second output ports optical signal. For details on the
one of the custom filter types. In this case, each of the two filters would be specified independently using
the NM multiport optical device file format.
The carrier frequency of the dropped output optical signal may be shifted to match the center frequency of
the filter if desired. The user may choose to let the program decide automatically whether to do this, or to
turn this feature on or off. The automatic mode will shift the carrier frequency if the signal is not a multiple
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical signal
Outputs
#1: Optical signal
#2: Optical signal
Parameter Values

Gaussian,
FabryPerot,
Custom1, Custom2,
Custom3

filename string


filterOrder: Order of Gaussian optical filter
shiftcarrier Whether to shift center frequency of dropped channel signal

Optical Add/Drop Multiplexer

This model represents an optical WDM add/drop multiplexer (see also the general multiport optical device
described below). It accepts a WDM optical signal at its first input port, and a single-band optical signal at
second input port (WDM signals may be used due to the filtering operation performed on them). The block
performs a combined function of the add multiplexer and the drop multiplexer. The specified signal is first
dropped from the first input ports WDM signal and provided at the second output port, and then the second
input ports signal is added to the resulting WDM signal minus the dropped channel and provided at the
first output port. The first output ports signal is a WDM optical signal with the channel from the second
input port added to the WDM signal provided at the first input port. The second output ports signal is a
single-band optical signal which represents the dropped channel. The block diagram representing this
components function follows:

The filter used to filter out the desired channel from the first input ports WDM signal is an inverse of the
filter used to select the desired channel from the second input ports optical signal. For details on the
one of the custom filter types. In this case, each of the two input filters would be specified independently
using the NM multiport optical device file format.
including the unused frequency bands between the signal bands. This approximation can only be made
when the bands do not overlap significantly. If there is significant overlap, or it is desired to include the
effects of four wave mixing in the fiber simulation, the single-band mode must be used.
must be set high enough to include all the frequency components of each of the bands in the frequency

sPerBit po
s
sPerBit po
s
sim
bitRate
T
bitRate
T
BW
int
int
2
1
2
1
=
= =

where BW
sim
s
generator. The pattern length, samples per bit and bit rate must be equal for all the channels. These may be
The carrier frequency of the added input and dropped output optical signal(s) may be shifted to match the
center frequency of the filters if desired. The user may choose to let the program decide automatically
whether to do this, or to turn this feature on or off. The automatic mode will shift the carrier frequency if
the signal is not a multiple frequency band WDM signal.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical signal
#2: Optical signal
Outputs
#1: Optical signal
#2: Optical signal
Parameter Values

SingleBand

Gaussian,
FabryPerot,
Custom1, Custom2,
Custom3

filename string


Representation Whether to use multiple-band or single-band representation for WDM optical signals
shiftcarrier Whether to shift center frequency of filtered signals to match filter center

General Multiport Optical Device (NxM and WDM)

This model represents a general NM multiport optical WDM device via a data-driven (experiment or theory) transfer
matrix model. It can be used to model devices such as arrayed waveguide grating (AWG) multiplexers, add, drop, or
add/drop multiplexers, and other optical filters and components whose response is determined by a wavelength
dependent transfer matrix. The key parameter to the model is the name of a data file containing the wavelength
dependent transfer matrix (format documented below). Additional parameters include the CommandLine, which allows
integration of OptSim with device level tools or measuring instruments which can generate the required transfer matrix
(e.g. RSoft Design Groups BeamPROP), and SignalBandwidth, which allows the model to treat the signal as having a
narrow bandwidth compared to the filter function for optimization, or to treat a fully broadband signal without
approximation.
The transfer matrix data file is an ASCII file, which begins with header information as follows:
TransferMatrixFormat1 <SubFormat> <FactorFormat>
<# inputs, N> <# outputs, M> <# of wavelength points, K> <Min > <Max >
The <SubFormat> can be either POWER, REAL, REAL_IMAG, AMP_PHASE, AMP_PHASE_RAD, POWER_PHASE,
POWER_DELAY, POWER_DELAY_PS, AMP_DELAY, or AMP_DELAY_PS. This format indicates the type of transfer
matrix coefficient as will be described shortly. The <FactorFormat> may be left out, or it may be specified as DB.
If it is left out, the transfer matrix coefficients are assumed to be unitless, ranging from 0 to 1. If it is set to DB, the
transfer matrix coefficients are assumed to be in units of dB. The other items have the obvious meanings. The header is
followed by blocks containing the wavelength dependent transfer matrix coefficients. Each block looks like
< 1> <coefficient 11> <coefficient 12> <coefficient 1M>
< 2> <coefficient 21> <coefficient 22> <coefficient 2M>
< K> <coefficient K1> <coefficient K2> <coefficient KM>
The coefficient depends upon the <SubFormat>:
POWER
The coefficient should be the (real) power transfer coefficient.
REAL
The coefficient should be the (real) amplitude transfer coefficient.
REAL_IMAG
The coefficient should be a pair of numbers, the first of which is the real value of the amplitude transfer
coefficient, and the second of which is the imaginary value. Both of these numbers should be on the same
line, separated by a space.
AMP_PHASE
The coefficient should be a pair of numbers, the first of which is the magnitude of the amplitude transfer
coefficient, and the second of which is the phase of the amplitude transfer coefficient in units of degrees.
Both of these numbers should be on the same line, separated by a space.
AMP_PHASE_RAD
coefficient, and the second of which is the phase of the amplitude transfer coefficient in units of radians.
Both of these numbers should be on the same line, separated by a space.
POWER_PHASE
The coefficient should be a pair of numbers, the first of which is the magnitude of the power transfer
coefficient, and the second of which is the phase of the power transfer coefficient in units of degrees. Both
of these numbers should be on the same line, separated by a space.
POWER_DELAY
coefficient, and the second of which is the group delay in units of seconds. Both of these numbers should
be on the same line, separated by a space.
POWER_DELAY_PS
coefficient, and the second of which is the group delay in units of picoseconds. Both of these numbers
should be on the same line, separated by a space.
AMP_DELAY
coefficient, and the second of which is the group delay in units of seconds. Both of these numbers should
be on the same line, separated by a space.
AMP_DELAY_PS
coefficient, and the second of which is the group delay in units of picoseconds. Both of these numbers
should be on the same line, separated by a space.
All wavelengths should be specified in units of meters. Currently, the wavelength column is ignored and the wavelength
assumed to vary linearly from the minimum to maximum values specified in the header. The order of the blocks should
be as follows:
<block for input port 1>
<block for input port 2>

<block for input port N>
where each block contains a series of coefficients for each of the M output ports. Each wavelength line in the block has
a series of coefficients for each of the M output ports listed in order, as follows:
< 1> <coefficient(s) for output port 1> <coefficient(s) for output port 2>
< 2> <coefficient(s) for output port 1> <coefficient(s) for output port 2>

< K> <coefficient(s) for output port 1> <coefficient(s) for output port 2>
If there are any questions regarding this format, please contact RSoft Design Group.
Properties
Inputs
Outputs
#1-M: Optical signal
Parameter Values

SignalBandwidth enumerated Wide Narrow, Wide
CommandLine string
FileName string


CommandLine Optional command line which will be executed to generate the transfer matrix
data (for integration with RSoft Design Groups BeamPROP or other device tools)
FileName Name of the file containing the transfer matrix data
SignalBandwidth Bandwidth assumption used in the calculation (Narrow or Wide)
Jones Matrix Transfer Function

This model represents an optical device via a data-driven (experiment or theory) linear transfer function model based on
the Jones matrix. It can be used to model devices such as arrayed waveguide grating (AWG) multiplexers, add, drop, or
add/drop multiplexers, and other optical filters and components whose response is characterized by a wavelength- and
polarization-dependent linear transfer function based on the Jones matrix.
Theoretical Background
The Jones matrix is a 22 matrix of numbers that represent the modification of the state of polarization (SOP) of a device
on an input signal. It is shown below:
(
=
(
) (
) (
) (
) (
t E
t E
D C
B A
t E
t E
yi
xi
yo
xo

where E
xi
(t) and E
yi
(t) are the input optical signals instantaneous electric field scalar values corresponding to the x and y
polarization states, E
xo
(t) and E
yo
(t) are the output optical signals instantaneous electric field scalar values
corresponding to the x and y polarization states, and A, B, C, and D are the elements of the Jones matrix (also referred to
as J11, J12, J21, and J22, respectively).
The linear transfer function goes beyond the Jones matrix in including the magnitude and phase response through the use
of a complex number for each of A, B, C and D, as well as providing values for these elements at each wavelength or
frequency data point in the frequency or wavelength spectrum of the component. The transfer function is specified in the
frequency domain, and is shown below:
(
=
(
) (
) (
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
) (
) (
yi
xi
yo
xo
E
E
D C
B A
E
E

where E
xi
() and E
yi
() are the input optical signals complex frequency domain representation corresponding to the x
and y polarization states, E
xo
() and E
yo
() are the output optical signals complex frequency domain representation
corresponding to the x and y polarization states, and A, B, C, and D are the complex elements of the linear transfer
function.
The linear transfer function represents the linear transformation of an input optical signals amplitude, phase, and
polarization state by an optical device in producing the output signal. This representation provides a complete
characterization of the linear input/output relationship of an optical device. From this data, magnitude and phase
response, group delay (GD), differential group delay (DGD), and polarization dependent loss (PDL) can be determined.
When actual linear transfer function measurements of a device are used with this block to model it in a system
simulation, its system-level performance can be analyzed and system designs utilizing the device optimized.
As discussed in the OptSim User Manual, an optical signal is represented using a slowly varying envelope approximation
as a set of magnitude and phase vectors vs. time. This is transformed into the frequency domain for linear
transformations using the linear transfer function in this model. The group delay (GD) property of an optical component
is defined as the first derivative of optical phase with respect to optical frequency. The chromatic dispersion (CD) is the
second derivative of optical phase with respect to optical frequency. The formulas for these quantities are shown below:
= GD
2
2
= CD
Where is the optical phase and is the optical frequency.
Using the Model
A linear transfer function can be imported from optical test equipment provided by leading manufacturers, including
Agilent Technologies, Luna Technologies, and FiberWork Optical Communications. Alternatively, users can define their
own data or import it from other tools and software using the RSoft data format specified in this documentation.
The key parameter for the model is FileName, the name of the data file containing the Jones matrix data. Additional
parameters include the following: FileType, which specifies the file format of the data file; CommandLine, which
allows integration of OptSim with other software tools or measuring instruments which can generate or operate on the
required Jones matrix; DataColumn which specifies which data column to use in a multicolumn format input file;
Threshold, which specifies the threshold below which the optical signal or spectrum is considered to have zero power;
and SignConvention which specifies whether the group delay should be computed as a positive or negative value in the
Test function. Note that the SignConvention parameter only affects the sign of the GD and CD outputs of the Test
function, not the simulation results.
Test Features
This model block includes test functions used to ascertain properties of the selected DataColumn in the provided data
file including the following:
Wavelength response (attenuation and phase vs. wavelength) for each Jones matrix element
Frequency response (attenuation and phase vs. frequency) for each Jones matrix element
Differential group delay (DGD) vs. wavelength
Differential group delay (DGD) vs. frequency
Group delay (GD) vs. wavelength
Group delay (GD) vs. frequency
Chromatic dispersion (CD) vs. wavelength
Note that the group delay and chromatic dispersion are reported as averages of the x polarization and y polarization
values. The differential group delay is reported as the difference between the x polarization and y polarization group
delays. The SignConvention parameter may be modified to specify the sign of the group delay output in the Test
function. Note that the SignConvention parameter only affects the sign of the GD and CD outputs of the Test function,
not the simulation results.
File Formats
Luna File Format
The Luna format is based on Luna Technologies Binary measurement data file versions 3.0 through 3.3, generated by
the Luna Optical Vector Analyzer (OVA) products. Contact Luna Technologies for specifics on this file format.
Agilent File Format
The Agilent format Jones matrix data file is an ASCII file. This file format is generated by the Agilent 81910A Photonic
All-Parameter Analyzer. Following is a description of this file format. Contact Agilent for further details on the file
format.

The first line begins with '%' and is a comment line whose contents are not important for the simulation.

The second line begins with '%' and is a comment line for the user describing the contents of each column of the
comma separated values in the main body of the file. Again, this line is not important for the simulation.

The third line begins with '%' and contains a list of the sets of data columns in the main body of the file. Each
set of data columns is identified by a channel number written in the format "Channel_x" where x is the channel
number, followed by a space and either "Rx" or "Tx" depending on whether the data corresponds to reflection
or transmission data, followed by a space and then a description of the data, e.g. "Measurement". It is essential
that each set of data columns have a corresponding "Channel_x" entry for the simulation.

The fourth and subsequent lines are the data columns. Each line represents a single wavelength. On that line,
there are 9 columns of comma separated values for each set of data identified in the third comment line of the
file. These columns are wavelength (m) followed by the 8 numerical values for the Jones matrix in the
following format and order: Amp(J11), Phase(J11), Amp(J12), Phase(J12), Amp(J21), Phase(J21), Amp(J22),
Phase(J22)
The Port parameter can be set to choose which set of data columns in the data file to use for the output port of the model
block (e.g., Channel_1 Tx data, Channel_2 Tx data, etc.)
RSoft File Format
The RSoft format Jones matrix data file is an ASCII file, which begins with header information as follows (on two lines):
<Format> <SubFormat> <FactorFormat>
<# inputs, N> <# outputs, M> <# of wavelength or frequency points, K> <Min or f>
<Max or f>
Presently, the model supports one input port and one output port. However, the data file may provide data for one input
port and multiple output ports. <N> therefore must be 1, but <M> may be any number representing the number of output
ports for which data are provided in the data file. Since only one output port is supported by the model block, the
DataColumn parameter is used to specify which output port (or column) from the data file is to be used for the single
output port of the model block. The values for <K>, <Min or f>, and <Max or f> must also be specified in this line.
The data in this line overrides the wavelength or frequency data column in the following data lines.
The <Format> can be either JonesMatrixFormat1 or JonesMatrixFormat2. JonesMatrixFormat1 indicates that the data in
the file is evenly spaced in wavelength. JonesMatrixFormat2 indicates that the data in the file is evenly spaced in
frequency.
The <SubFormat> can be either REAL_IMAG, AMP_PHASE_RAD, POWER_PHASE_RAD, AMP_DISP,
AMP_DELAY_PS, or POWER_DELAY_PS. This format indicates the type of Jones matrix coefficient as will be
described shortly. The <FactorFormat> may be left out, or it may be specified as DB. If it is left out, the Jones
matrix coefficients are assumed to be unitless, ranging from 0 to 1. If it is set to DB, the Jones matrix (amplitude or
power) coefficients are assumed to be in units of dB. The header is followed by blocks containing the wavelength- and
polarization-dependent Jones matrix coefficients. Each block looks like
< 1> <Jones matrix 11> <Jones matrix 12> <Jones matrix 1M>
< 2> <Jones matrix 21> <Jones matrix 22> <Jones matrix 2M>
< K> <Jones matrix K1> <Jones matrix K2> <Jones matrix KM>
The coefficient depends upon the <SubFormat>:
REAL_IMAG
The Jones matrix is a set of eight numbers representing the Jones matrix for the given wavelength or
frequency, depending on whether the format is JonesMatrixFormat1 or JonesMatrixFormat2: the real value
of A, the imaginary value of A, the real value of B, the imaginary value of B, the real value of C, the
imaginary value of C, the real value of D, and the imaginary value of D. All of these numbers should be on
the same line, separated by a space, comma, colon, semicolon, or tab. There are M Jones matrices on each
line, representing the M possible output ports of the modeled device. The Jones matrix used to model the
component in the simulation is chosen by the setting of the parameter DataColumn.
AMP_PHASE_RAD
frequency, depending on whether the format is JonesMatrixFormat1 or JonesMatrixFormat2: the magnitude
of the amplitude of A, the phase (in radians) of A, the magnitude of the amplitude of B, the phase (in
radians) of B, the magnitude of the amplitude of C, the phase (in radians) of C, the magnitude of the
amplitude of D, and the phase (in radians) of D. All of these numbers should be on the same line, separated
by a space, comma, colon, semicolon, or tab. There are M Jones matrices on each line, representing the M
possible output ports of the modeled device. The Jones matrix used to model the component in the
simulation is chosen by the setting of the parameter DataColumn.
POWER_PHASE_RAD
of the power of A, the phase (in radians) of A, the magnitude of the power of B, the phase (in radians) of B,
the magnitude of the power of C, the phase (in radians) of C, the magnitude of the power of D, and the
phase (in radians) of D. The power values in this format are equivalent to the square of the amplitude
values in the AMP_PHASE_RAD format. All of these numbers should be on the same line, separated by a
space, comma, colon, semicolon, or tab. There are M Jones matrices on each line, representing the M
possible output ports of the modeled device. The Jones matrix used to model the component in the
simulation is chosen by the setting of the parameter DataColumn.
AMP_DISP
of the amplitude of A, the dispersion of A, the magnitude of the amplitude of B, the dispersion of B, the
magnitude of the amplitude of C, the dispersion of C, the magnitude of the amplitude of D, and the
dispersion of D. All of these numbers should be on the same line, separated by a space, comma, colon,
semicolon, or tab. There are M Jones matrices on each line, representing the M possible output ports of the
modeled device. The Jones matrix used to model the component in the simulation is chosen by the setting
of the parameter DataColumn.
AMP_DELAY_PS
of the amplitude of A, the group delay (in units of picoseconds) of A, the magnitude of the amplitude of B,
the group delay (in units of picoseconds) of B, the magnitude of the amplitude of C, the group delay (in
units of picoseconds) of C, the magnitude of the amplitude of D, and the group delay (in units of
picoseconds) of D. All of these numbers should be on the same line, separated by a space, comma, colon,
semicolon, or tab. There are M Jones matrices on each line, representing the M possible output ports of the
modeled device. The Jones matrix used to model the component in the simulation is chosen by the setting
of the parameter DataColumn.
POWER_DELAY_PS
of the power of A, the group delay (in units of picoseconds) of A, the magnitude of the power of B, the
group delay (in units of picoseconds) of B, the magnitude of the power of C, the group delay (in units of
picoseconds) of C, the magnitude of the power of D, and the group delay (in units of picoseconds) of D.
Note that the power values are the square of the amplitude values in the AMP_DELAY_PS format. All of
these numbers should be on the same line, separated by a space, comma, colon, semicolon, or tab. There
are M Jones matrices on each line, representing the M possible output ports of the modeled device. The
Jones matrix used to model the component in the simulation is chosen by the setting of the parameter
DataColumn.
All wavelengths should be specified in units of meters and frequencies in units of Hz. Currently, the
wavelength/frequency column is ignored and the value assumed to vary linearly from the minimum to maximum values
specified in the header.
If there are any questions regarding this format, please contact RSoft Design Group.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical signal
Outputs
#1: Optical signal
Parameter Values

FileName file None
FileType enumerated RSoft Agilent, Luna, RSoft None
SignConvention Enumerated Positive Positive, Negative None
CommandLine string None
DataColumn int 1 1 x 128 none
Threshold double 0.0 0 x 1e32 None


FileName Name of the file containing the Jones matrix data
FileType Whether it is in format of Agilent, Luna, or RSoft
SignConvention What sign convention is used for group delay computation in Test function
CommandLine Optional command line which will be executed prior to use of the Jones matrix
data file; can be used to generate or operate on the data by other tools
DataColumn The Jones matrix column or port in the data file used by model
Threshold The transmission threshold below which the transmitted power is assumed to be
zero
OptSim Models Reference: Block Mode Chapter 9: Optical Receivers 291
Chapter 9: Optical Receivers
Compound optical receiver
detect an optical signal and produce an amplified electrical signal
Photodetector
model just the PIN or APD photodetector at the start of a receiver unit

292 Chapter 9: Optical Receivers OptSim Models Reference: Block Mode
Compound Optical Receiver

This models an optical receiver and all its standard parts. The OptSim photoreceiver model is composed of several
individual building blocks: the photodetector, the preamplifier, and the postamplifier/filter complex:

Figure 1: Basic components of an optical receiver
Each block is a separate entity complete with its own input parameters and options. The photodetector model converts
an optical input signal to an electrical current. This photocurrent is then passed to the preamplifier model which converts
it to a voltage. Finally, the postamplifier model contains a set of baseband filters that shape the output waveforms. The
model also computes the photoreceiver noise components.
In fact the receiver model is implemented directly in terms of the three stand-alone models the PIN/APD Photodetector,
Electrical Amplifier and Electrical Filter model described elsewhere in this manual and all the parameters of each of
those models are also parameters of the monolithic receiver model. In other words the two configurations shown in the
topology in Figure 2 serve equivalent functions.
There are two motivations for providing this additional receiver model. As a matter of convenience and topology
compactness, some users may find it useful to represent the receiver configuration with a single block. However, this
function could also have been achieved by creating a super-block containing the three individual models. Rather, the
principal reason for providing a combined model is to allow a Quasi-Analytic (QA) treatment of the receiver noise.
Both the photodetector and electrical amplifier model a number of noise sources shot noise, dark current noise, signal-
spontaneous emission beta noise, thermal noise in the pre-amp transistor etc. In these two models, the noise is added
directly as a stochastic contribution to the electrical signal the so-called Monte-Carlo (MC) picture.

Figure 2: Two configurations for modeling an optical receiver.

However, as explained in the chapter on signal representations, electrical noise in OptSim may also be represented as a
time-dependent vector of the standard deviation of a Gaussian white noise source. This representation is especially
useful in bit error rate calculations, since it allows the contribution of each bit to the BER to be evaluated separately and
trivially accounts correctly for intersymbol interference (pattern-dependent) effects. This is referred to as the QA
method for BER calculation. As discussed in the BERTester documentation, extracting the BER from a signal with
Monte-Carlo noise is considerably more involved, particularly if the signal exhibits strong pattern dependence. Thus,
provided the receiver components are the dominant source of noise in the system, the QA approach is preferred due to
increased accuracy and speed. On the other hand, if ASE is the dominant source of noise, and the propagation through
the fiber is strongly nonlinear, then the noise properties are non-Gaussian and the MC approach is unavoidable. Which
of these two cases is true is determined by experimentation with simulations.
So the representation of noise as a separate standard deviation is necessary to allow BER calculations with the QA
method, but as we explore below in the section QA noise expressions, this is only possible if all stages of the receiver
from photodetection from filtering can be considered together because the variances for each noise source depend on
parameters from at least two of the sub-models.
Model Parameters
Since the Receiver is constructed from the photodector, electrical amplifier and electrical filter models, it includes all the
physics and essentially all the parameters of those three models. For the sake of space and clarity, we will not repeat the
explanations of the deterministic parts of the models definition of photodetector quantum efficiency, amplifier spectral
response, filter bandwidth, etc which are identical for this model. Moreover, we will not repeat the discussions of these
many parameters here and the reader should consult the specific documentation for each of the other models. The
parameters have the same names in the monolithic receiver as in the individual models with the addition of prefixes
denoting which part of the system the parameter belongs to. The prefixes are pd_ for the photodetector parameters, fe_
(front end) for the amplifier parameters and flt_ for the filter parameters. So for example, the dark current in the
photodetector is set by pd_darkCurrent, the transimpedance of the amplifier by fe_tZ and the filter bandwidth by
flt_bandwidth. While not discussed in detail, all the parameters are listed in the tables at the conclusion of the receiver
documentation.
Since the calculation of noise effects involve several models, certain of the noise parameters do not have any prefixes.
So the spectrum of thermal noise is specified by n_a0, n_a2, n_a4, n_a6 exactly as in the electrical amplifier model.
Noise Representation and Effects
The choice between the quasi-analytic and Monte-Carlo treatments of noise is set with the parameter n_representation.
With n_representation=MC, the Monte-Carlo approach is used, and the model is exactly equivalent to the
concatentation of the three component models.
The quasi-analytic treatment (n_representation=QA) is identical with respect to the deterministic parts of the
component models. That is, the generated electrical signal is identical to the signal that would be generated by
concatenating the three models and disabling all noise terms. The noise terms are calculated quite differently as we see
shortly. It is important to note that the QA representation of noise incurs approximations in the spectral features of the
noise. Any noise source which has a non-flat spectrum such as the thermal noise or the spontaneous-spontaneous beat
noise which typically has a triangular shape is replaced by a flat spectrum of an equivalent noise density. This is an
unavoidable consequence of treating the noise strictly as variances in the time domain.
We now discuss the expressions for the various noise sources and how they are combined. Each noise source may be
separately disabled using the parameters beginning include_. Note that when the Monte-Carlo noise treatment is used,
the spontaneous emission noise is controlled via the parameter include_SE_noise, whereas when the quasi-analytic
treatment is used, the signal-spontaneous and spontaneous-spontaneous ASE beat noise are included separately via the
parameters include_sigspon and include_sponspon, respectively.
Preamplifier Noise Parameters
OptSim accounts for the following types of noise in the receiver model: circuit or thermal noise, shot noise due to both
the detector dark current and the received signal, signal-spontaneous beat noise (when ASE noise is present in the
received signal), spontaneous-spontaneous beat noise, APD excess noise (for APD receivers), and relative intensity noise
(when RIN is specified in the transmitter). In the literature, noise is described mathematically as the variance (
n
2
or
<i
n
2
>) of the photogenerated current. In the receiver, the noise is amplified along with the signal; therefore, the noise
contained in the electrical signal output from OptSims receiver model is represented as the standard deviation of the
amplified voltage signal coming out of the receiver. The standard deviation is simply:
> <
2
or
n n
i
The spectral density is also a commonly used noise representation. This quantity describes the amount of noise power
per unit frequency (A
2
/Hz) and is related to the noise variance by:
df f S i
i n
) (
0
2
=
Many noise sources are described in the literature in terms of their spectral density. It is common practice to denote the
effective bandwidth of the photoreceiver by B
eff
(as computed from the receiver front end amplifier and filter response)
( )
2
0
d
eff
B H f f
,
where the combined filter response ( ) H f is assumed to vanish at sufficiently high frequencies. In numerical
modeling, there is a necessary cutoff to the response at the sampling frequency, so for a flat response 1/ 2 .
eff
B t =
The current variance is then

eff i i n
B f S f f S i ) ( ) (
2
= =
The photocurrent in the detector is described by:
P
hc
P q
I =
=
0

where q is the charge of an electron, is the quantum efficiency of the photodetector, is the wavelength of the
received optical signal, P is the optical power of the received optical signal, h is Plancks constant, c is the speed of light,
and is the responsivity. The following noise expressions are relative to the photocurrent, so they are called input-
referred noise expressions. For APD photodetectors, the noise expressions are relative to the photogenerated current
after multiplication in the avalanche region, or MI.
OptSim represents the circuit or thermal noise as a power series expansion of frequency. The total noise power per Hz
bandwidth at the input can be expressed as:

6
6
4
4
2
2 0 ,
) ( f a f a f a a f S
circuit i
+ + + =
This is a more general form of the commonly accepted expression:

2
2
,
) 2 (
4
4
) ( f
g
C
kT
R
kT
f S
m
T
f
circuit i
+ =
channel noise in the preamplifier input transistor. In this expression, k is Boltzmanns constant, T is the temperature, R
f

is the amplifier feedback resistance, g
m
is the transconductance of the preamplifier input transistor, is the excess
channel noise factor, and C
T
is the total input capacitance. The generalized polynomial representation is chosen to allow
the user to tailor the noise spectral density as he sees fit. It is also useful when actual noise spectra are available since it
allows the noise to be represented by simply fitting the polynomial coefficients to measured data. To model white noise,
simply set the coefficients a
2
, a
4
, and a
6
to zero.
The photoreceiver is characterized by a transimpedance response; in other words, the transfer function of the
preamplifier converts an input current to an output voltage. The relationship between the output noise voltage and the
input noise current (or equivalently the input spectral density) is:

=
0
2
2
) ( ) ( df f S f H v
i out

Random fluctuations in current are characterized by shot noise which is described in general by:
qI f S qIB i
i eff shot
2 ) ( 2
2
= =
Here q is the electronic charge and I is the current under consideration. In the OptSim photoreceiver model, shot noise
due to the photoreceiver dark current and the photogenerated signal current are considered. Consequently, the shot noise
due to the dark current is represented by:

eff dark dark shot
B FI qM i
2 2
,
2 =
where M is the gain of the APD (1 for PIN devices), I
d
is the dark current, B
eff
is the effective receiver bandwidth), and F
is defined as follows:
) 1 2 )( 1 ( M k kM F + =
where k is the APD ionization coefficient, and the other terms are as previously defined. Similarly, the shot noise due to
the photogenerated signal itself is represented by:

eff signal shot
FIB qM i
2 2
,
2 =
The signal-spontaneous and spontaneous-spontaneous beat noise sources are derived from standard approaches in the
literature and describe the effects of amplified spontaneous emission (ASE) on the noise performance of the
photoreceiver. These analyses have their roots in the fact that the optical field can be analytically decomposed into two
parts, the signal E
s
and the noise E
n
:
E(t) = E
s
(t) + E
n
(t)

Since the optical power is defined to be the intensity of the electric field, when light hits a detector, the resulting
photocurrent can be described loosely by:

+ + = + = =
2 2 2 2
) ( ) ( ) ( 2 ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( t E t E t E t E t E t E t E t I
n n s s n s ph

As seen by the last term on the right, the square-law detection process performed by the detector causes the various
components of the optical field to multiply, or beat, with each other. The first term on the right represents the
photocurrent signal itself
s
P . The second term models the effect of the signal field beating with the noise field while
the third term represents the beating of the noise with itself.
The variance due to signal-spontaneous ASE beat noise is modeled in the literature essentially by multiplying the
spontaneous emission at every frequency by the optical signal:
( ) ) ( 4
2
2 2 2
f P P B F M i
n
f
f f
s eff sp s
end
start
=
Here, f
start
and f
end
represent the beginning and end frequencies of the ASE noise spectrum. In general, the frequency
range f
end
- f
start
will be much larger than the photoreceiver bandwidth; thus, the signal-spontaneous beat noise is
effectively truncated when it is passed through the receiver transfer function.
Similarly, the variance due to spontaneous-spontaneous ASE beat noise is:
( ) ) ( ) ( 4
2 1
2
2 2 2
1 2
f P f P B F M i
n
f
f f
f
f f
n eff sp sp
end
start
end
start

= =
=
Here, a double summation is required because the ASE noise at each frequency beats with the ASE noise that exists at
every other frequency in the noise bandwidth. Again, the ASE spectral density is captured from the power spectrum
portion of the spectrum analyzer measurement tool and will generally be truncated by the finite receiver bandwidth.
The RIN noise is represented by the following expression:

eff RIN RIN
B N FI M i
2 2 2
) ( =
where N
RIN
is the RIN noise parameter defined in the transmitter and the other terms are as previously defined.
The total input-referred noise expression in the receiver is then:

2 2 2 2 2 2
RIN sp sp sp s shot circuit n
i i i i i i + + + + =

The user may control the seeding of the random number generator used to implement the stochastic representation. This
satisfies 1e8 <= monte_seed <= 1 with the following behavior:
monte_seed < 0
The generator is seeded with the actual value of monte_seed on every run of the simulation. This is useful
for obtaining repeatable results.
monte_seed = 0
The generator is seeded with an integer hashed from the string value of the components name. This is a
convenient way to obtain repeatable results on subsequent runs within a receiver, but different noise fields
in bank of receivers which have different names. This would be appropriate in a set of parallel WDM
receivers, for instance.
monte_seed = 1
unrepeatable.
Calibrating Receiver Sensitivity
The bit error rate for Gaussian systems can be roughly described by:

1
BER erfc
2 2
Q | |
=
|
\ .

2
0
2
1
0 1
n n
i i
I I
Q
+
=
where I
1
and I
0
are the photocurrents in the one and zero states and the standard deviation terms represent the noise in the
respective states. The complementary error function is represented by erfc. Thus, for a desired BER, the Q factor can be
calculated by inverting the complementary error function; although this cannot be performed analytically, it is a simple
matter to either perform it numerically or look it up in tables.
Using the equations given in this documentation, it is thus possible to set the receiver parameters to model a specific
device. It is important to model the receivers frequency response as accurately as possible using the photodetector, front
end amplifier, and filter parameters; then using the receivers sensitivity based on a given BER with a given average
input optical power and difference between a 1 level and a 0 level, set the noise parameters so that the models sensitivity
matches the device being modeled. Note that it is very important that the noise parameters be set properly to represent
the receiver you are using if you wish the simulation results to correlate with a particular device. Also, note that simply
changing the default parameters for the APD multiplier and ionization coefficient will not convert an optimal PIN
receiver into an optimal APD receiver, as there are other parameters which will vary between PIN receivers and APD
receivers since their designs generally differ from one another.
The documentation for the amplifier describes how to set the frequency response of the preamplifier to match a 3-dB
frequency that is either measured or found on a data sheet. As a further example, suppose the desired BER for a
particular receiver is 10
-12
; the corresponding value of Q can be easily determined from tables to be approximately 7.
Once the value of Q is known, some further design guidelines can be established. One parameter that is often found on
photoreceiver data sheets is the sensitivity or, more accurately, the minimum average received power. If we neglect
noise terms that depend explicitly on the signal level (usually a good assumption), this quantity can be approximated as:

2
1
1
n
i
r
r Q
P |
.
|
\
|
=
Here, r is the extinction ratio of the signal, namely I
0
/I
1
. Thus, if the BER (and hence Q), the detector responsivity, the
signal extinction ratio, and the receiver sensitivity are known, it is possible to estimate the standard deviation of the noise
that is needed to model such a device.
Test Function
A number of spectral responses are available as test functions, selected with test_output. The exact format for the
display of the response functions is controlled with test_display. The available settings for test_output and their
meanings are elec_filter_spectrum (electrical filter response function), photodetector_resp (photodetector response
function), front_end_resp (amplifier response function), cumulative_resp (combined response of the detector, amplifier
and filter) and noise_spectrum (thermal noise spectrum of the amplifier).
References
[1] B. E. A. Saleh and M. C. Teich, Fundamentals of Photonics. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
1991.
[2] M. E. Van Valkenberg, Analog Filter Design. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1982.
[3] M. Jeruchim, P. Balaban, and K. Shanmugan, Simulation of Communication Systems. New York, NY:
Plenum Press, 1994.
[4] Optical Fiber Telecommunications II., ed. S. E. Miller and I. P. Kaminow, chapters 14 and 18. Academic
Press, 1988.
[5] N. A. Olsson, Lightwave systems with optical amplifiers, IEEE Journal of Lightwave Technology, vol. 7,
no. 7, pp. 1071-1082, 1989.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical signal
Outputs
Parameter Values

n_representation enumerated QA QA, MC
pd_APD_Multiplier double 1.0 [ 1, 1e32 ] none
pd_ionizationCoef double 1.0 [ 0, 1 ] none
pd_QEmethod enumerated Defined Defined, Computed
pd_quantumEff double 0.8 [ 0, 1 ] none
pd_absorptionCoeff double 0.68e6 [ 0, 1e32 ] 1/m
pd_layerThickness double 0.5e-6 [ 0, 1e32 ] m
pd_reflectivity double 0.04 [ 0, 1 ] none
pd_detect enumerated false false, true
pd_modeltype enumerated empirical empirical, intrinsic
pd_loadResistance double 50.0 [ 0, 1e32 ] Ohms
pd_seriesResistanc
e
double 5.0 [ 0, 1e32 ] Ohms
pd_deviceCapacitan
ce
double 50e-15 [ 0, 1e32 ] F
pd_electronVelocity double 6.5e6 [ 0, 1e32 ] m/s
pd_holeVelocity double 4.8e6 [ 0, 1e32 ] m/s
pd_lossGain double 0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] dB
pd_respfp double 52.259e9 [ 0, 1e32 ] Hz
pd_respfo double 25.679e9 [ 0, 1e32 ] Hz
pd_respg double 0.5874 [ 0, 1e32 ] none
pd_darkCurrent double 1e-6 [ 0, 1e32 ] A
fe_modeltype enumerated defined defined, custom
fe_filename string
fe_tZ double 1.0 [ 0, 1e18 ] Ohms
fe_zero double 0.0 [ 0, 1e18 ] Hz
fe_pole double 1e18 [ 0, 1e18 ] Hz
fe_lo_trunc enumerated extend extend, zero
fe_hi_trunc enumerated extend extend, zero
n_a0 double 5.4617e-23 [ 0, 1e32 ] A^2/Hz
n_a2 double 2.924e-43 [ 0, 1e32 ] A^2/Hz^3
n_a4 double 1.1118e-63 [ 0, 1e32 ] A^2/Hz^5
n_a6 double 0 [ 0, 1e32 ] A^2/Hz^7
flt_type enumerated LPbessel LPbessel,
LPbutterworth,
LPchebyshev, LPideal,
HPbessel,
HPbutterworth,
HPchebyshev, HPideal,
BPbessel,
BPbutterworth,
BPchebyshev, BPideal

flt_preserve_alignm enumerated YES NO, YES
ent
flt_bandwidth double 10e9 [ 0, 1e18 ] Hz
flt_order integer 4 [ 0, 128 ] none
flt_lossGain double 0.0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] dB
flt_passbandRipple double 1.0 [ 1e-15, 1e32 ] dB
flt_geometricCenter double 0.0 [ 0, 1e32 ] Hz
include_thermal enumerated YES NO, YES
include_sigshot enumerated YES NO, YES
include_darkshot enumerated YES NO, YES
include_sigspon enumerated YES NO, YES
include_sponspon enumerated YES NO, YES
include_SE_noise enumerated YES NO, YES
include_rin enumerated YES NO, YES
monte_seed integer 0 [ -1e8, 1 ] none
norm_phase_wrap,
dB_phase,
dB_phase_wrap,
real_imag

test_output enumerated elec_filter_spectrum elec_filter_spectrum,
photodetector_resp,
front_end_resp,
cumulative_resp,
noise_spectrum

General Receiver Parameters

n_representation Select quasi-analytic or Monte-Carlo treatment of noise
include_thermal Toggle inclusion of thermal noise
include_sigshot Toggle incluson of signal shot noise
include_darkshot Toggle inclusion of dark current shot noise
include_sigspon Toggle inclusion of signal-spontaneous beat noise in quasi-analytic treatment of noise
include_sponspon Toggle inclusion of spontaneous-spontaneous beat noise in quasi-analytic treatment of noise
include_SE_noise Toggle inclusion of ASE beat noise in Monte-Carlo treatment of noise
include_rin Toggle inclusion of relative intensity noise
monte_seed Random number seed for Monte-Carlo noise
test_display Format for display of response functions
test_output Select response function for display

Photodetector Parameters

pd_APD_Multiplier APD multiplier value (1.0 for PIN detector)
pd_ionizationCoef APD ionization coefficient (1.0 for PIN detector)
pd_QEmethod If Computed, the quantum efficiency is computed by the model. If Defined, the entered
value is used.
pd_quantumEff Quantum efficiency.
pd_layerThickness Thickness of the active region
pd_absorptionCoeff Absorption coefficient ()
pd_reflectivity Reflectivity at the photodiode
pd_detect If true then use a PD frequency response model, else assume it is included in front end
response
pd_modeltype intrinsic or empirical models for frequency response
pd_loadResistance Load resistance
pd_seriesResistance Series resistance
pd_deviceCapacitance Device capacitance
pd_electronVelocity Electron saturated velocity
pd_holeVelocity Hole saturated velocity
pd_lossGain Gain or loss of the photodetector response (only used if pd_detect is set true)
pd_respfp Parasitic frequency of the empirical frequency response
pd_respfo Resonance frequency of the empirical frequency response
pd_respg Gamma of the empirical frequency response fit
pd_darkCurrent Dark current for dark current noise computation

Preamplifier Parameters

fe_modeltype Select parameterized or user-defined transfer function
fe_filename Filename for user-defined transfer function
fe_tZ Transimpedance coefficient
fe_zero Single zero low frequency rolloff
fe_pole Single zero high frequency rolloff
fe_lo_trunc Low frequency truncation behavior for user-defined transfer function
fe_hi_trunc High frequency truncation behavior for user-defined transfer function

Filter Parameters

flt_type Filter type
flt_preserve_alignment Preserve alignment of incoming bits
flt_bandwidth Filter 3dB bandwidth
flt_order Geometric center frequency for bandpass filters
flt_lossGain Order of the filter
flt_passbandRipple Filter gain or loss
flt_geometricCenter Passband ripple for Chebyshev filter

Photodetector

This component models standard photodetectors either a PIN photodiode or an avalanche photodiode
converting an optical signal into an electrical current. Noise in this model is treated stochastically. For an
analytic treatment of the noise effects, refer to the monolithic receiver model.
Detection Process
This model acts as the first stage of an optical receiver assembly to convert optical signals to an electrical
current. Both PIN and avalanche photodiode (APD) type detectors can be modeled. Typically the output
of the photodiode would be connected to an electrical amplifier and then to a filter. If a BER analysis is to
be performed, at the very least an amplifier must be placed somewhere between the photodetector and BER
Tester to convert the current output of the photodetector to the voltage source expected by the BER Tester.
The quantum efficiency is a measure of the percentage of incident photons that are successfully converted
to electrons. This quantity may be input directly by the user as a parameter quantumEff; alternatively,
the user can allow OptSim to calculate the quantum efficiency internally from the user-specified absorption
layer thickness L (layerThickness), absorption coefficient (absorptionCoeff), and reflectivity of the
photosensitive area of the detector R
f
(reflectivity) according to:

( ) ( )
1 1 e
L
Q f
R
=
To input the quantum efficiency directly, set the QEmethod parameter to Defined and enter the desired
value in the quantumEff field. To have the model compute it for you, set the QEmethod parameter to
Computed and assign values to layerThickness, absorptionCoeff, and reflectivity.
Regardless of the method chosen to specify the quantum efficiency
Q
, the responsivity is computed as:

hc
e
Q
=
where e is the electron charge, is the wavelength of the input optical signal, h is Plancks constant, and c
is the speed of light. The responsivity has units of A/W and gives the quantity of electrical current
generated for each watt of incident optical power P . That is, the generated photocurrent obeys the square-
law relation

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
0
2 2
, ,
,
x j y j
j
I t I t N t
P t N t
E t E t N t
= +
= +
(
= + +
(

where the sum is over all optical channels in the incoming signal. (Recall that in OptSim, the square of the
electric field for an optical signal has units of Watts). The term ( ) N t includes all noise effects and is
discussed below.
In an avalanche photodiode, the photocurrent is multiplied by successive ionization and the final current is
modified to

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
0
,
I t MI t N t
M P t N t
= +
= +

where the avalanche factor M is specified with the parameter APD_Multiplier. The behavior of APD
detectors also differs in the noise response (see below).
There is no specific switch to convert from a PIN model to an APD model. Simply setting
APD_Multiplier>1, and the noise-related parameter ionizationCoefficient (see below), produces APD
behavior. Note however, that simply changing the default parameters for the APD multiplier and ionization
coefficient will not convert an optimal PIN receiver into an optimal APD receiver, as there are other
parameters which will vary between PIN receivers and APD receivers since their designs generally differ
from one another.
Frequency Response
If desired, the photodetector may be given a frequency response that acts by filtering the photocurrent
( ) I t . In most cases it may be more convenient to model the total electrical response of the receiver
assembly together in the subsequent electrical amplifier or electrical filter models. For that approach, set
the parameter detect=false.
To control the photodetector response directly, set detect=true, and configure the modeltype
parameter to use one of the following frequency responses. This may be useful, for example, if the
photodetector is simply connected to a 50 amplifier.
Intrinsic Response (modeltype=intrinsic)
The frequency response is described by:

( )
( ) ( )
e h
/ 20
-j -j
1 1
10
0 1 1 e
1 e e e 1 1-e 1 e e
e e
e h
G
L
d s p
j j L L
L L
e e h h
i
i j R R C
j L j j L j

| |
| |
=
|
|
|
+ +
\ .
\ .
| |
+ + +
|
+
\ .

In this formulation, the electron and hole transit times are given by
e
= L/v
e
and
h
= L/v
h
, C
p

is the parasitic capacitance of the photodetector, R
d
is the load resistance, R
s
is the series
resistance, and the other symbols are as previously defined. The user should enter values for
seriesResistance, loadResistance, deviceCapacitance, electronVelocity, holeVelocity,
layerThickness and absorptionCoeff and lossGain (G).
Empirical Response (modeltype=empirical)
The response is described by:

( )
( )
( )
/ 20
2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2
0 0
10 1
0
1 /
1 / 4 /
G
p
i
i
f f
f f f f
(
(
=
(
+
+ (

where G ,
p
f ,
0
f and are empirically determined by the user and supplied to the model in
the form of the parameters lossGain, respfp, respfo and respg, respectively. The response
can be multiplied by a gain or loss constant by setting the lossGain parameter to a nonzero
value. This representation is particularly useful when the inductance of the bond wire
dominates the photodetector response. In this situation, the frequency response is often
modeled as the second order response depicted above.
Noise Response
The photodetector model allows modeling of the following noise effects: shot noise of the signal, shot noise
associated with the dark current of the device, RIN noise and both signal-spontaneous and spontaneous-
spontaneous beat noises. Each of these effects may be separately disabled or enabled with the parameters
include_sigshot, include_darkshot, include_rin and include_SE_noise respectively.
In this model, all these noise sources appear as stochastic terms added directly to the sampled electrical
signal. The monolithic receiver model should be used if an analytic treatment of noise is desired, (typically
to use the Quasi-Analytic approach to bit error estimation).
Spontaneous Emission Noises
The two spontaneous emission noise effects signal-spontaneous (sig-spon) and spontaneous-spontaneous
(spon-spon) beat noise arise from the action of the square law detection mixing the deterministic signal and
random noise. When include_SE_noise=YES, before applying the square-law detection to generate the
photocurrent, the model first converts any power in ASE noise bins in the optical signal into a stochastic
time series which is added to the sampled optical signal. (See the NoiseAdder documentation for details on
this procedure). The spontaneous emission noises thus arise naturally in the detection calculation. Note
that any ASE power outside the simulation bandwidth of the sampled signal is dropped. Since an electrical
filter with a bandwidth narrower than the simulation bandwidth will normally be included later in the
topology, this is not a significant restriction.
Due to the direct inclusion of ASE as stochastic noise, it is not possible to separately control the inclusion
of sig-spon and spon-spon noise.
Other Noise Sources
The remaining noise sources (shot noise, dark current shot noise and RIN), are treated by calculating noise
variances for each effect and then adding a Gaussian random variable to each sample of the photocurrent:
( )
2 2 2
shot dark RIN
i i
N t i i i = + + ,
where
i
is a Gaussian random variable of zero mean and unit variance. The seed for the random variable
is set with random_seed. This variable obeys the standard OptSim convention for the meanings of
negative, zero and unity seeds. Since the spectrum of each noise source is assumed to be white (a
reasonable approximation for electrical bandwidths), it is necessary to choose an effective bandwidth for
the noises. In each case the effective bandwidth is taken to be the numerical one-sided bandwidth
( )
eff
1/ 2 B t = , where t is the sampling rate. Below we give the expressions for each noise variance
and the associated spectral density functions ( ) S f . The two are related through the expression

eff
2
0
( )
B
n n
i S f df =

Shot noise
The shot noise derives from the random distribution in arrival times of photons at the
photodetector. The expressions are
( ) ( ) ( )
2
shot eff
2 2 i qI t B S f qI t = =
where q is the charge on the electron. Note that the noise variance depends on the
photocurrent, but that for electrical frequencies the noise can be considered locally white.
Dark current noise
The dark current noise is shot noise associated with leakage currents in the active region of
the photodetector which flow even in the absence of incident optical poser, and is described
by
( )
2 2 2
dark dark eff dark
2 2 i qI M FB S f qI M F = = .
Here the (time-independent) dark current
dark
I is entered as the parameter dark_current. For
PIN diodes, both M and F are unity. For an APD, M is again the multiplier factor, while
) 1 2 )( 1 ( M k kM F + =
is an excess noise factor associated with the ratio / k = of the electron and hole
ionization coefficients. The ratio k is determined by ionizationCoef.
RIN
The RIN variance is given by
( )
2 2 2 2 2
RIN RIN eff RIN RIN
( ) ( ) i M FI N B S f M FI N = =
where
RIN
N is the RIN parameter specified in the source models.
Test function
The model's test functions displays the current frequency response of the detector if detect=true. The
format for display of the complex response can be controlled through test_display.
References
[1] B. E. A. Saleh and M. C. Teich, Fundamentals of Photonics. New York, NY: John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., 1991.
[3] M. Jeruchim, P. Balaban, and K. Shanmugan, Simulation of Communication Systems. New
York, NY: Plenum Press, 1994.
[4] Optical Fiber Telecommunications II., ed. S. E. Miller and I. P. Kaminow, chapters 14 and 18.
Academic Press, 1988.
[5] N. A. Olsson, Lightwave systems with optical amplifiers IEEE Journal of Lightwave
Technology, vol. 7, no. 7, pp. 1071-1082, 1989.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical signal
Outputs
Parameter Values

APD_Multiplier double 1.0 [ 1, 1e32 ] none
ionizationCoef double 1.0 [ 0, 1 ] none
QEmethod enumerated Defined Defined, Computed
quantumEff double 0.8 [ 0, 1 ] none
absorptionCoeff double 0.68e6 [ 0, 1e32 ] 1/m
layerThickness double 0.5e-6 [ 0, 1e32 ] m
reflectivity double 0.04 [ 0, 1 ] none
detect enumerated false false, true
modeltype enumerated empirical empirical, intrinsic
loadResistance double 50.0 [ 0, 1e32 ] Ohms
seriesResistance double 5.0 [ 0, 1e32 ] Ohms
deviceCapacitanc
e
double 50e-15 [ 0, 1e32 ] F
electronVelocity double 6.5e6 [ 0, 1e32 ] m/s
holeVelocity double 4.8e6 [ 0, 1e32 ] m/s
lossGain double 0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] dB
respfp double 52.259e9 [ 0, 1e32 ] Hz
respfo double 25.679e9 [ 0, 1e32 ] Hz
respg double 0.5874 [ 0, 1e32 ] none
darkCurrent double 1e-6 [ 0, 1e32 ] A
include_sigshot enumerated YES NO, YES
include_darkshot enumerated YES NO, YES
include_SE_noise enumerated YES NO, YES
include_rin enumerated YES NO, YES
random_seed integer 0 [ -1e8, 1 ] none
norm_phase_wrap,
dB_phase,
dB_phase_wrap,
real_imag

APD_Multiplier APD multiplier value (1.0 for PIN detector)
ionizationCoef APD ionization coefficient (1.0 for PIN detector)
QEmethod If Computed, the quantum efficiency is computed by the model. If Defined, the
quantum efficiency defined above is used instead.
quantumEff Quantum efficiency.
layerThickness Thickness of the active region
absorptionCoeff Absorption coefficient ()
reflectivity Reflectivity at the photodiode
detect If true then use a PD frequency response model, else assume it is included in front end
response
modeltype intrinsic or empirical models for frequency response
loadResistance Load resistance
seriesResistance Series resistance
deviceCapacitance Device capacitance
electronVelocity Electron saturated velocity
holeVelocity Hole saturated velocity
lossGain Gain or loss of the photodetector response (only used if pd_detect is set true)
respfp Parasitic frequency of the empirical frequency response
respfo Resonance frequency of the empirical frequency response
respg Gamma of the empirical frequency response fit
darkCurrent Dark current for dark current noise computation
include_sigshot Enable/disable optical shot noise
include_darkshot Enable/disable dark current shot noise
include_SE_noise Enable/disable spontaneous emission noise from ASE spectrum
include_rin Enable/disable RIN noise
random_seed Seed for random number generation for noise sources
test_display Display format for test function of photodetector response

OptSim Models Reference: Block Mode Chapter 10: Analyzers 309
Chapter 10: Analyzers
This chapter describes a variety of optical and electrical signal analyzers.

Interior Property Map
plot the evolution of a number of quantities inside a sequence of fibers
Property Map
plot dispersion and power maps along a fiber link
Optical Monitor
plot a number of standard properties of an optical signal
Gain/NF Analyzer
measure gain and noise figure for a pair of optical signal
Polarization Monitor
measure a number of polarization state related properties of an optical signal
Optical Eye Analyzer
plot a number of parameters related to noise, waveform and eye diagram of an optical signal
Bit Error Rate Tester
compute BER, Q-factor and eye properties of an electrical signal
X-Y Plotter
produce X-Y plots by combining outputs from scanning-aware model blocks
Signal Analyzer
display signal waveforms
Constellation Diagram Analyzer
plot constellation diagram of a signal
Eye Diagram Analyzer
plot eye diagram of a signal
Signal Spectrum Analyzer
plot spectrum of a signal
Optical Frequency/Wavelength Chirp Analyzer
plot chirp of an optical signal
310 Chapter 10: Analyzers OptSim Models Reference: Block Mode
Optical Autocorrelator Analyzer
characterize ultra-short pulses
Multiplot
create and recreate multiple plots with different settings
Transfer Function
plot tranfer function (frequency response) of component(s) under test
Interior Property Map

This model produces plots of the evolution of a number of quantities inside a sequence of fibers. The
model is closely related to the Property Map. That model measures the accumulated dispersion and/or
optical power at the output of a series of fibers or other components and assembles them into a map of
dispersion or power as a function of distance. However, as the Property Map only has access to the optical
signals that are output from each component, it is unable to resolve the evolution of any properties within a
particular fiber. Since in many systems, interesting pulse evolution can occur within a single fiber span it is
important to be able to visualize this evolution. This is the function of the Interior Property Map.
Model Usage
Figure 1 shows a topology employing an Interior Property Map to generate the power map in Figure 2.
This topology is identical to the example shown in the documentation for the Property Map but with the
Interior Property Map replacing the Property Map icon. Note the unusual feature that the Interior Property
Map has no input or output nodes and is not connected to any other components. In fact the fibers in the
link and the Interior Property Map communicate through access to a common data file specified by the
user. This is necessary since as stated above, the optical signals emerging from the fibers do not
themselves contain sufficient information to construct the map within each fiber. In this case there are two
input signals and the generated maps contain traces for each signal. The output in Figure 2 should be
compared to the corresponding figure in the standard Property Map documentation. The present map
shows the same periodic amplification and gradual transfer of energy from the short wavelength channel to
the long wavelength channel, but also resolves the exponential decay of optical power within each fiber.

Figure 1: Topology demonstrating use of Interior Property Map

Figure 2: Interior power map generated from Figure 1
To force a fiber to generate the output needed to produce an interior map, the user specifies a filename for
the fiber parameter physpropFilename, which is available in both the Nonlinear Fiber and Bidirectional
Fiber models. The same filename is entered for the physpropFilename parameter of the Interior Property
Map. The fibers write to this file during the simulation, and the file is then read and analyzed by the
Interior Property Map at the conclusion of the simulation. Since the parameter name physpropFilename is
the same for both the fibers and the Interior Property Map, it can be conveniently set for all the components
at once, by using the mouse to select all the fibers and the map and using the Selective Multi-Component
Parameter Edit feature under the Edit menu. If the topology contains several separate links, multiple
interior maps can be generated by adding additional Interior Map icons and using separate filenames for
each set of fibers and map.
Available Maps
The model can produce maps of the optical power, pulse position, pulse width, and bandwidth as
determined by the parameters PowerMap, PositionMap, WidthMap, WidthFWHMMap, and
BandwidthMap. There is no option to produce dispersion maps since, as the dispersion is constant in any
fiber, the standard Property Map model handles this case completely.
The optical power option measures the total optical power in each signal, neglecting any ASE noise carried
in noise bins. The pulse position
0
x and pulse width are defined by the following equations:

( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2
2
0
0
2
2
0
2
2 2
0
0
2
2
2
0
1/ 2
2
dt
dt
dt
dt
T
x y
T
x y
T
x y
T
x y
t E E
t
E E
t t E E
t
E E
t
+
=
+
+
=
+
=

where is a scale factor explained in a moment. These definitions are really only useful for simulations
involving a single pulse for instance studying the evolution of a pulse produced by the ModeLocked
Laser in single-pulse (pattern=Single) mode.
The scale factor (parameter widthScaling) allows the second moment width
1/ 2
2
t to a number of other
width measures which may be more useful. For example, if the pulse is known to be Gaussian in shape,
then with widthScaling=gaussianFWHM, the model plots the FWHM width, while the standard pulse
width
0
for the pulse amplitude
( ) ( )
2 2
0
exp / 2 t is obtained with widthScaling=gaussianTau.
In full, the conversion factors are as follows:
second moment width (widthScaling=unity)
1 =
Gaussian FWHM (widthScaling=gaussianFWHM)
2 2log 2 =
Gaussian width (widthScaling=gaussianTau)
2 =
sech FWHM (widthScaling=sechFWHM)

( ) ( )
4 3 / log 1 2 = +
sech width (widthScaling=sechTau)
2 3 / =
If the pulse is neither Gaussian nor sech-like in shape, the setting widthScaling=unity may be most
appropriate.
Scanning
If the Interior Property Map is used in a scanning simulation then it must be attached to the output of the
last fiber being monitored. This causes the map to be called at the end of each scan rather than once at the
end of the simulation. If this is not done, the output from all the iterations will be combined in a single plot
and appear very confusing.
Display Parameters
The parameters DistanceUnits, PowerUnits and TimeUnits control the units used for the display of the
various quantities. The output file prefix can be altered with the optional value FilenameRoot, while Plot
controls whether plots are suppressed, saved or automatically displayed.
Properties
Inputs
None
Outputs
None
Parameter Values

physpropFilena
me
string
FilenameRoot string
PowerMap enumerated Yes No, Yes
PositionMap enumerated No No, Yes
WidthMap enumerated No No, Yes
WidthFWHMMap enumerated No No, Yes
BandwidthMap enumerated No No, Yes
widthScaling enumerated gaussianFWHM unity,
gaussianFWHM,
gaussianTau,
sechFWHM, sechTau

DistanceUnits enumerated m m, km, Mm
PowerUnits enumerated dBm uW, mW, W, dBm
TimeUnits enumerated s fs, ns, ps, us, ms, s
Plot enumerated Save No, Save, Display


physpropFilename
Shared file for data output by fiber models
FilenameRoot
Filename root for output files
PowerMap
Toggle calculation of power map
PositionMap
Toggle calculation of positionmap
WidthMap
Toggle calculation of width map
WidthFWHMMap
Toggle calculation of width FWHM map
BandwidthMap
Toggle calculation of bandwidth map
widthScaling
Scaling factor for width measure
DistanceUnits
Distance units in output plots
PowerUnits
Power units in output plots
TimeUnits
Time units in output plots (for position and width)
Plot
Suppress, save or automatically display plots

Property Map

This model produces maps of dispersion and power along a fiber link.
Frequently we construct links consisting of a series of fibers and amplifiers and it is useful to monitor the
power evolution along the link. In addition, the dispersion in the fibers comprising the link often varies
from span to span in order to provide dispersion compensation or dispersion management. This model
allows the current power and dispersion at the output of any component to be recorded and output as a map
along the link.
Model Usage
Figure 1 shows a topology containing two sources direct modulated lasers driven by a PRBS source
multiplexed into a link containing a series of fibers and amplifiers. The link includes a repetition loop.
A number of the optical components along the link are connected to the Property Map block at the top
right. After running the simulation, the Property Map produces the plots shown in Figure 2 maps of
accumulated dispersion and optical power as a function of distance. The accumulated dispersion in a fiber
is defined as the product ( )
2 0
L , where ( )
2 0
is the second order dispersion at the center
frequency of the optical signal and L is the fiber length.
In each map, a separate trace is produced for each optical channel. (Though see the section on Limitations
below for restrictions related to Single-Band mode). For this example, the dispersion map indicates a
sequence of normal and anomalous dispersion spans. The accumulated dispersion of each channel differs
due to cubic dispersion. The power map shows the attenuation in each fiber followed by gain in the
amplifiers. In this example, the long wavelength channel slowly increases in power at the expense of the
short wavelength channel due to Raman interactions.
Note that there is no significance to the order of inputs to the Property Map block the first component in a
link need not be connected to the first input port of the block. The Property Map automatically sorts the
incoming signals on the basis of propagation distance.
Model Parameters
The creation of the maps may be controlled separately through the parameters DispersionMap, PowerMap,
WidthMap, WidthFWHMMap, and BandwidthMap, and the units for display of each quantity are controlled
with DispersionUnits, PowerUnits, TimeUnits, DistanceUnits, and FrequencyUnits. As for other plot
blocks, the root filename is set with FilenameRoot, and the plots may be displayed automatically or
suppressed altogether with Plot.

Figure 1. Topology demonstrating use of power and dispersion maps.

Figure 2. Dispersion and power maps generated from Figure 3.

Scanning Behavior
For simulations using inner, outer or statistical scanning, separate traces are generated for each trace if
iteration meta-prefixes are entered in the main scan dialog. No plots are produced if the meta-prefixes are
empty.
Limitations
Currently, the maps contain one trace for each optical signal in the link, as opposed to one for each optical
channel. The dispersion is measured at the center wavelength of the optical signal, and the power is the
total power of the whole optical signal. This gives the expected behavior for several channels in Multi-
Band representation. For a series of channels represented in Single-Band mode however, only a single
trace is shown representing the dispersion at the center wavelength or the total power in all the channels.
For the dispersion map, this limitation can be overcome by converting the multiplexers to multi-band mode
and repeating the simulation (with a low sampling rate if desired for speed). However, since four wave
mixing influences the power evolution, it is not possible to generate correct individual power traces for
each channel in Single-Band mode.
There are complications in connecting components within a repetition loop to a property map block. The
map block should receive inputs from components inside at most one repetition loop, and should not
receive inputs from any block after a repetition loop. Such a configuration may produce a map that is
clearly incorrect. This is because the block is never called until all its input components have been called
once.
These limitations will be removed in future versions of OptSim.
Properties
Inputs
#1 - #512: Optical Signal
Outputs
None
Parameter Values

FilenameRoot string
DispersionMap enumerated No No, Yes
PowerMap enumerated Yes No, Yes
WidthMap enumerated No No, Yes
WidthFWHMMap enumerated No No, Yes
BandwidthMap enumerated No No, Yes
DistanceUnits enumerated m m, km, Mm
DispersionUnits enumerated ps/nm ps/nm, ps^2
PowerUnits enumerated dBm uW, mW, W, dBm
TimeUnits enumerated s fs, ps, ns, us, ms, s
FrequencyUnits enumerated Hz Hz, GHz, THz


FilenameRoot Filename root for output files
DispersionMap Toggle calculation of dispersion map
PowerMap Toggle calculation of power map
WidthMap Toggle calculation of pulse width map
WidthFWHMMap Toggle calculation of pulse FWHM map
BandwidthMap Toggle calculation of bandwidth map
DistanceUnits Units for display of accumulated distance
DispersionUnits Units for display of accumulated dispersion map
PowerUnits Units for display of power map
TimeUnits Units for display of time
FrequencyUnits Units for display of frequency
Plot Suppress, save or automatically display plots
Electrical Monitor

This model provides the facility to measure the average power of an electrical signal. The results may be
displayed in several forms as a detailed table containing full statistical information, or as plots showing
the dependence of the power on scanned parameters. Moreover, if the model is given an output port, the
collected information can be passed to the XY-Plotter model to be combined with data from another point
in the topology. In this way, it is possible to easily generate plots showing the dependence of any quantity
on any other.
Model Use
The Average Power measurement is activated with the parameter AverageElectricalPower, whose options
are None, Local, NonLocal and Both. When this parameter is set to Local, the power is calculated and
reported both in a combined table (with filename ending table.txt) and in plot form (with filename
ending .txt). When the parameter is set to NonLocal and the model has an output port connected to an
XY-Plotter, data is not presented locally but is passed to the XY-Plotter for constructing plots with data
from elsewhere in the topology. The user should consult the XY-Plotter documentation and Chapter 5 of
the User Manual Scanning Facilities for further details. The setting Both both exports the data to the
plotter and generates the local table and plot.
Support for Scanning
This model fully supports OptSim's scanning capabilities. When a simulation is launched using the scan
dialog, the Electrical Monitor automatically produces plots showing the measured quantities for the entire
scan. On the local plots, the inner scan variable appears as the x-axis, and if an outer scan variable is used, a
series of curves is produced, one for each value of the outer scan variable. Using the XY-Plotter the user
can produce plots in which any measurable quantity appears on the x-axis.
The table output lists the results for every iteration. For statistical simulations the table output also reports
the mean, maximum, minimum and standard deviation of each quantity.
The parameter StatisticalPlotMode controls whether plots show any or all of the mean (Average),
maximum (Maximum), minimum (Minimum), standard-deviation (Std.Dev.), or most recent (Latest) results.
This parameter can also be set to StatRun in order to display the detailed statistical variation of the results.
Setting this parameter to All requests that all statistical plots be created.
Measurement Definitions
We now provide the precise definition of the Average Electrical Power.
Average Electrical Power (parameter AverageElectricalPower)
2
0
1
( )
T
ave
P s t dt
T
=

where the electrical signal s(t) is either in units of volts or amperes, and the power is
calculated across a unity load. The units for display are controlled with the parameter
PowerUnits.
Properties
Inputs
Outputs
#1: Measurand Signal
Parameter Values
AverageElectricalPower enumerated None None, Local,
NonLocal, Both

PowerUnits enumerated W W, dBm
SaveOrDisplayPlots enumerated Save Save, Display
StatisticalPlotMode enumerated Latest Average, Minimum,
Maximum, Std.Dev.,
Latest, StatRun, All

AverageElectricalPower Toggle calculation of average electrical power
PowerUnits Units for power measurement
SaveOrDisplayPlots Save plots to file or display automatically
StatisticalPlotMode Select statistic for display in plots
Optical Monitor

This model provides the facility to measure a number of standard properties of an optical signal,
specifically Average Optical Power (a Power Meter), Total NoisePower, Center Frequency, Averaged
Stokes Parameters, Optical Signal to Noise Ratio, and Pulse Position.
The results may be displayed in several forms as a detailed table containing full statistical information, or
as plots showing the dependence of the properties on scanned parameters. Moreover, if the model is given
an output port, the collected information can be passed to the XY-Plotter model to be combined with data
from another point in the topology, either another Optical Monitor or else BERTester or
OpticalEyeAnalyzer data. In this way, it is possible to easily generate plots showing the dependence of any
quantity on any other.
The Optical Monitor only accepts single-channel optical inputs contained within a single optical signal.
Thus, multi-channel signals should be represented in Single-Band mode, and must first be separated using a
demultiplexing component.
Model Use
The physical properties available are activated with the parameters OpticalPower, NoisePower,
CenterFreq, FreqShift, Stokes, OpticalSNR, and Position. Each of these parameters has the settings
None, Local, NonLocal and Both. When a parameter is set to Local, that quantity is calculated and reported
both in a combined table (with filename ending table.txt) and in plot form (with filename ending
.txt). When a parameter is set to NonLocal and the model has an output port connected
to an XY-Plotter, data is not presented locally but is passed to the XY-Plotter for constructing plots with
data from elswhere in the topology. The user should consult the XY-Plotter documentation and Chapter 5
of the User Manual Scanning Facilities for further details. The setting Both both exports the data to the
plotter and generates the local table and plot.
dialog, the Optical Monitor automatically produces plots showing the physical properties for the entire
scan. On the local plots, the inner scan variable appears as the x-axis, and if an outer scan variable is used,
a series of curves is produced, one for each value of the outer scan variable. Using the XY-Plotter the user
Property Definitions
We now provide the precise definitions of each the quantities available.
Average Optical Power (parameter OpticalPower)
( ) ( )
2 2
opt
0
d
T
x y
P E t E t t = +

The units for display are controlled with the parameter PowerUnits.
Total Noise Power (parameter NoisePower)
This is the summed noise spectral density in all noise bins:

( )
ASE ASE j
j
P S =

,
where
( )
ASE j
S is the spectral density in the noise bin at frequency
j
.
Center Frequency (parameter CenterFreq)
This is the weighted frequency average of the optical signal:

( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
/ 2 2 2
/ 2
/ 2 2 2
0
/ 2
d
d
c
c
c
c
x y
x y
E E
c
E E
+
= +
+
,
where
0
is the center wavelength of the optical signal and 1/
c
t = is the sampling
frequency.
Frequency Shift (parameter FreqShift)
This is simply the frequency average relative to the center frequency:

( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
/ 2 2 2
/ 2
/ 2 2 2
/ 2
d
d
c
c
c
c
x y
x y
E E
E E
+
=
+
.
Time-Averaged Stokes Parameters (parameter Stokes)
This is a three-component vector quantity of the time-averaged Stokes Parameters
( )
1 2 3
, , s s s .
The instantaneous Stokes Parameters ( )
0 1 2 3
, , , S S S S describe the polarization state of an
optical signal and are defined as:

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
2 2
0
2 2
1
* *
2
* *
3
,
,
,
.
x y
x y
x y x y
x y x y
S E t E t
S E t E t
S E t E t E t E t
S i E t E t E t E t
= +
=
= +
=

These quantities describe the location of the polarization state on the Poincare Sphere and
satisfy a relation
2 2 2
0 1 2 3
S S S S = + + .
The polarization of the sampled optical field may vary with time. Thus it can be useful to
measure the averaged Stokes parameters defined as

( )
( )
( )
( )
0 0
0
1 1
0
0
2 2
0
0
3 3
0
0
S t d ,
1
S t d ,
1
S t d ,
1
S t d .
T
T
T
T
s t
s t
s
s t
s
s t
s
=
=
=
=

For these parameters we have the relation
2 2 2
1 2 3
1, s s s + + with equality only when the
polarization state is constant in time. Thus the averaged Stokes vectors provide a measure
both of the character of the polarization state and its constancy.
Optical Signal to Noise Ratio (parameter OpticalSNR)
The Optical SNR is defined as

( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
0
0
0 0
0 0
/ 2
sig
/ 2
/ 2 / 2
sig ASE sig ASE
/ 2 / 2
d
1
d d
2
sig
sig
sig sig nse
sig nse sig
P
OSNR
P P P P

+
+ +
+
=
(
( ( + + +

(

,
where
0
(OSNR_f0) is the center frequency of the signal,

sig

(OSNR_DeltafSig) is the
nominal bandwidth of the signal,
nse
(OSNR_DeltafNse) is the sampling bandwidth of the
noise, while ( )
sig
P and ( )
ASE
P are the power spectral density of the signal and noise
bins respectively. A negative value for OSNR_f0 causes the center frequency of the channel
to be used for
0
.
This definition is better understood with reference to the spectrum Figure 1. The signal power
is measured over a central bandwidth
sig
, and the noise is integrated over the adjacent
frequency bands of width
nse
.

Figure 1. Optical SNR integration bandwidths
The user may also control aspects of the calculation of the signal power spectral density ( )
sig
P . It turns
out that the simple definition
( ) ( )
2
sig j j
P E = , where
( )
j
E is the Discrete Fourier Transform of
the sampled electrical field is not an ideal estimator for the power spectral density [1]. In particular, with
this definition the variance in the spectral density at any given frequency does not decrease with an increase
in the number or rate of samples. Improvements in the variance can be made by both undersampling the
frequency data and applying a window function to the sampled data before the DFT is performed. The
maximum number of frequency components in the calculated spectral density is given by
M=2OSNR_SubSamples. If the original DFT contains additional components, the spectral density is
obtained with an overlap-add averaging method [1]. The window function is selected with
OSNR_FFTWindow. See Ref. [1] for the definitions of the window functions. The default settings of
these parameters should normally be appropriate.

Pulse Position (Parameter Position)
The pulse position is defined as the mean position of the integrated optical energy in the
signal:
2 .
2
2
0
2 .
2
2
0
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
n
n
T
x y
T
x y
t E t E t dt
t
E t E t dt
| |
+
|
\ .
=
| |
+
|
\ .

where 2
n
is number of bits in the bit sequence, and T is the bit duration.
References
[1] W. H. Press, S. A. Teukolsky, W. T. Vetterling and B. P. Flannery, Numerical Recipes in C, Chapter
13, (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK, 1995).
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical Signal
Outputs
Parameter Values

OpticalPower enumerated None None, Local,
NonLocal, Both

PowerUnits enumerated dBm dBm, W, mW, uW
NoisePower enumerated None None, Local,
NonLocal, Both

CenterFreq enumerated None None, Local,
NonLocal, Both

FreqShift enumerated None None, Local,
NonLocal, Both

Stokes enumerated None None, Local,
NonLocal, Both

OpticalSNR enumerated None None, Local,
NonLocal, Both

Position enumerated None None, Local,
NonLocal, Both

OSNR_f0 double -1 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] Hz
OSNR_DeltafSig double 50e9 [ 0, 1e32 ] Hz
OSNR_DeltafNse double 25e9 [ 0, 1e32 ] Hz
OSNR_SubSamples integer 9 [ 1, 18 ] 2^n
OSNR_FFTWindow enumerated Bartlett None, Bartlett, Hann,
Welch

Maximum, Std.Dev.,

OpticalPower Toggle calculation of Optical Power
PowerUnits Units for Optical Power
NoisePower Toggle calculation of Noise Power
CenterFreq Toggle calculation of Center Frequency
FreqShift Toggle calculation of Frequency Shift
Stokes Toggle calculation of Stoke parameters
OSNR Toggle calculation of Optical SNR
OSNR_f0 Signal frequency for OSNR.
OSNR_DeltafSig Signal bandwidth for OSNR
OSNR_DeltafNse Noise integration bandwidth for OSNR.
OSNR_SubSamples Number of samples in power spectral density
OSNR_FFTWindow Window function for power spectral density

Gain/NF Analyzer

Given a pair of optical signals, this model provides the facility to measure the Gain and Noise Figure. The
models top input port corresponds to an output signal, and the bottom input port corresponds to an input
signal. For example, the input signal could be the signal launched down a chain of optical amplifiers, and
the output signal could be the amplified result. The measurements may be displayed in several forms as a
detailed table containing full statistical information, or as plots showing the dependence of the properties
on scanned parameters. Moreover, if the model is given an output port, the collected information can be
passed to the XY-Plotter model to be combined with data from another point in the topology. In this way, it
is possible to easily generate plots showing the dependence of any quantity on any other. The Gain/NF
Analyzer only accepts single-channel optical signals at identical center frequencies. Multi-channel signals
should be represented in Single-Band mode, and must first be separated using a demultiplexing component.
Model Use
The Gain and Noise Figure measurements are activated with the parameters Gain and NF. Each of these
parameters has the settings None, Local, NonLocal and Both. When a parameter is set to Local, that
quantity is calculated and reported both in a combined table (with filename ending table.txt) and in
plot form (with filename ending .plc). When a parameter is set to NonLocal and the model has an output
port connected to an XY-Plotter, data is not presented locally but is passed to the XY-Plotter for
constructing plots with data from elsewhere in the topology. The user should consult the XY-Plotter
documentation and Chapter 5 of the User Manual Scanning Facilities for further details. The setting
Both both exports the data to the plotter and generates the local table and plot.
Note that the units of the measured data can be selected via the parameter Gain_NF_Units.
dialog, the Gain/NF Analyzer automatically produces plots showing the measured quantities for the entire
scan. On the local plots, the inner scan variable appears as the x-axis, and if an outer scan variable is used, a
series of curves is produced, one for each value of the outer scan variable. Using the XY-Plotter the user
Gain/NF Definitions
We now provide the precise definitions of the Gain and Noise Figure.
Gain (parameter Gain)
The total powers of the input (P
in
) and output (P
out
) signals are measured, and the resulting
gain is calculated as P
out
/P
in
.
Noise Figure (parameter NF)
The Noise Figure (NF) is calculated based on the calculated Gain (G), and the input (
ASE,in
)
and output (
ASE,out
) ASE spectral densities at the signal center frequency [1]:
,
,
1
1
1
ASE out
ASE in
G h
NF
h
(
+
(

=
(
+
(

References
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical Signal
#2: Optical Signal
Outputs
Parameter Values
Gain enumerated None None, Local,
NonLocal, Both

NF enumerated None None, Local,
NonLocal, Both

Gain_NF_Units enumerated dB dB, linear
Maximum, Std.Dev.,

Gain Toggle calculation of Gain
NF Toggle calculation of Noise Figure
Gain_NF_Units Units for Gain/NF measurements

Polarization Monitor

This model provides the facility to measure a number of polarization state related properties of an optical
signal, specifically Differential Group Delay (DGD), Degree Of Polarization, Averaged Stokes Parameters
and Instantaneous Stokes Parameters.
from another point in the topology, either another Polarization Monitor or else Optical Monitor, BERTester
or OpticalEyeAnalyzer data. In this way, it is possible to easily generate plots showing the dependence of
any quantity on any other.
The model also allows plotting Stokes parameters of an optical signal on Poincare Sphere.
The Polarization Monitor only accepts single-channel optical inputs. Multi-Channel signals must first be
separated using a demultiplexing component.
Model Use
The physical properties available are activated with the parameters DGD, DegreeOfPolarization, and
AverageStokes. Each of these parameters has the settings None, Local, NonLocal and Both. When a
parameter is set to Local, that quantity is calculated and reported both in a combined table (with filename
ending table.txt) and in plot form (with filename ending .txt). When a parameter is set to
NonLocal and the model has an output port connected to an XY-Plotter, data is not
presented locally but is passed to the XY-Plotter for constructing plots with data from elswhere in the
topology. The user should consult the XY-Plotter documentation and Chapter 5 of the User Manual
Scanning Facilities for further details. The setting Both both exports the data to the plotter and generates
the local table and plot.
The plot for instantaneous Stokes parameters can be activated (disabled) by setting the parameter
InstantStokes to YES (NO).
Poincare Sphere can be activated with by setting the parameter PlotPoincareSphere. This parameter has
following settings: None, AverageStokes, InstantStokes, and Both. To plot average Stokes parameters on
Poincare Sphere one has to set PlotPoincareSphere to AverageStokes and AverageStokes to Local or
Both. To plot instantaneous Stokes parameters on Poincare Sphere one has to set PlotPoincareSphere to
InstantStokes and InstantStokes to YES.
This model fully supports OptSim's scanning capabilities for the parameters defined as time-averaged.
When a simulation is launched using the scan dialog, the Polarization Monitor automatically produces plots
showing the physical properties for the entire scan. On the local plots, the inner scan variable appears as
the x-axis, and if an outer scan variable is used, a series of curves is produced, one for each value of the
outer scan variable. Using the XY-Plotter the user can produce plots in which any measurable quantity
appears on the x-axis.
Property Definitions
We now provide the precise definitions of each the quantities available.
Differential Group Delay (parameter DGD)
Differential Group Delay (DGD) shows the group delay between x- and y-polarization
components of the signal due to PMD effect and is derived as:
y x t t =
where pulse positions for x- and y-polarizations components y x t , are defined as:
=
T
y x
T
y x
y x
dt t E
dt t E t
t
0
2
,
0
2
,
,
) (
) (

Here T is total signal duration, i.e. (2
n
x T
o
) bit duration times number of bits.

Time-Averaged Stokes Parameters (parameter AverageStokes)
This is a three-component vector quantity of the time-averaged Stokes Parameters
( )
1 2 3
, , s s s .
The instantaneous Stokes Parameters ( )
0 1 2 3
, , , S S S S describe the polarization state of an
optical signal and are defined as:

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
2 2
0
2 2
1
* *
2
* *
3
,
,
,
.
x y
x y
x y x y
x y x y
S E t E t
S E t E t
S E t E t E t E t
S i E t E t E t E t
= +
=
= +
=

These quantities describe the location of the polarization state on the Poincare Sphere and
satisfy a relation
2 2 2
0 1 2 3
S S S S = + + .
The polarization of the sampled optical field may vary with time. Thus it can be useful to
measure the averaged Stokes parameters defined as

( )
( )
( )
( )
0 0
0
1 1
0
0
2 2
0
0
3 3
0
0
S t d ,
1
S t d ,
1
S t d ,
1
S t d .
T
T
T
T
s t
s t
s
s t
s
s t
s
=
=
=
=

For these parameters we have the relation
2 2 2
1 2 3
1, s s s + + with equality only when the
polarization state is constant in time. Thus the averaged Stokes vectors provide a measure
both of the character of the polarization state and its constancy.

Degree of Polarization (parameter DegreeOfPolarization)
Degree of Polarization (DOP) is a ratio of polarized portion of the signal power to total signal
power:
d unpolarize polarized
polarized
P P
P
DOP
+
=
or in terms of normalized Stokes parameters:
2
3
2
2
2
1
s s s DOP + + =
where time-averaged Stokes S
i
parameters are defined in previous section for
AverageStokes.

Instant Stokes Parameters (parameter InstantStokes)
This option will plot the normalized instantaneous Stokes Parameters ) , , (
3 2 1
s s s as a
function of time for each sample of optical filed. These parameters defined as
) ( / ) ( ) (
0
t S t S t s
i i
= (i = 1,2,3)
where definition for
i
S is given in section for AverageStokes.
Poincar Sphere Plot
This option produces a Poincare Sphere plot of the optical signal as a means of visualizing in three
dimensions the signals polarization state.
In case of the InstantStokes option, the instantaneous Stokes vector is plotted on the Poincare Sphere.
Figure 1(a) shows the example of a Poincare Sphere plot for the instantaneous Stokes vector of an optical
signal after traveling through 100 km of dispersive fiber with PMD. Each point on the surface corresponds
to the Stokes vector )) ( ), ( ), ( (
3 2 1 n n n
t s t s t s at time t = t
n.
.
In case of the AverageStokes option, only one point is depicted on the Poincare Sphere corresponding to the
time-averaged Stokes vector. However, in case of simulations with a parameter scan or statistical run each
iteration result for the averaged Stokes vector will be plotted on the Poincare Sphere. Figure 1(b) shows the
example of a Poincare Sphere plot for the average Stokes vector after a parameter scan of 100 values for
the PMD seed in a 100-km fiber span with PMD on.

(a) (b)
Figure 1. Examples of the Poincare Plot for (a) instantaneous Stokes parameters, and (b) time-averaged Stokes
parameters after parameter scan.
The Poincare Sphere Plot can be manipulated with the mouse. Left mouse click-and-hold allows the user to
rotate the Poincare Sphere, and right mouse click-and-hold allows the user to zoom in/out by moving
up/down.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical Signal
Outputs
Parameter Values

FilenameRoot String
DGD enumerated None None, Local,
NonLocal, Both

DegreeOfPolarization enumerated None None, Local,
NonLocal, Both

AverageStokes enumerated None None, Local,
NonLocal, Both

InstantStokes enumerated NO NO, YES
PlotPoincareSphere enumerated None None, AverageStokes,
InstantStokes, Both

Maximum, Std.Dev.,

FilenameRoot Root of the filename store the plot data
DGD Toggle calculation of Differential Group Delay
DegreeOfPolarization Toggle calculation of Degree of Polarization
AverageStokes Toggle calculation of time-average Stokes parameters
InstantStokes Whether to plot instant Stokes parameters or skip it
PlotPoincareSphere Whether to plot Poincare Sphere for average Stokes parameters, instant Stokes
parameters, or both
Optical Eye Analyzer

This model computes a number of useful parameters related to the noise, signal waveform, and eye diagram
of the input optical signal. These may be plotted vs. the scanned variables by this block.
There are several modes of operation in regards to the use of an input reference binary signal. When a
reference binary signal is provided at the input, the model synchronizes the input optical signal to the
corresponding original binary signal, generates eye data and performs the parameter computations. In this
mode, the analysis block accepts two inputs (one input pair) and provides no outputs to other blocks. These
two inputs are the optical signal and the reference binary signal (the transmitted binary signal for the
simulation).
If no reference input binary signal is provided, the model makes an assumption on the value of the bit at the
eye center by whether it is above or below the eye center. This mode is useful when a reference binary
signal is not available. It can be less accurate in cases where the signal is degraded to the point that the
assumption is no longer valid.
This block can be used to display a number of different plots. The plot function is used in conjunction with
the sweep dialog. If sweeping a variable, the variable name which is used as the value of the component
parameter to be swept is also used as the x axis of the plot. The user sets the start value, step value, and
stop value for the sweep range of the swept variable in the scan dialog. The block is executed in each
sweep of the simulation and builds the plots as it is swept. If two variables are being swept, then a family
of curves is plotted. If a simulation is performed without sweeping, then the selected data such as
extinction ratio is calculated and output as a single value.
There are several plot options available. The PlotAveHigh plots the average high level of the optical
signal. The PlotAveHighSteady plots the average high level of runs of high level bits. The PlotAveLow
plots the average low level of the optical signal. The PlotAveLowSteady plots the average low level of
runs of low level bits. PlotAveSig plots the total average signal value. PlotExtRatio plots the extinction
ratio of the optical signal. PlotEyeArea plots the area of the eye opening. PlotEyeCenter plots the vertical
center of the eye opening. PlotEyeHeight plots the height of the eye opening. PlotEyeWidth plots the
width of the eye opening. PlotPeakNoise plots the peak ASE noise value. PlotEyeLids option will plot
the upper and the lower lids used in finding the eye as well as the eye diagram of the signal in a separate
plot. The eye center and level are indicated by the zero values of the axes in both these plots.
For most models and simulations, the optical and electrical signals remain stored in positions in their
respective data arrays to directly correspond to the original pulse positions, and consequently to the original
bit pattern. In some models and simulations, most notably ones in which the single channel mode in the
optical multiplexer is used to simulate four wave mixing effects, these data arrays may become out of
alignment with the original bit positions. This misalignment could cause problems with the normal
operation of this model, including an inability to find an open eye in the data. To compensate for this, this
block provides the AlignBinaries option. This option aligns the binary sequences with their corresponding
incoming optical signals to maximize their correlation before beginning the computations. If a simulation
provides a poorer result than expected, and binary and optical signal plot comparisons shows a
misalignment between the optical and binary input signals, set the AlignBinaries option to compensate.
For eyes in which a 1 level falls below a 0 level for another bit, the eye is technically closed and the normal
eye detection algorithm is replaced with a modified algorithm called the average eye method. This
algorithm uses the average 1 level and average 0 level of each of the bits to determine the eye opening.
When this happens, a message is given to warn the user that there is a closure in the eye somewhere in the
bit stream. When the eye is too completely closed, the routine may report that the eye diagram could not be
found. When this occurs, the bit error rate is reported as 1. To diagnose these problems, the user may
select the options to plot the eye lids and plot the signals.
Even when there is no open eye, or the input signals are not binary, results which do not depend on binary
sequences such as the PlotPeakNoise and PlotAveSig will still produce good results.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical signal
#2: Binary signal
Outputs
None
Parameter Values

FilenameRoot string
AlignBinaries enumerated NO NO, YES
preBits integer 2 [ 0, 1e8 ] none
postBits integer 3 [ 0, 1e8 ] none
decisionLevelSel
ection
enumerated Automatic Automatic, Defined
decisionLevel double 0 [ -1000, 1000 ] V
showOffsets enumerated NO NO, YES
ISI_Bits integer 0 [ 0, 8 ] none
bitsPerLine integer 0 [ 0, 10000000 ] none
StatisticalPlotMo
de
enumerated All Average, Minimum,
Maximum, Std.Dev.,

SaveOrDisplayPl
ots
enumerated Save Save, Display
SaveAllData enumerated YES NO, YES
PlotEyeHeight enumerated None None, Local,
NonLocal, Both

PlotEyeWidth enumerated None None, Local,
NonLocal, Both

PlotEyeCenter enumerated None None, Local,
NonLocal, Both

PlotEyeArea enumerated None None, Local,
NonLocal, Both

PlotEyeClosure enumerated None None, Local,
NonLocal, Both

PlotAveHigh enumerated None None, Local,
NonLocal, Both

PlotAveLow enumerated None None, Local,
NonLocal, Both

PlotAveSig enumerated None None, Local,
NonLocal, Both

PlotPeakNoise enumerated None None, Local,
NonLocal, Both

PlotAveHighStea
dy
enumerated None None, Local,
NonLocal, Both

PlotAveLowStea
dy
enumerated None None, Local,
NonLocal, Both

PlotExtRatio enumerated None None, Local,
NonLocal, Both

PlotEyeLids enumerated NO NO, YES
ContourEyes enumerated NO NO, YES


AlignBinaries Whether to align the input binary signals with the optical signals such that their
correlation is maximized before performing computations
FilenameRoot Base of the filename used to store the results
StatisticalPlotMode Which value to plot during statistical simulation iterations: average, minimum,
maximum, or latest of all statistical simulation runs
PlotExtRatio Whether to plot the extinction ratio curves or not
PlotPeakNoise Whether to plot the peak ASE noise value curves or not
PlotAveHigh Whether to plot the average high level or not
PlotAveHighSteady Whether to plot the average high level for runs of high bit values or not
PlotAveLow Whether to plot the average low level or not
PlotAveLowSteady Whether to plot the average low level for runs of low bit values or not
PlotEyeArea Whether to plot the area of the eye opening or not
PlotEyeWidth Whether to plot the width of the eye opening or not
PlotEyeHeight Whether to plot the height of the eye opening or not
PlotEyeCenter Whether to plot the vertical center or decision level of the eye opening or not
PlotEyeLids Whether to plot the eye diagram and eye lids with the center time and level indicated or
not
SaveOrDisplayPlots Whether to save plots to files, or to also display them automatically

Bit Error Rate Tester

This model computes the Bit Error Rate (BER) for the input electrical signal(s) as well as a number of
useful parameters such as the Q factor and electrical eye properties such as the height, width, area and
extinction ratio. The BER may be calculated using either a Quasi-Analytical or Monte-Carlo algorithm
depending on the nature of the dominant noise sources in the simulation. The module is fully integrated
with the generalized scanning facilities described in Chapter 7 of the OptSim User Manual and so can
produce important scan plots such as power penalty diagrams for the BER or other quantities.
We begin the description of the model with a discussion of the different techniques of numerical BER
estimation. Following this exposition, we enumerate the steps in the BER implementation and finally
describe the non-BER features of the model.
BER Estimation Techniques
The Bit Error Rate (BER) of a fiber link is the most important measure of the faithfulness of the link in
transporting the binary data from transmitter to receiver. From time to time, due to signal degradations
from dispersion, nonlinearities and noise, a signal is so distorted that the detector makes a mistake a
binary one or mark is recorded where a binary zero or space was transmitted. Clearly, if the link is to
be of any use, the frequency of such errors must be as small as possible. The BER quantifies the rate of
errors and is defined as the probability of an error occurring per transported bit. Typical benchmarks for
the BER are rates of 10
-9
and 10
-12
, though with the use of Forward Error Correcting (FEC) codes, much
lower rates can be acceptable.
In the laboratory, the BER is measured directly. A pseudo-random bit source modulating the source is also
connected to the BER testing apparatus, and the binary value of every transmitted bit is compared against
the value of the same bit at the receiver. The apparatus literally counts the events in which the comparison
fails. For a 10 Gbps system, a BER near 10
- 9
can be measured in a few seconds, while rates near 10
-12
can
be measured in hours. With numerical simulation, the situation is completely different. A typical OptSim
simulation involves hundreds to thousands or perhaps tens of thousands of bits, and if the link is long or the
simulation challenging a single run may take minutes or even hours. To establish a bit error rate of 10
-12
by
direct counting of errors a technique sometimes known as Monte-Carlo simulation would require the
simulation of trillions of bits, which is clearly out of the question. Instead of this direct approach,
numerical tools attempt to extrapolate an estimate of the BER from simulation of just hundreds or
thousands of bits. If the BER is acceptable, then it is very unlikely that an error bit will actually occur
within the simulation time window, but by measuring the shape of the received electrical eye, the simulator
can extract basic parameters describing the distribution of bits and produce a BER estimate with confidence
limits.
OptSim provides two algorithms for calculating the BER, referred to as the Quasi-Analytic (QA) and
Monte-Carlo (MC) techniques. (Despite the shared name, the Monte-Carlo technique we will describe has
nothing in common with the Monte-Carlo error counting method mentioned above. On occasion, users
may encounter or read about other simulation tools which do calculate the BER by propagation and
detection of billions of bits with direct counting of errors. These simulations require great quantities of time
and can include only the most cursory and inadequate physical treatment of the components within the
link.) Rather in OptSim, QA and MC refer to the representation in which noise in the electrical signal is
stored. In Chapter 8 of the User Manual, we explain that electrical noise may be represented in two
complementary fashions. We summarize the pictures here, but the reader is encouraged to read the full
discussion in Chapter 8.
In the MC picture, there is no real distinction between the signal and noise noise is included directly by
adding Gaussian random variates to the signal samples
k
V . Viewed with a SignalAnalyzer or
SpectrumAnalyzer, the resultant signal genuinely appears noisy, and if the simulation is repeated, the
noisy signal appears different in successive runs (More accurately, the repeatibility of the noise from run to
run depends on the setting of the seed value for the random number generator in the model generating the
noise. Most OptSim models that generate noise allow the user to specify whether the seed changes or
remains the same from run to run). In the QA picture, the noise and signal are stored separately one
vector of length N stores the signal, and a second vector of the same length stores standard deviation
samples for the noise. So the complete electrical signal may be written
, 1,
k
k
k
v
E k N
(
= =
(

K
in terms of the signal samples
k
v and the noise samples
k
which represent the instantaneous standard
deviation of a Gaussian noise source. As discussed in Chapter 8 of the User Manual, the MC approach is
very general as it allows for noise of any distribution or correlation function. The QA approach is more
restrictive since it assumes a Gaussian noise sources. The primary motivation for its use is that it permits a
very efficient BER estimation algorithm as we now see.
Quasi-Analytic BER estimation
This technique is the simpler of the two approaches and is the default BER implementation in OptSim.
To use the QA approach, the BERTester block must be preceded by a monolithic Receiver block which
incorporates the photodectector, transimpedance amplifier and electrical filter. As indicated above, these
sub-components contribute various noise sources which all contribute to a single Gaussian variance that is a
function of time, parallel to the outgoing voltage signal. Representing the noise in this fashion discards any
spectral features of the incoming ASE, and also only partially respects filtering operations within the
receiver the total noise power is reduced by the filtering but the spectral weighting is lost since the noise
is represented by a strictly real number in time domain. Expressions for each of the noise variances are
described in the Monolithic Receiver model documentation.

Figure 1: Eye diagram and distribution functions for spaces (zeros).
The basis of the technique is illustrated in Figure 1. In this example, the eye diagram has a very simple
structure with unambiguous levels for the marks and spaces. Due to thermal noise, there is a significant
spread in values around each of the levels. We are concerned with the distribution of values at the decision
point indicated by the vertical line at the center of the eye. Since the noise is known to be Gaussian, the
v
level
f
0
(v)
f
1
(v)
two distributions
0
( ) f v and
1
( ) f v which govern the spread of the upper and lower bars of the eye can be
specified just by mean values
0
v and
1
v , and widths
0
and
1
:

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2
2
2 0
0 0 0
2
2
2 1
1 1 1
2
exp / 2 ,
2
exp / 2 .
f v v v
f v v v
(
=

(
=

(1)
To find the probability of an error given a specified threshold decision level
level
v (indicated by the dotted
horizontal line in Fig. 6), we integrate that part of each distribution function falling on the wrong side of
the decision level. So the probability
0 1
P
of mistakenly measuring a space as a mark is given by

( ) ( )
level
0 1 0 0 level 0
0 level
0
, , d
1
erfc ,
2 2
v
P v v f v v
v v
=
| |
=
|
|
\ .

(2)
where erfc denotes the complementary error function. The probability
1 0
P
of measuring a mark as a
space is given by

( ) ( )
level
1 0 1 1 level 1
1 level
1
, , d
1
erfc .
2 2
v
P v v f v v
v v
=
| |
=
|
|
\ .

(3)
The total bit error rate is then just

0 1
0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1
BER
n n
P P
n n n n

= +
+ +
.
(4)
where
0
n and
1
n are the numbers of spaces and marks in the signal. If
0 1
n n , we have

1 level 0 level
1 0
1
BER erfc erfc
4
2 2
v v v v

( | | | |

+ ( | |
| |
(
\ . \ .

.
(5)
The error rate in Eq. (5) is minimized by choosing

0 1 1 0
level
0 1
v v
v

+
=
+
.
(6)
Finally, defining the Q-factor

1 0
1 0
v v
Q

=
+
,
(7)
the bit error rate takes the simple form

1
BER erfc
2
2
Q | |
=
|
\ .
.
(8)
The Q-factor is a very useful parameter since Eq. (7) can easily be evaluated from measurements of the eye
diagram, and because the Q typically takes values in the range Q 515, which can be more convenient
than the many orders of magnitude spanned by the BER. It is also common in communication community
to refer to Q-factor in dB units using following relationship
Q
dB
= 20 log
10
(Q
linear
)
Then, for example, BER = 10
-13
according to Eq. (8) corresponds to Q-factor equal 7.34 in linear units and
equal 17.32 in dB units. User can choose linear or dB units for Q-factor by switching parameter unitsForQ
to linear or Q^2(dB).
Pattern dependence and the QA approach
In fact, the formulae just presented represent an oversimplification, since in real systems the received eye
diagram is rarely as simple as that in Fig. 1. More commonly, eye diagrams show signs of pattern
dependence or inter-symbol interference (ISI). Due to laser properties, dispersion, nonlinearity or
certain noise effects, the shape of a received bit is influenced by the bit values in its neighborhood. So for
instance, in an NRZ system, the central bit in the pattern 11111 would be less distorted by dispersion than
the central bit in the pattern 00100. Pattern dependence gives rise to eyes that might look something like
that in Fig. 2 which was obtained by driving the Direct Modulated Laser model with a PRBS signal at 10
Gbps. In Fig. 2, there are two relatively smooth bars corresponding to sequences of successive ones and
zeros, but sequences involving a transition between a one and zero in either direction produce overshooting.
The problem with an eye exhibiting pattern dependence is that it is impossible to fit a simple Gaussian
distribution to either the mark or space level. At the decision time in Fig. 2, the marks are arranged in a
double-peaked distribution and it is obvious that an error is much more likely to arise from a sample in the
lower of these two peaks. Thus blindly fitting a Gaussian distribution to the whole ensemble of marks
would overestimate the width
1
, and therefore overestimate the BER.
The Quasi-Analytic representation provides a solution to the pattern dependence problem. Recall that the
QA picture provides an explicit value for the standard deviation of the noise at the decision time for each
bit in the simulated sequence. Moreover, since the PRBS_Generator produces maximal length sequences,
every possible sequence of marks and spaces up to a given length appears in the simulated bit train.
Therefore, we can use Eqs. (2) and (3) to separately evaluate the probability of an error for each of the N
bits:

( )
( )
0 1
QA
1
1 0
, , bit k is a zero
1
BER
, , bit k is a one
N
k k
k
k k
P v
N P v

(9)
where
k
v and
k
are the signal and standard deviation values at the decision point for bit k . The
maximal length properties of the bit sequence guarantee that the various patterns receive an equal
weighting in the sum in Eq. (9), and we can successfully predict the BER for eyes with strong ISI such as
that in Fig. 2.

Figure 2: 10 Gbps eye diagram showing pattern dependence.

Monte-Carlo BER Estimation
The QA approach solves the problem of pattern dependence, but as mentioned above and discussed in
detail in Chapter 8 of the OptSim User Manual, the QA representation is limited in the types of noise and
operations it can handle. In particular, it cannot describe colored noise or noise filtering, or the nonlinear
amplification of noise as occurs for ASE in a nonlinear fiber. For systems, in which these kinds of noise
are present, the Monte-Carlo noise representation, in which the noise is directly included as a stochastic
contribution to the signal vector, must be used.
In contrast to the QA representation, when the electrical signal enters the BERTester, we no longer have
access to explicit values to the noise standard deviations, and therefore, for the width of the bars in the
electrical eye. Instead, the algorithm must construct histograms for the upper and lower parts of the eye,
and so explicitly measure the means and widths of the mark and space bars to obtain estimates for
1
v ,
0
v ,
1
and
0
. For the simple eye in Figure 1, this is relatively straightforward and the BER is obtained
directly from Eq. (5). However, for eyes displaying pattern dependence such as that in Fig. 2, the situation
is more complex. With the QA representation, we solved this problem by examining every bit separately.
But since in the MC approach we must measure the statistical quantities
1
v ,
0
v ,
1
and
0
from a
histogram composed of many samples we cannot treat the bits individually.
The solution is to split up the eye diagram into a set of partial eyes by selecting a maximum number of
neighbors considered to affect a bit. In the model, this number is set by the parameter ISI_Bits. For
instance, with ISI_Bits = 1, the model considers only one adjacent bit on either side, and construct different
eyes for the patterns 000, 001, 100, 101, 010, 011, 110 and 111. For the original eye in Fig. 2, we would
obtain the eight partial eyes displayed in Fig. 3. It is easy to see that in general, the number of partial eyes
is given by 2
ISI_Bits*2+1
.

Figure 3: Partial eyes for ISI_bits=1.

Now, for each of these eyes, we separately measure any the mean and standard deviations of the pattern
,
j j
v at the chosen decision time t and calculate the individual error rates
( )
( )
level pat
, ,
j j j
B v v using
Eqs. (2) or (3) as appropriate for each of the eight patterns pat( ) j : 000, 001, 010, etc .
The total error rate is then

( ) pat
BER( )
j
level j
j
tot
n
v B
n
=
,
(10)
where the sum is over the
ISI_Bits*2 1
ISI
2 N
+
= patterns, n
j
is the number of occurrences of each pattern, and
n
tot
is the total number of bits. The value for ISI_Bits must be chosen with some care. If it is too small, the
different patterns will not be properly separated in the partial eyes, and the fitting of the distribution will be
inaccurate. However, setting ISI_Bits increases the amount of work required, since the bit stream must be
sufficiently long to generate a reasonable distribution for every pattern. The model will refuse to perform
an MC analysis if the partial eyes contain less than 8 instances each and accurate results they should
contain many more than this. We examine the convergence properties of the QA and MC methods later.
Confidence Limits for the BER and Q
In BER and Q estimation, it is important to have confidence limits available since with an insufficient
number of bits or a difficult signal, the BER can easily be uncertain by several orders of magnitude. In
OptSim, we obtain confidence limits in different ways for the two BER estimation approaches.
For the QA approach, we use basic results of Gaussian statistics to obtain estimates for the uncertainty in
the moments
1
v ,
0
v ,
1
and
0
, and so evaluate the standard deviation of the Q. The standard errors for
the moments are given by

SE ,
SE .
2
j
j
j
j
v
N
N
( =

( =

(11)
Using these values with standard rules applied to Eq. (7), the standard error in the Q is given by

[ ] ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
2 2
2
1,2
2
SE SE SE
.
2
j j
j j j
dQ dQ
Q m
dm d
Q
N
=
(
| | | |
(
( ( = +
| |

| |
(
\ . \ .

| |
=
|
\ .

(12)
Choosing one-deviation confidence limits for the Q-factor:
[ ] [ ]
lo hi
SE , SE Q Q Q Q Q Q ( = = +

,
we invert Eq. (8) to find confidence limits for the BER as
( ) ( )
lo lo hi hi
BER BER , BER BER Q Q ( = =

.
For the MC method, for which the Q is less well-defined, it is simpler to base error limits directly on
calculation of the BER. For each bit pattern, standard errors are estimated for the expressions
( )
( ) 1 1 level 1
/ 2 v v = and ( )
( ) 0 level 0 0
/ 2 v v = .
Confidence limits are chosen as

( ) ( )
1 1
lo hi 2 2
BER erfc SE / 2, BER erfc SE / 2
j j
j j j j

(
( ( = = +

and averaged over all bit patterns. The limits for the Q-factor are then found by converting the BER limits
to Q values with Eq. (8).
Complete BER Estimation Algorithm
We are now ready to describe all the steps of the BERTester implementation, of which the above theory is
just a part, and introduce the relevant model parameters.

Incoming Signals - AlignBinaries: NO
x10
-9
Time (s)
0 1 2 3 4 5
B
i
n
a
r
y

V
a
l
u
e
0.0
1.0
S
i
g
n
a
l

M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e

(
V
)
0.001

Incoming Signals - AlignBinaries: YES
x10
-9
Time (s)
0 1 2 3 4 5
B
i
n
a
r
y

V
a
l
u
e
0.0
1.0
S
i
g
n
a
l

M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e

(
V
)
0.001

Figure 4: Incoming binary and electrical signals with a misalignment.
In the sections below, we introduce many output and plotting facilities. As with all output/plot blocks, the
FilenameRoot parameter allows the user to pick a prefix for all generated files. If FilenameRoot is empty,
a prefix is generated from the components name.
The algorithm is implemented in 5 stages as follows.
1. Inputs
The BERTester uses input nodes in sets of two that accept pairs of electrical and binary signals. The
BERTester can function with only an electrical input, but if the original binary signal is available, it is of
assistance to the algorithm. Typically, one connects the PRBS_Generator at the start of the link to the
BERTester at the end. In WDM simulations where there may be numerous binary signals generated, it is
important to match the binary signals to the correct BERTester. A plot of the incoming binary and
electrical signals is generated if the parameter PlotSignals=YES (see Fig. 4 for examples). If more than
one pair of electrical and binary signals are connected, the BERTester calculates Word Error Rates. This
is discussed later.
The parameters preBits and postBits determine the number of bits at the start and end of the signal that the
BERTester ignores in calculating the BER. These should be normally be set to the same values of the
corresponding parameters in the PRBS. The purpose of these ignored slots is to deal with any phase noise
introduced through the periodic boundary conditions of the FFT operation. The signature of this is
unusually noisy or oscillatory signal patterns at the start or end of the time window. The MC method is
particularly sensitive to this kind of noise, and on occasion it may be necessary to ignore 5 or more bits at
either end.
2. Creation of Provisional Bitstream
In the first stage of the algorithm, the BERTester generates a provisional set of binary values for the
incoming signals. This bitstream is used later to construct eyelids for the eye diagram. If a binary signal
has been attached, then the contents of that signal are used as the provisional binary value. If no binary
signal is available, the BERTester crudely estimates the decision threshold as the mean value of the
electrical signal, and then assigns binary values based on the instantaneous value of the electrical signal in
each bit slot. If the parameter bitsPerLine is nonzero, the model writes the provisional bit stream to a file
with the suffix provisional_bitstream.
If a binary signal input is not provided, the BERTester is still usually able to construct eyelids, but the
model has no way of determining if a detection error has occurred. When a binary signal is available and
an error has occurred, the BERTester detects that the eye is formally closed and refuses to calculate a BER
(since an error is essentially certain in a real system).
In some simulations involving delays or filters, it is possible for the electrical and binary signals to become
misaligned, producing a signal plot like that in Fig. 4(a). If the misalignment is severe (larger than 1.5 bit
periods,) the algorithm may subsequently have trouble constructing an eye diagram. To avoid this
problem, the setting AlignBinaries = YES instructs the model to realign the signals to obtain a maximum
correlation. Fig. 4(b) shows the same signals after realignment.
3. Construction of Eye Diagram and Eyelids
The model now constructs an electrical eye and eyelids from the incoming electrical signal and the
provisional bit stream as indicated in Fig. 5. Plots are generated for the user if PlotEyeLids = YES. The
eye itself is only generated for the users convenience and is disabled if PlotEyeLids = NO. Using
bitstreams of longer than 2
10
or setting ContourEye = YES causes the eye to be plotted as a contour plot
rather than as a line plot. The former type is sometimes more suited to comparison with laboratory
instruments.
The eye lids are created by finding the minimum values of all marks, and the maximum values of all
spaces, where the provisional bit streams generated previously are used to determine whether a bit slot is to
be considered a mark or space. Thus the eye lids represent the largest curve that can be inscribed within the
eye diagram.

Figure 5: Eye diagrams and eye lids for 10 Gbps problem.
The crosshairs in the eye and eye lid plots indicate provisional values for the decision level and decision
time. In Fig. 5, the plots have been shifted to place the decision points at 0 sec and 0 V. The actual values
for the decision points are shown if showOffsets = YES.
The provisional decision time is chosen to be the vertical line dividing the eye opening into two equal
areas, and the provisional decision level is the average of the upper and lower eye lid values at the decision
time. Below, we show how the decision level and time can be determined more accurately or specified
directly by the user.
Several other eye properties are calculated from the eye lids. These properties, with their definitions and
the parameters controlling their output, are:
eye height (V, PlotEyeHeight) the largest vertical distance between the upper and lower lids
(which does not necessarily occur at the decision time).
eye width (s, PlotEyeWidth) the horizontal distance between the points at which the eye lids
cross.
eye area (Vs, PlotEyeArea) the integrated area inside the eye lids.
eye closure (PlotEyeClosure)
10
eye height eye width
10log
eye area
| |
|
\ .

If the eye is closed, that is to say, a mark or space is found on the wrong side of the threshold, then the
model produces an Average Eye found by taking the mean values of all marks and all spaces. This
produces eye lids which roughly correspond to the darkest parts of the eye diagram itself. The model
outputs these plots, posts a warning and exits without proceeding to calculate an error rate.
4. BER Calculation
The BER is now finally calculated using the preferred method as set by n_representation. We emphasize
again that to use the QA method, the BER must be preceded by a monolithic receiver model also set to
n_representation = QA. The MC method may be preceded by either the monolithic receiver, or a chain
consisting of photodetector, amplifier and filter, but if the receiver is used, the values of n_representation
must again match.
To this point, the decision time and level have been set provisionally by examination of the eye. For the
QA method, this frequently works very well, but the provisional estimate is less reliable for the MC
method. Therefore, the model has several features for optimizing the values of these quantities. If
decisionLevelSelection = Automatic (the default), the model calculates the BER for a range of decision
levels and searches for the optimum. Alternatively, if decisionLevelSelection = Defined, the user directly
sets the decision level with decisionLevel. The user may also influence the decision time, but rather than
setting it directly, the user specifies an offset from the models automatic selection, in units of the bit period
with decisionPointShift. The most accurate but most time-consuming way to set these quantities is with
the setting jointOptimization = YES, in which the model uses a two-dimensional iterative algorithm to
simultaneously find the optimum values for the decision level and time. Generally, this option should only
be used if necessary. For most work, the default settings perform well the decision time is taken from the
eye analysis, and the decision level is found by one-dimensional optimization. Once the optimum levels
have been found, the bit error rate is calculated once more to produce the final optimum answer.
Regardless of whether the actual BER is found by automatic optimization or from user specified values,
scans of the BER against decision level and time are produced if PlotDecisionLevelScan and
PlotDecisionTimeScan are activated. Two-dimensional plots of the BER and Q-factor as a function of the
level and time are activated with PlotBERContours and PlotQContours. The 2D plots are very useful in
MC mode, since our experience indicates that a multi-peaked contour is often a good indication of a
bitstream of insufficient length or an insufficient ISI_Bits setting. The actual decision level selected is
plotted if PlotEyeCenter = YES.
The model issues a warning if the decision level or time scans fail to find minimum values. In such a case,
the user should investigate these curves and the appearance of the eye to determine why the decision points
are not being found correctly. Usually, this occurs if the eye is so noisy that it is essentially closed. For
such a case, the BER is so close to unity, that an accurate determination is not justified anyway. The
system should be improved until the eye quality is reasonable. A common cause of errors from the model
is to use the Defined mode for decision level selection but provide a value that does not fall inside the eye
at all. This can happen particularly easily in scans, when the correct decision level may change from run to
run.
5. Additional Output
For the MC method, the model can plot all the partial eyes (PlotPartialEyes = All), or just the eight partial
eyes (PlotPartialEyes = Critical) that give the greatest contribution to the BER.
If bitsPerLine is nonzero, a second bitstream is written to a file with extension the measured_bitstream.
This sequence is found by measuring the electrical signal with the final values of the decision level and
time.
Additional BER Features
Simulated Detection Jitter
In real systems, the BER can be affected by jitter in either the decision level or time due to imperfections in
the detector circuitry. Using the parameters timingJitter and decisionLevelJitter the user may specify
standard deviations for the decision level and time. For each bit, the model adds a random shift to both
quantities selected from a Gaussian distribution truncated at two standard deviations. The BER and Q are
calculated as an average over numberAve repetitions.
Word Error Rates
If more than one electrical input is connected to the BERTester, the model calculates a word error rate.
The procedure is identical to that described above with the following exceptions. The eye diagram and eye
lids are constructed by superimposing all the signals into a single eye. Thus single decision points are
selected for all the signals. The BER is calculated for each signal and the worst case is taken as the actual
error rate. In QA mode, this is done on a bit by bit basis; in MC mode, it is done for each partial eye.
Other Distribution Functions
Some researchers have estimated the BER using distributions that are non-Gaussian, such as the chi-
squared distribution. Selecting a different distribution intelligently requires detailed knowledge of the
nature of the noise in the problem. Currently OptSim does not support additional distribution functions, but
users requiring such a feature should contact RSoft Design Group.
Forward Error Correction
Forward Error Correction (FEC) coding techniques help optical links to achieve higher performance by
detecting and correcting errors on the link. FEC allows a predetermined amount of error to occur during
transmission, and detects and corrects them at the receiving end. These techniques, previously used in
wireless systems and data storage applications, now are being widely used in optical telecommunications
systems, especially long-haul applications. Almost without exception, all modern transoceanic systems
starting with TPC-5 (1996) use FEC. Two ITU specifications - ITU-T G.709 and ITU-T G.975 -
recommend FEC in transmission systems [1].
Performance improvements due to FEC can be used to increase inter-amplifier spacing and/or to increase
system capacity, to relax the specifications on the optical components or fiber (hence lower cost), and so
on. In a WDM system these capacity improvements can be achieved by increasing the bit rate of each
WDM channel or by decreasing the channel spacing, allowing more WDM channels for a given amplifier
bandwidth.
The disadvantage of using FEC is that the inserted check symbols consume bandwidth within the
communications channel and a system using FEC requires a slightly higher bit rate to support this
additional correction data.
There are a large number of error-correction codes, each with different properties that are related to how
the codes are generated and consequently how they perform. Some examples of these are the linear and
cyclic Hamming codes, the cyclic Bose-Chaudhuri-Hocquenghem (BCH) codes, the cyclic Golay and Fire
codes, and the Turbo convolutional and product codes (TCC, TPC). The codes that are most attractive at
present for application in high bit-rate communication systems are a set of cyclic, non-binary, block codes
known as Reed-Solomon (RS) codes [2].
Reed-Solomon codes are described as (N, K) where N is the total number of symbols (bits) per code-word,
K is the number of information symbols (data bits), and R is the number of check symbols (N-K). The
overhead of the code is simply the ratio of the check symbols to code-word symbols. For example, the
Reed-Solomon codes used in ITU-T G.709 and G.975 are both (255,239) so will consist of a 239
information symbols and 16 check symbols with about 6.7% overhead.
Efficiency of FEC is measured by coding gain (in units of Q-factor in dB). To achieve a BER = 1.0E-13
(corresponding Q = 17.3dB) after FEC with RS(255,239) code, the raw BER before FEC has to be 1.42E-4
(and corresponding Q=11.20 dB). Here, if we compare two identical systems, one with and the other
without FEC, then gross FEC coding gain is about 6 dB, whereas net coding gain has to take into account
the bit rate overhead and is system dependent (system length, bit rate, etc. will define system impairments).
So, the transatlantic WDM system showed about 5 dB net coding gain at 6.7% redundancy rate [3].
RS(255,239) is standardized by ITU recommendations G.709/G.975 and also can be referred to in literature
as a standard FEC or generation one FEC.

FEC Gross Coding Gain
input Q
2
(dB)
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
o
u
t
p
u
t

B
E
R
10
-16
10
-14
10
-12
10
-10
10
-8
10
-6
10
-4
10
-2
10
0
No FEC
FEC RS(255,239) Code
FEC RS Concat. Code

Figure 6. FEC gross coding gain for RS(255,239) and RS Concatenated codes.
To achieve higher coding gain different combinations of concatenated RS codes were tried, providing
proper interleaving of outer and inner codes. These type of codes can generate higher gross coding gain of
8-10 dB compared to RS(255,239) but require higher overhead rate, 14-25%. [4,5]. These types of
concatenated codes have been deployed commercially in several recent undersea systems and are referred
to as super FEC or generation two FEC. One particular concatenated scheme considered here employs
RS(223,207) Outer and RS(255,223) Inner interleaved codes, which provides about 9 dB gross coding gain
for BER requirement of 1.0E-13 at the cost of 23% bit rate overhead.
Theoretical conversion formula for FEC encoding/decoding can be derived if the errors are assumed to be
from additive white Gaussian noise [6]. The OptSim BER Tester model block has implemented FEC
conversion formula for RS(255,239) and Concatenated RS(223,207)/RS(255,223) codes. Fig. 6 shows the
gross coding gains for both FEC schemes. In addition, the third scheme option is available for user-defined
FEC conversion table.
Note: The model does not actually decode the data but rather applies FEC coding gain to input BER
according to the selected FEC scheme. Also note that the coding gain can be optimistic in cases with high
PMD, where long periods of high error rates may degrade the error correcting capability of the code [7].
Implementation
To include FEC coding during BER estimation the parameter includeFEC should be set to YES. Next
parameter FEC_CodingScheme allows user to choose one of three available coding schemes: RS(255,239)
(RS(255,239)_Code), RS Concatenated Code (RS_Concat_Code), and User Defined Code (UserDefined).
If a UserDefined FEC coding option is selected, then the user must specify a file name in parameter
FEC_Filename, where the file contains a data table for the BER before and after FEC. The file format is
given below:
File Format:
FECFormat1
<BER_input 1> <BER_output 1>
<BER_input 2> <BER_output 2>

Example:
FECFormat1
1.00E-02 1.81E-02
7.50E-03 1.35E-02

It is important that the user adjust the bit-rate at the transmitting end of a link in accordance with the
overhead incurred due to the selected coding scheme. The case of RS(255,239)_Code requires 6.7%
overhead (e.g. 10 Gbps bit-rate has to be changed to 10.67 Gbps), RS_Concat_Code requires 23%, and in
case of UserDefined scheme has to be defined by the user.
Plotting functions are supplied to plot BER and Q after applying FEC. Also a test function will plot FEC
coding gain for selected FEC scheme.
Performance Budget
The performance budget is an important element of the optical link designs at all its stages starting from the
system bidding following by a desktop system design, laboratory trials, manufacturing, installation, and
commissioning and acceptance on installed system [8]. It is also a valuable tool to study upgrade paths on
existing links to their maximum capacities.
The purpose of performance budget is to evaluate design viability for selected system configuration at
given requirements of system BER performance. The difference of system performance (measured or
simulated) and system performance requirement is a measure of system viability and called a system
margin. Traditionally system margin is being calculated in units of Q-factor in dB. For example, if link
performance requirement from a system provider is BER no worse than 1.0E-13 (corresponding Q-factor is
17.3 dB) and simulation BER for given link configuration is 1.42E-20 (corresponding Q=19.3 dB), and
then system margin will be 2 dB. Typical design objectives for system margin are to be between 3 and 6 dB
to absorb numerous performance impairments due to the deviation of real system from ideal design. To
name few of these impairments there are manufacturing and environmental impairments (due to
temperature fluctuations, fluctuations in fiber length, loss, and dispersions in different spans, etc.), time
variation penalties (fading, PMD, etc.), and time related penalties (fiber aging, components aging/fails,
repairs). Some of these impairments can be estimated by user himself based on available manufacturing or
measured data, and some of them can be directly included in simulations (e.g. PMD, statistical distribution
of fiber parameters, etc.).
Implementation
OptSim implements the performance budget described above. It calculates the system margin by
subtracting required Q-factor (given by user in system BER requirement) from simulation Q. In a case
when FEC coding\decoding is included, the required system Q will be recalculated by applying FEC
coding gain. Tables 1 and 2 show examples of generated performance budget with and without FEC,
respectively.
To generate performance budget the parameter genPerfBudget should be set to YES. The next parameter
requirementForBER has to specify the BER requirement for system performance. Performance budget will
be stored in file topname_BERTest_perfbudget.txt. To open it user has to double-click on
BERTester model and pick the abovementioned file from a plot list.

Table 1. A sample of performance budget generated by OptSim for case without FEC.
1. Simulation Q (dB) 18.89
2. Simulation BER 7.06E-19
3. BER Requirement 1.00E-09
4. Required Q (dB) 15.56

5. System Margin (dB) 3.33

Table 2. A sample of performance budget generated by OptSim for case with FEC.
1. Simulation Q (dB) 14.28
2. Simulation BER 1.15E-07
3. BER Requirement 1.00E-13
4. Required Q (dB) 17.32
5. Required Q before FEC (dB) 11.2
6. Required BER before FEC 1.42E-04

7. System Margin (dB) 3.08

NON-BER facilities
A number of other quantities related to the optical eye are calculated during the BER computation. These
quantities and the parameters enabling their output are as follows:
Average mark level (PlotAveHigh)
This is the mean value of the voltage at the decision point for all marks.
Average space level (PlotAveLow)
This is the mean value of the voltage at the decision point for all spaces.
Width of the mark level (PlotAveHighNoise)
This is the mean value of the noise standard deviation at the decision point for all marks.
Width of the space level (PlotAveLowNoise)
This is the mean value of the noise standard deviation at the decision point for all spaces.
Mark level for successive ones (PlotAveHighSteady)
This is the mean voltage at the decision point for all marks which are adjacent to at least one
other mark. It is a measure of the one bar at the top of the eye.
Mark level for successive zeros (PlotAveLowSteady)
This is the mean voltage at the decision point for all spaces which are adjacent to at least one
other space. It is a measure of the zero bar at the bottom of the eye.
Extinction Ratio (PlotExtRatio)
This is defined as
10
Average one level
10log
Average zero level
| |
|
\ .

Rectangular Eye Opening (PlotRectOpening)
This constructs the largest rectangle inside the eye according to the following algorithm. The
rectangle has a horizontal length defined as a fraction of a bit period by rectOpeningFrac.
The code looks for the tallest rectangle of that length that fits inside a region where the
BER<minBER_Crit.
Eye Mask
BERTester model also allows to plot normalized eye diagram with eye mask specified by user. To activate
Eye Mask feature one has to switch parameter PlotEyeMask to YES and define the eye mask coordinates in
parameter eye_mask_array, which is double array. Figure 7 shows an example of eye mask definition
used in IEEE 802.3ae Standard [9]. Eye mask is plotted as a polygon on a normalized time and voltage
(amplitude) scale. In this case eye mask is a hexagon with 6 vertices (for some other standards it can be
rectangular mask with 4 sides or decagon mask with 10 sides).

Figure 7. Example of eye mask definition from IEEE 802.3ae standard (Ref [9], Figure 53-8).
Figure 8 shows how to construct eye mask array. Each vertex of the mask polygon should be given by its
(X, Y) coordinate and then all vertices coordinates should be arranged in counter-clockwise sequence to
form a closed polygon. So, in case of Figure 8 the double array for eye mask should be defined as
eye_mask_array = {X1, Y1, X2, Y2, X3, Y3, X4, Y4, X5, Y5, X6, Y6}

Figure 8. Construction of eye mask points.
The default values used are for eye mask are shown at Figure 8, i.e. {0.2, 0.5, 0.35, 0.25, 0.65, 0.25, 0.8,
0.5, 0.65, 0.75, 0.35, 0.75}. Finally, Figure 9 shows an example for OptSim simulation output plot with eye
diagram with eye mask.
Decision Eye with Eye Mask
Normalized Time
-0.2 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d

A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2

Figure 9. Example of eye diagram with eye mask in OptSim.
Scanning Facilities
In most problems, one wishes to know the BER as a function of one or more system parameters, so the
ability to scan results is important. The BERTester model is fully integrated into the OptSims generalized
scanning facility described in Chapter 7, Section 7.1.2 of the User Manual. Using these facilities, the BER,
Q and a large number of other quantities may be automatically plotted as functions of either the inner or
outer scan variables. By attaching the BERTester to an XY-Plotter, plots may be produced as a function of
any other measured parameter. This is particularly useful for creating power-penalty plots. The scanned
properties are also reported in a text file with the extension table.txt which includes complete
information on the values, confidence limits and statistical properties. Instructions for using these features
are included in Chapter 7 of the User Manual and are not repeated here. The facilities are available for all
properties whose parameters take the values None, Local, NonLocal and Both. Specifically, these
parameters are PlotBER, PlotQ, PlotBER_FEC, PlotQ_FEC, PlotEyeHeight, PlotEyeWidth,
PlotEyeCenter, PlotEyeArea, PlotEyeClosure, PlotAveHigh, PlotAveLow, PlotAveHighNoise,
PlotAveLowNoise, PlotAveHighSteady, PlotAveLowSteady, PlotExtRatio and PlotRectOpening.
Validation: 10 Gbps Example
The remainder of this discussion compares the use of the two QA and MC noise treatments for the 10 Gbps
example in the tutorial section of the user manual.
We start with convergence properties of the quasi-analytic approach as the length of the bit stream
increases. For convenience in scales, we use the Q factor for comparisons. Similar results are found for
the BER. Recall from Eq. (12) that we have defined confidence limits that decrease as the sequence length
N increases. These confidence limits are shown in the plot in Fig. 10.

Figure 10: Convergence of QA method with increasing bit sequence length.
The different colors correspond to the different standard drive currents of the laser and the line styles
denote the number bits in each simulation. Above 2
9
bits, there is only a small change in the values for
each current. Note that the error bars indeed give a reasonable estimate of the uncertainty in the curves.
We now compare how the MC results converge to the QA results as the sequence length and the ISI
window are increased. In all plots, the dashed lines are the QA results for 2
15
bits, and the solid lines are
the MC results. With no ISI, (Fig. 11) the results are completely invalid. The MC method grossly
underestimates the Q, since the noise estimates are too large.


Figure 11: Comparison of MC and QA analysis. Sequence length = 2
9
bits, ISI_Bits=0
In Figs. 12-14, we use increasing values for ISI_Bits and show curves for sequence lengths of 2
9
,
2
11
, 2
13

and 2
15

bits. Figs. 12 and 13 show an improvement in agreement over Figure 11, but surprisingly the
agreement does not improve as the sequence length increases. An improvement might have been expected,
since as indicated by the error bars on the MC curves, the confidence limits in theory decrease with longer
sequences. In fact, only when ISI_Bits = 3 in Fig. 14, does the increase in pattern length improve the
convergence. For that case with 2
15
bits, there is excellent agreement for all but the I
0
= 0.01 A curve. As
we show later, the weak current causes difficulties due to very strong pattern dependence.
In general then, we conclude that it is necessary to check the MC results at a number of values of ISI_Bits
until the results converge. With insufficient ISI settings, as in Figs. 12 and 13, there is little advantage to
using longer bit sequences.
The error bars can be misleading in this sense. They indicate how reliable the results are, assuming that the
current ISI value is sufficient. It is always necessary to check higher ISI values before accepting the
results. Note also that for the MC method, the Q is a somewhat artificial concept, since each ISI bit pattern
has an error rate calculated separately. Nevertheless, Eq. (8) still serves as a useful definition for the Q,
allowing us to display error rates on a linear scale.


Figure 12: Comparison of QA and MC methods for increasing bit sequence length with ISI_Bits=1.




Now we return to the problems seen in Fig. 14 for the blue curve corresponding to a laser drive current of
0
I =0.01A. Even with ISI_Bits=3 and very long bit sequences, the MC method underestimates the Q. This
is explained by the partial eyes in Fig. 15.


Figure 15: Partial eyes for
0
I =0.01A, showing residual pattern dependence.

Despite accounting for 3 bits of ISI, there is still a visible pattern dependence at the peaks of the curves.
On the right hand side for pattern 0001000, this leads to a spread in the signal which is still quite large and
inflates the BER. This is still the case with ISI_Bits = 4. Moving to larger values becomes difficult since
to maintain the same number of samples in each partial distribution, the pattern length must be multiplied
by 4 for each increment in ISI_Bits. There will probably always be noisy signals like this that are difficult
to treat. But if the ISI impacts the error rate this strongly, then subtle noise effects in the fiber are probably
insignificant and the QA treatment is appropriate.
References
[1] ITU-T Recommendations: G.709 Interfaces for the Optical Transport Network (02/2001), G.975
Forward error correction for submarine systems, (10/2000).
[2] G.C. Clark, J. B. Cain, Error-Correction Coding for Digital Communications, (Plenum Pub,
1981).
[3] S. Yamamoto, et al, 5 Gb/s optical transmission terminal equipment using forward error
correction code and optical amplifier, Electronics Letters 30, 254 (1994).
[4] H. Taga, et al, Performance improvement of highly nonlinear long-distance optical fiber
transmission system using novel high gain forward error correcting code, paper TuF3, Technical
Digest of OFC 2001.
[5] O. Ait Sab: FEC techniques in submarine transmission, paper TuF1, Technical Digest of OFC
2001.
[6] H. Kidorf et al, Performance improvement in high capacity ultra-long distance, WDM systems
using forward-error correction codes, paper ThS3, Technical Digest of OFC 2000.
[7] M. Tamizawa et al, FEC performance in PMD-limited high speed optical transmission systems,
Technical Digest of ECOC 2000, vol.2, pp.97-99, 2000.
[8] E.Golovchenko, Tutorial: the challenges of designing long-haul WDM systems, p.79, Technical
Digest of OFC 2002.
[9] IEEE Std 802.3ae-2002 (Amendment to IEEE Std 802.3, 2002 Edition).

Properties
Inputs
#2: Binary signal
#3-N: Repetitions of electrical and binary signal pairs
Outputs
None or #1: MeasurandSig
Paramater Values

FilenameRoot string
AlignBinaries enumerated NO NO, YES
n_representation enumerated QA MC, QA
unitsForQ enumerated linear linear, Q^2(dB)
jointOptimization enumerated NO NO, YES
decisionLevelSelection enumerated Automatic Automatic, Defined
decisionLevel double 0 [ -1000, 1000 ] V
timingJitter double 0 [ 0, 1 ] s
decisionLevelJitter double 0 [ 0, 1e3 ] V
decisionPointShift double 0 [ -1, 1 ] bit_period
numberAve integer 1 [ 1, 1e8 ] none
ISI_Bits integer 0 [ 0, 8 ] none
showOffsets enumerated NO NO, YES
bitsPerLine integer 8 [ 0, 10000000 ] none
minBER_Crit double 1e-9 [ 1e-300, .5 ] none
rectOpeningFrac double 0.2 [ 0, 1 ] none
genPerfBudget enumerated NO NO, YES
requirementForBER double 1.e-9 [ 0, 1 ] none
includeFEC enumerated NO NO, YES
FEC_CodingScheme enumerated RS(255,239)_Code RS(255,239)_Code,
RS_Concat_Code,
UserDefined

FEC_Filename string
PlotEyeMask enumerated NO NO, YES
eye_mask_array double array [0.2, 0.5, 0.35,
0.25, 0.65, 0.25,
0.8, 0.5, 0.65, 0.75,
0.35, 0.75]

StatisticalPlotMode enumerated All Average, Minimum,
Maximum, Std.Dev.,

PlotBER enumerated Local None, Local,
NonLocal, Both

PlotQ enumerated None None, Local,
NonLocal, Both

PlotBER_FEC enumerated None None, Local,
NonLocal, Both

PlotQ_FEC enumerated None None, Local,
NonLocal, Both

PlotEyeHeight enumerated None None, Local,
NonLocal, Both

PlotEyeWidth enumerated None None, Local,
NonLocal, Both

PlotEyeCenter enumerated None None, Local,
NonLocal, Both

PlotEyeArea enumerated None None, Local,
NonLocal, Both

PlotEyeClosure enumerated None None, Local,
NonLocal, Both

PlotAveHigh enumerated None None, Local,
NonLocal, Both

PlotAveLow enumerated None None, Local,
NonLocal, Both

PlotAveHighNoise enumerated None None, Local,
NonLocal, Both

PlotAveLowNoise enumerated None None, Local,
NonLocal, Both

PlotAveHighSteady enumerated None None, Local,
NonLocal, Both

PlotAveLowSteady enumerated None None, Local,
NonLocal, Both

PlotExtRatio enumerated None None, Local,
NonLocal, Both

PlotRectOpening enumerated None None, Local,
NonLocal, Both

PlotEyeLids enumerated NO NO, YES
PlotPartialEyes enumerated None None, All, Critical
PlotSignals enumerated NO NO, YES
PlotDecisionLevelScan enumerated NO NO, YES
PlotDecisionTimeScan enumerated NO NO, YES
PlotBERContours enumerated NO NO, YES
PlotQContours enumerated NO NO, YES
ContourEyes enumerated NO NO, YES


FilenameRoot Filename prefix for data files.
AlignBinaries Toggle realignment of binary and electrical signals.
n_representation Toggle QA and MC treatments of noise.
preBits Number of initial bits to ignore.
postBits Number of final bits to ignore.
jointOptimization Toggle joint optimization of decision level and time.
decisionLevelSelection Toggle automatic calculation of decision level.
decisionLevel User specified decision level if selection is user-defined.
timingJitter Standard deviation of jitter in the decision time.
decisionLevelJitter Standard deviation of jitter in the decision level.
decisionPointShift Offset of decision time in fractions of a bit period.
numberAve Number of repetitions to average if jitter is present.
ISI_Bits Number of adjacent bits (either side) to include in MC mode.
showOffsets Toggle absolute or relative times and voltages in eye diagrams.
bitsPerLine Activate output of incoming binary sequence.
minBER_Crit Maximum BER for rectangular eye opening.
rectOpeningFrac Horizontal width of rectangular eye opening in bit periods.
genPerfBudget Activate output of Performance Budget
requirementForBER BER requirement for Performance Budget
includeFEC Toggle inclusion of FEC
FEC_CodingScheme Type of FEC coding scheme: several types are supported
FEC_Filename File name for UserDefined FEC coding data
PlotEyeMask Toggle output of eye diagram with eye mask
eye_mask_array Eye mask definition
StatisticalPlotMode Toggle statistical quantity to plot in scanning simulations.
SaveOrDisplayPlots Toggle automatic or manual display of plots, or disable plots.
PlotBER Toggle output of BER plot and data.
PlotQ Toggle output of Q plot and data.
PlotBER_FEC Toggle output of BER after FEC plot and data.
PlotQ_FEC Toggle output of Q after FEC plot and data.
PlotEyeHeight Toggle output of eye height plot and data.
PlotEyeWidth Toggle output of eye width plot and data.
PlotEyeCenter Toggle output of decision level plot and data.
PlotEyeArea Toggle output of eye area plot and data.
PlotEyeClosure Toggle output of eye closure and data.
PlotAveHigh Toggle output of average mark level plot and data.
PlotAveLow Toggle output of average space level plot and data.
PlotAveHighNoise Toggle output of average mark noise plot and data.
PlotAveLowNoise Toggle output of average space noise plot and data.
PlotAveHighSteady Toggle output of average successive marks plot and data.
PlotAveLowSteady Toggle output of average successive spaces plot and data.
PlotExtRatio Toggle output of extinction ratio plot and data.
PlotRectOpening Toggle output of rectangular eye opening plot and data.
PlotEyeLids Toggle output of eye diagram and eye lid diagram.
PlotPartialEyes Control output of partial eyes in MC mode.
PlotSignals Toggle display of incoming signals.
PlotDecisionLevelScan Toggle plot of decision level scan.
PlotDecisionTimeScan Toggle plot of decision time scan.
PlotBERContours Toggle contour plot of BER.
PlotQContours Toggle contour plot of Q.
ContourEyes Toggle contour/line plot mode for eye diagram.
unitsForQ Toggle linear or Q^2(dB) units for the Q plot

Karhunen-Loeve BER Estimator

The purpose of this model is to implement an efficient semi-analytical technique, based on the results
described in [1]-[3], for the estimation of the Bit-Error Rate (BER) performance of direct-detection
receivers (see Fig. 1) or differential receivers based on the use of an Asymmetric Mach-Zehnder Filter
(AMZ) (see Fig. 2).
The model can for instance be used for performance evaluation of the following modulation formats:
Intensity-Modulation Direct-Detection (IMDD)
Duobinary
Differential Phase-Shift Keying (DPSK)
Differential Polarization-Shift Keying (DPolSK)
Differential Quadrature Phase-Shift Keying (DQPSK)
from another point in the topology, for example Optical Monitor data. In this way, it is possible to easily
generate plots showing the dependence of any quantity on any other.
Model Use
The model takes as input a single-band optical signal (multi-channel signals should be represented in
Single-Band mode, and must first be separated using a demultiplexing component) and, if
Synchronization_flag is set equal to Yes, a corresponding bit sequence with the same number of bits as the
optical signal. Furthermore, if a bit sequence is provided, it should at least be as long as the fundamental
pattern from which it is generated (for example, 511 bits for a 2
9
-1 PRBS sequence). The fundamental
pattern length is specified via the parameter Fundamental_Pattern_Length. In all cases, the input signal
should contain at least 11 bits, since the first and last 5 bits are ignored by the BER estimation algorithm (a
fact which should be kept in mind when specifying pre- and post-bits in any binary signals).
The results produced by the model are activated with the parameters BER_optimal_threshold,
Q_optimal_threshold, Optimal_Threshold, BER_average_threshold, Q_average_threshold,
Average_Threshold, and Sampling_Instant. Each of these parameters has the settings None, Local,
NonLocal and Both. When a parameter is set to Local, that quantity is calculated and reported both in a
combined table (with filename ending table.txt) and in plot form (with filename ending .txt).
When a parameter is set to NonLocal and the model has an output port connected to an XY-Plotter, data is
not presented locally but is passed to the XY-Plotter for constructing plots with data from elsewhere in the
topology. The user should consult the XY-Plotter documentation and Chapter 5 of the User Manual
Scanning Facilities for further details. The setting Both both exports the data to the plotter and generates
the local table and plot.
dialog, the model automatically produces plots showing the results for the entire scan. On the local plots,
the inner scan variable appears as the x-axis, and if an outer scan variable is used, a series of curves is
produced, one for each value of the outer scan variable. Using the XY-Plotter the user can produce plots in
which any measurable quantity appears on the x-axis.
Model of the Direct-Detection Optical Receiver
With Modulation_format set equal to IMDD, the block models a complete direct-detection optical receiver,
including a pre-detection optical filter, one photodetector of type PIN or APD, an electrical amplifier and a
post-detection electrical filter. The electric filter may be followed by a FIR filter equalizer with the
following transfer function:

2
( )
eq
N
j fnT
eq n
n N
H f c e

=
=

(1)
where 2N+1 is the total number of taps and T
eq
is the time delay between the taps.

Figure 1: Direct-Detection receiver.

The noise sources taken into account are the following:
ASE noise n
ASE
(t), introduced by the optical amplifiers (EDFAs). It is modeled as additive white
Gaussian noise, characterized by its one-sided power spectral density N
0
.
Thermal noise n
sh
(t) introduced by the electrical amplifier. It is modeled as additive white Gaussian
noise. The variance of noise [mV
2
] on the decision variable is equal to:

2
2 2 0
( )
2
th t L
N
R H f df
+
(2)
where H
L
(f) is the transfer function of the post-detection filter, N
0
/2 is the input-referred bilateral
power spectral density [(pA)
2
/Hz] and R
t
is the overall RX transfer function, which is generally a
transimpedance [Ohm] that transforms the input current [mA] into an output voltage [mV]
1
.
Shot noise n
sh
(t) introduced by photodetectors, modeled as a non stationary additive white Gaussian
random process with zero mean and signal-dependent variance. The variance of shot noise on the
decision variable is equal to [4]:

1
Since the overall RX performance does not depend on the value of R
t
, in the simulation program it is
assumed to be equal to 1 and neglected.

( )
2
2 2 2
( ) ( )
x
sh t e R
t G qRR h P t d
+
=
(3)
where q is the electron charge, R is the responsivity of the photodetector, G is the avalanche gain of
the APD, h
L
(t) is the impulse response of the overall electrical filtering (post-detection filter and
equalizer) and P
R
(t) is the power of the filtered optical signal at the input of the photodetector.
Model of Optical Binary Differential Receiver
With Modulation_format set equal to DPSK, the block models the receiver shown in Fig. 2. The optical
filter is followed by an AMZ filter, with the following optical field transfer function:

( ) 2
1
( ) 1 e
2
AMZ
j fT
AMZ
H f

+
(
=

(4)
where T
AMZ
is the optical (macroscopic) path difference within the interferometer (ideally equal to the
inverse of the symbol rate), is a phase-mismatch due to an additional microscopic path difference inside
the interferometer and <1 represents a finite extinction ratio. The sign reflects the two interferometer
output ports. The AMZ is then followed by a balanced photo-detector (BPD) device.

Figure 2: Binary differential receiver.

The implemented algorithm considers the following possible imperfections of the receiver components (see
[3-5]):
AMZ frequency offset f, corresponding to the detuning between the laser frequency and the
Asymmetric Mach-Zehnder central frequency. It is related to the phase mismatch through the
relationship:

2
S
f R
= (5)
where R
s
is the symbol rate (equal to the bit-rate in case of binary modulation).
AMZ extinction ratio, related to the parameter through the following relationship:

( )
( )
2
10 2
1
10 log
1
dB
(
+
= (
(

(6)
AMZ delay error, defined as the difference between the actual AMZ delay T
AMZ
and the symbol time
T=1/R
S
.
BPD phase imbalance, defined as the propagation delay difference between the two arms of the
BPD.
BPD amplitude imbalance , due to the difference between the responsivity values of the two
photodetectors:

1 1 2 2
1 1 2 2
R G R G
RG R G
=
+
(7)
The considered noise sources are the same as for the direct-detection receiver.
Model of DQPSK Receiver
With Modulation_format set equal to DQPSK_upper_arm or DQPSK_lower_arm, the block models the
corresponding arm of the receiver shown in Fig. 3. It is composed of two differential receivers (like the one
shown in Fig. 2), with a differential optical phase between the AMZ arms equal to /4.
When DQPSK modulation is used, a differential pre-coder [5] must be inserted at the transmitter in order to
properly use the synchronization feature of the BER estimating block.

Figure 3: DQPSK receiver.
.
Brief Description of the Semi-Analytical Technique
The semi-analytical technique used to evaluate the BER performance of the system is based on the
following main steps:
1. The noiseless optical signal at the input of the receiver is generated through simulation;
2. The probability density function (PDF) associated with each detected bit is determined using the
KLT technique described in the following (since beat noise between signal and ASE is inherently
non-stationary, the PDFs are different for each bit);
3. The overall BER at a given decision threshold s
th
and sampling instant t
s
is evaluated as:
( )
0,1
,
1
1
( , ) ,
N
th s e k th s
k
BER s t P s t kT
N
=
= +
(8)
where T is the inverse of the symbol rate and ( )
0,1
,
,
e k th s
P s t kT + denotes the error probability
associated with the decision of the k-th bit (either a 0 or a 1):
( ) ( )
0 1
, ,
( , ) , , ( , ) ,
th
th
s
e k th k e k th k
s
P s t PDF s t ds P s t PDF s t ds
= =

(9)
4. Joint minimization of (8) over the couple (s
th
,t
s
) is performed to obtain the BER at the optimum
threshold and sampling instant.
Karhunen-Loeve Technique (KLT)
Neglecting thermal and shot noise, the noisy electrical signal at the output of the receiver can be written as:

2
1 1
( ) ( ) * ( ) * ( )
o L
v t RG e t h t h t = (10)
for the direct detection receiver, and as:

2 2
1 1 2 2
( ) ( ) * ( ) * ( ) ( ) * ( ) * ( ) * ( )
o AMZ o AMZ L
v t RG e t h t h t R G e t h t h t h t
+
(
=
(

(11)
for the differential receiver, where e(t)=s(t)+n
ASE
(t).
The exact PDFs of the random variable v(t) can be efficiently evaluated by using the method described in
[2], based on the Karhunen-Love decomposition of signal and noise in the frequency domain. In the frame
of this method, the signals in (10) and (11) are written as inverse Fourier transforms [3]:

{ }
( ) [ ]
1 * *
1 1
*
1 1 2 2 1 2 1 2
( ) ( ) ( ) * ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) , ( ) exp 2 ( )
o o L
DD
v t F R G E f H f E f H f H f
E f K f f E f j f f t df df
( = =

=
(12)
for the direct detection receiver, and as:

{
}
( ) [ ]
1 * * *
1 1
* * *
2 2
*
1 1 2 2 1 2 1 2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) * ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) * ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) , ( ) exp 2 ( )
o AMZ o AMZ L
o AMZ o AMZ L
diff
v t F RG E f H f H f E f H f H f H f
R G E f H f H f E f H f H f H f
E f K f f E f j f f t df df
+ +

( =

( =

=
(13)
for the differential receiver, where:
( )
*
1 2 1 1 1 1 2 2
, ( ) ( ) ( )
DD o L o
K f f R G H f H f f H f = (14)

( )
* *
1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2
* *
2 2 1 1 1 2 2 2
, ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
diff o AMZ L o AMZ
o AMZ L o AMZ
K f f R G H f H f H f f H f H f
R G H f H f H f f H f H f
+ +

=

(15)
E(f) is the Fourier transform of the unfiltered optical field corrupted by ASE noise.
It can be shown (see [2]-[3]) that the signals (12) and (13) can be written in the form:

2
( ) ( ) ( )
i i i
i
v t b t n t = +
(16)
where b
i
(t) and v
i
(t) are the coefficients of the series expansion of the Fourier transform S(f) and N
ASE
(f) of
the noiseless received signal s(t) and of the ASE noise random process n
ASE
(t), respectively :

[ ]
[ ]
*
*
( ) ( ) exp 2 ( )
( ) ( ) exp 2 ( )
n n
n ASE n
b t S f j ft f df
v t N f j ft f df

=
=
(17)
{
m
(t)} is a set of orthonormal functions satisfying the following eigenvalue integral equation:
( )
2 1 2 2 1
( ) , ( )
m m m
f K f f df f =
(18)
where K(f
1
,f
2
) is as in (14) and (15) for direct detection and differential receivers respectively.
Using numerical integration algorithms (see [8], Chapter 4), the solution of equation (18) can be reduced to
the eigenvalue and eigenvector problem for an Hermitian matrix:
( ) ( ) ( )
2
2 1 2 2 2 1 2 2 1
0
( ) , ( ) , ( ) ,
MAX
MAX
f
k
m m m i i
i
f
f K f f df f K f f df x K f x
=

(19)
where
i MAX
i k
x f
k
= . The integration interval [-f

MAX,
f
MAX
] must be chosen in a way that the integrand
evaluated in f >f
MAX
is sufficiently small and does not affect the result anymore
2
. The choice of the number
of integration points (2k+1) is a compromise between accuracy and computational complexity
3
.
Equation (18) can thus be rewritten as:
( )
2
0
( ) , ( ) , 0,..., 2
k
m i n i m m n
i
x K x x x n m k
=
= =
(20)
i.e., in matrix form:
= K (21)
with K
i,j
=K(x
i
,x
j
),
ij
=
j
(x
i
),
ij
=
i
i,j
. Since K is Hermitian, the problem (22) is straightforward to solve
using the Jacobi routines in [8], Chapter 11.
Since n
ASE
(t) is a white random process, it can be shown that the noise expansion coefficients n
i
(t) are
statistically independent Gaussian random variables with zero mean and variance N
0
i
. Thus (16) represents
a weighted sum of nonzero-mean squared Gaussian random variables, whose moment generating function
(MGF) is equal to [5]:

( )
2
1
0
0
0
exp
1
( , )
1
val
i i
n
i
M
i
i
z b
z N
h t z
z N
=
(
(
+
(

=
+
(22)
with M=1 or 2 for single or double polarization representation, respectively. Ideally, the product in (22)
should span from 0 to . In practice, only a finite number n
val
of eigenvalues give a non-negligible
contribution to the MGF evaluation
4
.
If also additive electrical noise sources are present (like shot or thermal noise), which are statistically
independent from the optical ASE noise, the overall moment generating function of the decision variable
can be evaluated by multiplying (22) by the MGF of a Gaussian random process with zero mean and
variance
2
(t)=(
sh
(t))
2
+(
th
)
2
, i.e.:
( )
2 2
1
( , ) exp
2
el
h t z t z
(
=
(

(23)
Using the steepest descent approximation method [7], the probability of error can be evaluated as:

2
The criterion used in the simulation program consists of choosing f
MAX
such that both following
conditions are satisfied: |H
o
(f
MAX
)|<max{|H
o
(f)}/100 (i.e. the extreme values in the matrix K are
sufficiently small) and f
MAX
< 0.25 k/T
AMZ
(i.e. one period of the AMZ transfer function is represented by
at least 5 frequency points).
3
In the simulation program, a value of k equal to 50 has been adopted. It has been verified that, choosing k
as high as 100, would yield almost coincident results in most practical cases.
4
It has been verified that choosing n
val
as high as 30 is more than sufficient in all practical cases, thus we
adopted it in the simulation program.

( )
[ ]
( )
[ ]
0 0
,
0
1
,
1
exp ( , )
( , ) ,
2 "( , )
exp ( , )
( , ) ,
2 "( , )
th
th
e k th k
s
s
i
e k th k
t z
P s t PDF s t ds
t z
t z
P s t PDF s t ds
t z
=
=
(24)
with (t,z) defined as:

[ ]
2 2
1
exp ( , ) exp ( )
2
( , ) ln
th
zs h t z t z
t z
z
( (

( (

( =
(
(

(25)
is the second derivative of with respect to z and z
0
and z
1
are respectively the positive and negative
roots of the equation:

( , )
'( , ) 0
t z
t z
z
= =
(26)
Equation (26) can be efficiently solved using the bisection method described in [8], Chapter 9.
Filter Data File Formats
The syntax to be used for filter data files must match the following rules. Note that the optical filter data
file should contain a double-sided spectrum, whereas the electrical filter data file should contain positive
frequencies only.
Files must be written in plain ASCII text.
The first part of the file may contain comment lines. A line that has two '#' characters in the first
two columns is mandatory and it ends the comment section.
All comment lines must have a '#' character in the first column.
Comment lines are allowed only after the first line and above the '##' line.
The data must be written in lines, separated by blank space, each containing:
o the frequency as the first field [THz for optical filters, GHz for electrical filters]
o the filters square amplitude in linear scale
o the filters phase in radians
Abscissas (either frequency or wavelength) should be given in ascending order while abscissas are
not required to be strictly equispaced. Two or more points with the same frequency (or
wavelength) are not allowed: if this situation happens only the first line containing the repeated
value is considered and a warning message is shown. The maximum number of allowed points is
4095; if the file contains more than 4095 points, only the first 4095 points are considered and a
warning message is shown.
References
[1] G. Bosco and R. Gaudino, Towards new semi-analytical techniques for BER estimation in optical
system simulation, National Fiber Optics Engineers Conference NFOEC 2000, Denver (CO),
Tuesday Sess. E1, USA, Aug. 2000.
[2] J. S. Lee and C. S. Shim, Bit error rate analysis of optically preamplified receivers using an
eigenfunction expansion method in optical frequency domain, IEEE Journal of Lightwave
Technology, vol. 12, pp. 1224-1229, 1994.
[3] A. H. Gnauck and P. J. Winzer, Optical phase-shift-keyed transmission, IEEE Journal of Lightwave
Technology, vol. 23, n. 1, pp. 115-130, Jan. 2005.
[4] L. Kazovsky, S. Benedetto and A. Willner, Optical Fiber Communication Systems, Artech House,
1996.
[5] G. Bosco and P. Poggiolini, On the joint effect of receiver impairments on direct-detection DQPSK
systems, IEEE Journal of Lightwave Technology, vol. 24, pp. 1323-1333, Mar. 2006.
[6] A. M. Mathai, S. B. Prevost, Quadratic forms in random variables, New York, Marcel Dekker, 1992,
Chapter 3.
[7] C. W. Helstrom, Distribution of the filtered output of a quadratic rectifier computed by numerical
contour integration, IEEE Trans. on Inform. Theory, vol. IT-32, no. 4, Jul. 1986, pp. 450-463.
[8] W. H. Press, S. A. Teukolsky and W. T. Vetterling, Numerical recipes in C, Cambridge University
Press, 1992.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical Signal
#2: Binary Signal
Outputs
Parameter Values
Modulation_format enumerated DPSK IMDD, DPSK,
DQPSK_upper_arm,
DQPSK_lower_arm

Synchronization_flag enumerated No No, Yes
Fundamental_Pattern_Length integer 1 1 x 1000000
Sampling_Instant_Shift integer 0 -1000000 x 1000000
ASE_source enumerated Signal Signal, Specified
ASE_Power_Spectral_Density double 0 -1e32 x 1e32 dB[mW/GHz]
Polarizer_Flag enumerated No No, Yes
Thermal_Noise_Flag enumerated No No,
Power_Spectral_Density,
Variance

Thermal_Noise_PSD double 0 0 x 1e32 pA^2/Hz
Thermal_Noise_Variance double 0 0 x 1e32 mA^2
Shot_Noise_Flag enumerated No No, Yes
Photodiode1_Responsivity double 1 0 < x 1e32 A/W
Photodiode1_Avalanche_Gain double 1 1 x 1e32
Photodiode1_Excess_Noise_Factor double 0 0 x 1e32
Photodiode2_Responsivity double 1 0 < x 1e32 A/W
Photodiode2_Avalanche_Gain double 1 1 x 1e32
Photodiode2_Excess_Noise_Factor double 0 0 x 1e32
Optical_Filter enumerated Super
Gaussian
_Order2
File, Matched, None,
SuperGaussian_Order1,
Lorentzian, RaisedCosine

Optical_Filter_File string
Optical_Filter_Bandwidth double 30 0 < x 1e32 GHz
Optical_Filter_Rolloff double 0.5 0 x 1
Electrical_Filter enumerated Bessel
_Order5
File, Matched, None,
Lorentzian,
Bessel_Order2,
Bessel_Order3,
Bessel_Order4,
Bessel_Order5,
Bessel_Order6

Electrical_Filter_File string
Electrical_Filter_Bandwidth double 10 0 < x 1e32 GHz
MZ_frequency_offset double 0 -50 x 50 % Bit Rate
MZ_extinction_ratio double 1000 0 < x 1e32 dB
BPD_phase_imbalance double 0 -1e32 x 1e32 % Symbol Time
MZ_delay_mismatch double 0 -1e32 x 1e32 % Symbol Time
Flag_equalizer enumerated No No, Yes
Taps_delay double 100 0 < x 1e32 % Symbol Time
Equalizer_Coefficient_m7 double 0 -1e32 x 1e32
Equalizer_Coefficient_0 double 1 -1e32 x 1e32
Equalizer_Coefficient_p1 double 0 -1e32 x 1e32
BER_optimal_threshold enumerated None None, Local, NonLocal,
Both

Q_optimal_threshold enumerated None None, Local, NonLocal,
Both

Optimal_Threshold enumerated None None, Local, NonLocal,
Both

BER_average_threshold enumerated None None, Local, NonLocal,
Both

Q_average_threshold enumerated None None, Local, NonLocal,
Both

Average_Threshold enumerated None None, Local, NonLocal,
Both

Sampling_Instant enumerated None None, Local, NonLocal,
Both

Maximum, Std.Dev.,

Modulation_format Select IMDD (or duobinary), DPSK (or other binary differential
modulation format), DQPSK upper arm, or DQPSK lower arm
Synchronization_flag If this flag is set to Yes, the received signal is aligned with the
(deterministic) input bit sequence
Fundamental_Pattern_Length Fundamental pattern length of input bit sequence (actual bit sequence
at input may be longer)
Sampling_Instant_Shift Difference (in number of samples) between the actual sampling
instant used for the BER evaluation and its optimum estimated value.
If Synchronization_flag is set to Yes, the optimum sampling instant is
evaluated through the alignment of the received signal with the known
input bit sequence, otherwise it is estimated by maximizing the eye
opening.
ASE_source Select source of ASE value at the input, or from a user-specified
value. Note that for ASE at the input, if the input signal has no Y
polarization, then only one polarization of the ASE is used.
ASE_Power_Spectral_Density One-sided single-polarization ASE noise power spectral density in
dB[mW/GHz]
Polarizer_Flag When this flag is set to Yes, the model takes into account only the X
polarization for signal and ASE noise. This parameter is useful for
POLMUX systems where the channels are separated with a polarizer
and at the same time the ASE noise is filtered out.
Thermal_Noise_Flag This flag selects how the thermal noise is specified (either it is
neglected, defined through its power spectral density, or defined
through its variance after the electrical filter)
Thermal_Noise_PSD Input-referred thermal noise bilateral power spectral density in
pA
2
/Hz (as usually found in datasheets). The variance of noise on the
decision variable is then equal to:
2
2 0
( )
2
th L
N
H f df
+

where H
L
(f) is the overall transfer function of electrical filtering.
Thermal_Noise_Variance Variance of thermal noise on the decision variable
Shot_Noise_Flag Select whether or not to include shot noise
Photodiode1_Responsivity Responsivity of either the only photodiode for IMDD or the upper
arm photodiode for differential receivers
Photodiode1_Avalanche_Gain Avalanche gain of APD (linear). If a PIN is used, it must be set to 1.
Photodiode1_Excess_Noise_Factor Excess noise factor of APD
Photodiode2_Responsivity Responsivity of the lower arm photodiode
Photodiode2_Avalanche_Gain Avalanche gain of APD (linear) in the lower arm. If a PIN is used, it
must be set to 1
Photodiode2_Excess_Noise_Factor Excess noise factor of APD
Optical_Filter Specify optical filter type. The options are File, Matched (rectangular
in time), None, Super-Gaussian of order n, Lorentzian, and Raised
Cosine
Optical_Filter_File Optical filter data file
Optical_Filter_Bandwidth For file-based filter data, this parameter is equal to the scaling factor,
i.e. the real number that specifies the expansion/stretch factor in the
frequency scale of the transfer function stored in the data file. This
parameter should be set to 1 when scaling is not required. For
Matched filters, this parameter is the inverse of the time duration of
the rectangular pulse (in GHz). For all other filters, this parameter is
the -3dB optical filter bandwidth in GHz.
Optical_Filter_Rolloff Roll-off factor of the raised-cosine optical filter.
Electrical_Filter Specifies electrical filter type. The options are File, Matched
(rectangular in time), None, Lorentzian, and Bessel of order n.
Electrical_Filter_File Electrical filter data file
Electrical_Filter_Bandwidth For file-based filter data, this parameter is equal to the scaling factor,
i.e. the real number that specifies the expansion/stretch factor in the
frequency scale of the transfer function stored in the data file. This
parameter should be set to 1 when scaling is not required. For
Matched filters, this parameter is the inverse of the time duration of
the rectangular pulse (in GHz). For all other filters, this parameter is
the -3dB optical filter bandwidth in GHz.
MZ_frequency_offset Detuning f between the laser frequency and the Asymmetric Mach-
Zehnder central frequency (expressed in % of the bit rate)
MZ_extinction_ratio Extinction ratio in dB of AMZ
BPD_phase_imbalance Propagation delay difference between the two arms of the BPD
(expressed in %T, with T=1/R
S
, where R
S
is the symbol rate)
MZ_delay_mismatch AMZ delay error, defined as:
100 100
AMZ
T T T
T T

=
where T
AMZ
is the delay introduced by the AMZ and T is the inverse of
the symbol rate
Flag_equalizer If it is set to Yes, an FIR filter equalizer is inserted after the post-
detection filter. The transfer function of the filter is equal to:
2
( )
eq
N
j fnT
N
n N
H f c e

=
=

Taps_delay Time delay T
eq
between the equalizer taps (expressed in percentage of
symbol time T)
Equalizer_Coefficient_m7 FIR filter tap coefficient c
-7

-6

-5

-4

-3

-2

-1

Equalizer_Coefficient_0 FIR filter tap coefficient c
0

Equalizer_Coefficient_p1 FIR filter tap coefficient c
1

2

3

4

5

6

7

BER_optimal_threshold Toggle reporting of BER at optimal threshold
Q_optimal_threshold Toggle reporting of Q at optimal threshold
Optimal_Threshold Toggle reporting of optimal threshold
BER_average_threshold Toggle reporting of BER at average threshold
Q_average_threshold Toggle reporting of Q at average threshold
Average_Threshold Toggle reporting of average threshold
Sampling_Instant Toggle reporting of sampling instant
Monte Carlo DPSK BER Estimator

This model uses a state-of-the-art Monte-Carlo (MC) technique to compute the Bit Error Rate (BER) and Q
factor for a received DPSK signal. The algorithm for calculating the noise statistics of a received DPSK
signal is based on work done originally at the University of Central Florida (UCF). It is applicable to both
RZ- and NRZ-DPSK systems with bit rates as high as 10 Gbps, and which are limited by both linear and
nonlinear noise (as would be the case in a practical transmission link) and which exhibit reasonably small
transceiver imperfections (or none at all). (Note that since the algorithm treats SPM as the dominant source
of nonlinearity, results may not be as accurate for 40-Gbps systems in which FWM plays a significant role.)
The module is fully integrated with the generalized scanning facilities described in Chapter 7 of the OptSim
User Guide and so can produce important scan plots such as power penalty diagrams for the BER or Q.
MC DPSK BER Estimation Technique
The Monte-Carlo technique we will describe has nothing in common with the Monte-Carlo error
counting method. Rather, MC refers to the representation in which noise in the electrical signal is stored. In
Chapter 8 of the User Guide, we explain that electrical noise may be represented in two complementary
fashions. We summarize the MC picture here, but the reader is encouraged to read the full discussion in
Chapter 8.
In the MC picture, there is no real distinction between the signal and noise noise is included directly by
adding random variates to the signal samples V
k
. Viewed with a SignalAnalyzer or SpectrumAnalyzer, the
resultant signal genuinely appears noisy, and if the simulation is repeated, the noisy signal appears
different in successive runs. (More accurately, the repeatability of the noise from run to run depends on the
setting of the seed value for the random number generator in the model generating the noise. Most OptSim
models that generate noise allow the user to specify whether the seed changes or remains the same from run
to run.) As discussed in Chapter 8 of the User Guide, the MC approach is very general as it allows for noise
of any distribution or correlation function.
Given that noise is directly included as a stochastic contribution to the signal vector, the MC BER
Estimation algorithm must construct histograms for the upper and lower parts of the received electrical eye,
and so explicitly measure the statistics of the probability distribution functions for marks and spaces. These
distributions govern the spread of the upper and lower bars of the eye, respectively. Unlike the BER Tester
model (described elsewhere in this manual), which assumes Gaussian probability distribution functions in
determining the noise statistics, the MC DPSK BER Estimator uses an algorithm developed at UCF for
determining a more accurate probability distribution function that is applicable to DPSK systems. This
alternate approach is necessary since the assumption of Gaussian noise statistics in DPSK systems is not
accurate [1]. Figure 1 illustrates the accurate calculation of BER in DPSK systems using this algorithm in
comparison with an error counting method.
Once the probability functions have been calculated for a given electrical signal, we can find the probability
of an error given a specified threshold decision level by integrating that part of each distribution function
falling on the wrong side of the decision level. We denote as
0 1
P
the probability of mistakenly

measuring a space as a mark, and as
1 0
P
the probability of measuring a mark as a space.

The total bit error rate is then just

0 1
0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1
BER
n n
P P
n n n n

= +
+ +
(1)
where n
0
and n
1
are the numbers of spaces and marks, respectively, in the signal.


1.0E-05
1.0E-04
1.0E-03
1.0E-02
1.0E-01
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Power (dBm)
B
E
R

Error Counting
UCF MC DPSK Algorithm

Figure 1: Comparison of BERs in an RZ-DPSK system of 72 fiber spans, calculated using the UCF algorithm and
error counting [2].
Finally, we define the Q-factor via the relationship

1
BER erfc
2 2
Q | |
=
|
\ .
(2)
Strictly speaking, this equation is only valid for systems with Gaussian noise statistics, but as Q is a
common metric in optical system analysis, we adopt Eq. (2) as a definition for relating the BER to Q, rather
than as a strict theoretical relationship. Note that it is common in the communication community to refer to
Q in dB units using the following relationship
Q
dB
= 20 log
10
(Q
linear
) (3)
Then, for example, a BER of 10
-13
corresponds, according to Eqs. (2) and (3), to a Q-factor equal to 7.34 in
linear units and 17.32 in dB units. Users can choose linear or dB units for Q by setting the parameter
unitsForQ to linear or Q^2(dB).
Model Inputs
The BER Estimator has three input nodes, two for electrical signals and one for a binary signal. Figure 2
depicts OptSim topologies illustrating the signal connections to each of these input nodes in the context of
typical DPSK receivers. The BER Estimator requires that the DPSK receiver consist of an optical filter,
optical demodulator, and a balanced receiver. In Fig. 2(a), the optical filter is the component labeled
OptFilt, the optical demodulator is the delay interferometer MZDI, and the balanced receiver consists of
two single-ended receivers and an expression block to calculate the difference between their outputs. In
addition, the model requires that an additional single-ended receiver be connected to the signal node
directly before the optical demodulator. This receiver is necessary for accurately calculating the
contribution of linear noise to the DPSK BER, and must be included in your simulations using the same
parameters as the individual receivers used to form the balanced receiver. Figure 2(b) depicts an alternate
configuration in which the balanced receiver is broken up into its constituent components of photodetector,
amplifier, and filter, while the additional single-ended receiver is similarly subdivided.
As shown in Fig. 2, the first input node of the BER Estimator should be connected to the electrical signal
output from the balanced receiver. The second node should be connected to the output of the additional
single-ended receiver. Finally, a reference binary signal should be connected to the models binary-signal
input node, as shown in Fig. 2. Typically, one connects the PRBS Generator at the start of the link to the
BER Estimator at the end. In WDM simulations where there may be numerous binary signals generated, it
is important to match the binary signals to the correct BER Estimator.
In order to properly calculate a BER, the model requires some additional information about the input
signals. First, opticalFilterBW should be set equal to the bandwidth in Hz of the optical filter used in the
DPSK receiver. This is necessary since this filtering information is absent from the receivers electrical
signal output. Second, ASE_polarization is used to indicate to the model what was the polarization of ASE
at the optical filter input. Single corresponds to single-polarization ASE, and Dual corresponds to dual-
polarization ASE. Finally, the parameters preBits and postBits determine the number of bits at the start
and end of the signal that the BER Estimator ignores in calculating the BER. These should normally be set
to the same values of the corresponding parameters in the PRBS Generator. The purpose of these ignored
slots is to deal with any phase noise introduced through the periodic boundary conditions of the FFT
operation. The signature of this is unusually noisy or oscillatory signal patterns at the start or end of the
time window. The MC method is particularly sensitive to this kind of noise, and on occasion it may be
necessary to ignore 5 or more bits at either end.

(a)

(b)
Reference
Bitstream
DPSK Receiver
Receiver for Linear Noise
Estimation
DPSK
Input
DPSK Receiver
DPSK
Input
Reference
Bitstream
Receiver for Linear Noise
Estimation

Figure 2: OptSim topologies depicting proper usage of the MC DPSK BER Estimator. (a) Topology based on the
Compound Optical Receiver model. (b) Topology based on individual receiver subcomponents.
Scanning Facilities
In most problems, one wishes to know the BER as a function of one or more system parameters, so the
ability to scan results is important. The BER Estimator model is fully integrated into OptSims generalized
scanning facility described in Chapter 7, Section 7.1.2 of the User Guide. Using these facilities, the BER
and Q may be automatically plotted as functions of either the inner or outer scan variables. By attaching the
BER Estimator to an XY-Plotter, plots may be produced as a function of any other measured parameter.
This is particularly useful for creating power-penalty plots. The scanned properties are also reported in a
text file with the extension table.txt. Instructions for using these features are included in Chapter 7 of
the User Guide and are not repeated here. The facilities are available for all properties whose parameters
take the values None, Local, NonLocal and Both. Specifically, these parameters are PlotBER and PlotQ.
References
[1] P. J. Winzer, S. Chandrasekhar, and H. Kim, Impact of filtering on RZ-DPSK reception, IEEE
Photonics Technology Letters, vol. 15, no. 6, pp. 840-842, June 2003.
[2] Y. Han (private communication), 2007.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Electrical signal (detected DPSK signal)
#2: Electrical signal (pre-demodulation DPSK signal)
#3: Binary signal
Outputs
None or #1: MeasurandSig
Parameter Values

FilenameRoot string
opticalFilterBW double 10e9 ( 0, 1e32 ] Hz
ASE_polarization enumerated Dual Single, Dual
unitsForQ enumerated linear linear, Q^2(dB)
StatisticalPlotMode enumerated All Average, Minimum,
Maximum, Std.Dev.,

PlotBER enumerated Local None, Local,
NonLocal, Both

PlotQ enumerated None None, Local,
NonLocal, Both


FilenameRoot Filename prefix for data files.
opticalFilterBW Bandwidth of optical filter used in DPSK receiver.
ASE_polarization Specify whether ASE is single- or dual-polarization.
unitsForQ Toggle linear or Q^2(dB) units for the Q plot.
preBits Number of initial bits to ignore.
postBits Number of final bits to ignore.
StatisticalPlotMode Toggle statistical quantity to plot in scanning simulations.
SaveOrDisplayPlots Toggle automatic or manual display of plots, or disable plots.
PlotBER Toggle output of BER plot and data.
PlotQ Toggle output of Q plot and data.

XY-Plotter

This is a utility model that combines the output from scanning-aware blocks, to produce X-Y plots. Its use
is demonstrated in the section of the manual discussing scanning techniques, which should be read in
conjunction with this passage.
Several blocks currently the Optical Monitor, Optical Eye Analysis block and the BERTester support
special facilities for automatically generating plots during scans. In these plots, the independent variable
(x-axis quantity) is always the inner scan variable, and therefore must be an input parameter. However, it is
often necessary to use measured quantities as the x-axis variable. For example, a bit error rate could be
plotted as a function of output laser power or received optical power. In this case, the optical power would
be measured by an Optical Monitor block and the bit error rate by a BERTester. The XY-Plotter combines
these quantities into a single plot.
Figure 1 and Figure 2 illustrate the use of the model. Output ports have been added to the Optical Monitor
and BERTester. The OpticalPower and PlotBER parameters of the Optical Monitor and BERTester
respectively have been set to NonLocal or Both. This causes these quantities to be exported to the XY-
Plotter. When a scan is run, the output appears as in Figure 2. On the left, is the BER plot produced
internally by the BERTester. The x-axis show the drive_current of the direct modulated laser which was
the inner scan variable. The right-hand plot, produced by the XY-Plotter, replaces the drive_current with
the optical power obtained from the Optical Monitor to produce a power-penalty plot.

Figure 1: Use of XY-Plotter for combining quantities.

Figure 2: BER plots generated locally by BERTester (left), and by combining with Optical Monitor data in the XY-
Plotter.
Combining Quantities
Each of the scanning-aware blocks can output a number of quantities simultaneously. For example, the
Optical Monitor can output optical power, noise power, center frequency and several other quantities. All
these quantities are exported through the single output port of the Optical Monitor, and the same is true of
the various quantities calculated by the Optical Eye Analysis block and the BERTester. As a result, it is
possible for the x- and y-input ports of the XY-Plotter to accept several quantities at once. The most
common case is to have a single x-input quantity (say optical power) and multiple y-inputs. In this case,
the XY-Plotter produces one plot for each y quantity. If there are also several x-inputs, the parameter
CombineMode determines how they are combined with the y-inputs. With CombineMode=OneToOne,
the XY-Plotter expects the same number of x- and y-inputs and combines them in sequence. That is, the
nth x-quantity is plotted against the nth y-quantity. With CombineMode=AllCombs, the number of inputs
on each port need not be equal, and every x-quantity is plotted against every y-quantity.
Penalty Plots
The XY-Plotter can also generate penalty plots such as the power penalty for a given BER as a system
parameter is changed. To activate this feature, a comma-separated series of values is specified for the
parameter PenaltyLevels. For example, continuing the earlier example, if we set PenaltyLevels=1e-3, 1e-
5, 1e-7, the model generates plot shown in Figure 3. This plot is constructed by finding the intersections of
the curves in the above BER scan at each of the penalty levels, and can be considered as an axis rotation of
the standard scan. As such, it contains no additional information, but arranges the axes in such a way that
power penalties can be easily extracted as vertical distances between the curves.

Figure 3: Penalty plot for the BER scan in Figure 2.
Properties
Inputs
#1-2: MeasurandSig
Outputs
None
Parameter Values

CombineMode enumerated OneToOne OneToOne, AllCombs
FilenameRoot string
PenaltyLevels string


CombineMode Control combinations of multiple x and y inputs
FilenameRoot Filename root for output files
Plot Suppress, save or automatically display plots
PenaltyLevels Set levels for interpolating penalty plot.

Signal Analyzer

The Signal Analyzer block is used to display the signal waveform(s) of a signal at the node connected to its
input port(s). It has various settings which allow the user to customize the signal waveform display. The
user may set the timing offset of the start of the plot, set the title of the plot and the filename it is to be
written to, and determine whether to display the electrical signal noise or optical ASE noise on the plotted
signal value or not.
In addition, the user may choose among several signal representation options: the signal may be displayed
as its magnitude only, combined magnitude and phase plots with separate y axes, combined optical signal
magnitude and frequency chirp plots with separate y axes, combined electrical signal magnitude and noise
term plots with separate y axes, or separate real and imaginary components. By default, an optical signal is
displayed in magnitude representation and an electrical signal is displayed in real representation. The
optical noise is not displayed by the signal plot routine, so the magnitude and noise plot mode is treated the
same as the magnitude only plot mode for optical signals
When displaying optical signals, the polarization state to be displayed should be chosen by the user. When
the optical signal plot representation is set to magnitude and phase, magnitude and chirp, real, or real and
imaginary plots, the combined x and y polarization mode is not supported. If these combinations are
attempted, the x polarization state alone will be plotted. For magnitude plots, the combined x and y
polarization states may be displayed to view the total power in the signal as a function of time.
When displaying optical signal magnitude with frequency chirp, the powerThreshold parameter may be
used to limit the displayed chirp to only the region of the signal which is greater than the threshold value.
The block may be set to save the plot to a file for later retrieval (either from the graph view function, or by
double clicking on the plot icon), save and display the plot as soon as it is generated, or not to plot. These
options may be overridden globally for all plot icons in the simulation start dialogs.
Properties
Inputs
#1-N: Electrical, Optical, or Binary signal (all inputs must be of same type)
Outputs
None
Parameter Values

FilenameRoot string
Representation enumerated Default Magnitude,
Mag/Phase,
Mag/Chirp,
Mag/Noise, Real,
Real/Imag, Default

Polarization enumerated comb_x_and_y x_only, y_only,
sep_x_and_y,
comb_x_and_y, all

ShowNoise enumerated TRUE FALSE, TRUE
Toffset double 0 [ -1e15, 1e15 ] s
powerThreshold double 0 [ 0, 1e32 ] W
PowerUnits enumerated Watt Watt, dBm


Toffset Time offset of the start of the plot
showNoise Whether to show the noise in the plot or not
Plot Whether to create plot data, display the plot, or skip it
Polarization Which polarization states should be included in plot
FilenameRoot Root of the filename used to store the plot data
Representation Whether to display magnitude, magnitude and phase, magnitude and noise separately,
real portion only, real and imaginary separately, or use default according to input signal
type
PowerUnits Units for the magnitude power of optical signal: Watt or dBm
powerThreshold Optical signal power threshold above which the phase and frequency chirp may be
plotted

Constellation Diagram Analyzer

The Constellation Diagram block is used to display the constellation diagram of an electrical or optical
signal at the node connected to its input port. It displays the imaginary part of optical or electrical field as a
function of real part of optical or electrical field - i.e. in-phase and quadrature-phase signals are given on x-
and y-axes, correspondingly.
The Constellation Diagram Analyzer only accepts single-channel optical inputs contained within a single
optical signal. In the case when the input optical signal has both x- and y-polarizations then a separate
cosntellation diagram will be plotted for each polarization. In addition constellation diagram has settings
which allow the user to set the title of the plot and the filename it is to be written to, and determine whether
to display the optical signal ASE or electrical signal noise on the plotted diagram or not. The block may be
set to save the plot to a file for later retrieval (either from the graph view function, or by double clicking on
the plot icon), save and display the plot as soon as it is generated, or not to plot
Properties
Inputs
#1: Electrical or Optical signal
Outputs
None
Parameter Values

FilenameRoot string
ShowNoise enumerated No No, Yes
seed integer 1 [ -1e8, 1] none


ShowNoise Whether to show the optical signal ASE or electrical signal noise in the plot
or not
seed Random number generator seed for stochastically added noise. Follows
OptSim seed convention.
Eye Diagram Analyzer

The Eye Diagram block is used to display the eye diagram of a signal at the node connected to its input
port(s). By default, it displays the magnitude of optical signals and the real value of electrical signals. It
has settings which allow the user to shift the eye diagrams center in the plot window, set the title of the
plot and the filename it is to be written to, and determine whether to display the optical signal ASE or
electrical signal noise on the plotted eye diagram or not.
Properties
Inputs
#1-N: Electrical or Optical signal
Outputs
None
Parameter Values

FilenameRoot string
Type enumerated Default Default, Line,
Contour, ContourBW

Representation enumerated Default Magnitude, Real,
Default

comb_x_and_y

ShowNoise enumerated TRUE FALSE, TRUE


ShowNoise Whether to show the optical signal ASE or electrical signal noise in the plot or not
Polarization Which polarization states to include in plot
Representation Whether to display the magnitude of an electrical signal or the real portion only; Optical
signals are always displayed as magnitude, while Default sets electrical signals to display
real only
PowerUnits Units of optical signal magnitude power: Watt or dBm

Signal Spectrum Analyzer

The Signal Spectrum block is used to display the spectrum of a signal at the node connected to its input
port(s). In addition to plotting the magnitude of the spectrum (in forms of power, absolute value of field
amplitude, real and imaginary parts of the amplitude), the phase and group delays may also be plotted. A
parameter may be set to only plot the phase and group delays over regions where the power exceeds the
specified power threshold. It has options to plot the baseband signal spectrum, or in the case of an optical
signal, the optical spectrum in either wavelength domain or frequency domain. By default, it plots the
wavelength spectrum of an optical signal and the baseband spectrum of an electrical signal. For an optical
signal, the ASE noise may be either plotted separately from the signal, with the signal in the same plot
(deterministically), both of the preceding, stochastically combined with the signal, or not at all. In case of
stochastic noise the parameter seed will define random number generation following OptSim seed
convention. However, there are some restrictions on noise application to a signal spectrum. First, noise
cannot be added if the spectrum is plotted in baseband domain. Second, if the spectrum analyzer block has
more than one input, then noise can be either added stochastically or ASE noise bins for each input will be
plotted separately, but not in combined mode. The power spectrum plot may optionally be normalized
when specified in dBm units. The dc offset may optionally be ignored or included in the spectrum plot. To
save on disk space and time to save data files, the user may select a reduced resolution, or may optionally
save the plot data in the full simulated resolution. The user may also set the title of the plot and the
filename it is to be written to.
When viewing optical signal spectra (in Power spectrum representation only) in frequency or wavelength
format, the user may view the full optical spectrum data contained in OptSims signal representation, or
model the effect of a real-world optical spectrum analyzer (OSA) on the optical signal spectrum before it is
displayed. Simply put, an optical spectrum analyzer in a laboratory uses a window over a portion of the
spectrum to measure the optical power contained within that window. This window can be modeled as an
optical filter In addition, it has limitations on how small a detected power can be. This is specified as the
sensitivity of the OSA. By using the filtering and sensitivity limiting options of OptSims optical spectrum
plot block, simulation results can be displayed in a form which more closely resembles the experimental
results obtained by real-world optical spectrum analyzers in the laboratory. To make use of these
capabilities, specify the filter parameters which include the filter type and its parameters in either
wavelength or frequency units. The special filterThreshold parameter is used to improve the
computational efficiency of the block. To maximize the computational efficiency while not significantly
impacting the plot results, the threshold should be set to a value which is small enough that it makes no
significant difference if the filter function is treated as zero at that point in the filter response.
Properties
Inputs
#1-N: Electrical or Optical signal
Outputs
None
Parameter Values

FilenameRoot string
Spec_Representation enumerated Power Amp/Phase,
Pow/Phase,
Amp/Delay,
Pow/Delay,
Real/Imag, Power

Domain enumerated Default Baseband,
Frequency,
Wavelength, Default

comb_x_and_y

PowerThreshold double 0 [ 0, 1e32 ] W
PowerUnits enumerated dBm Watt, dBm
IncludeDCoffset enumerated Include Ignore, Include
Normalize enumerated No No, Yes
Resolution enumerated Limited Limited, Full
ResolutionLimit integer 2049 [ 2, 1000000 ] points
filterType enumerated None None, Gaussian,
Trapezoidal

filterSpecMode enumerated Frequency Frequency,
Wavelength

filterBW double 10e9 [ 1e-32, 1e32 ] Hz or meters
filterBW0dB double 0.1e9 [ 0, 1e32 ] Hz or meters
filterThreshold double -100 [ -1000, 0 ] dB
OSAsensitivityMode enumerated Unlimited Unlimited, Limited
OSAsensitivity double -65 [ -1000, 0 ] dBm
Spec_ShowNoise enumerated Combined No, Separately,
Combined, Both,
Stochastic



Spec_Representation Which combinations of signal spectrum amplitude, power, phase, group delay, or
real/imaginary to plot
Domain The type of spectrum plot
Polarization Which polarization states to include in optical spectrum plot
Normalize Whether to normalize the plot to dB or not
Resolution Whether to use the Full simulated resolution in the plot, or a reduced resolution for a
smaller plot file
ResolutionLimit The maximum number of data points to be included in plot data file if resolution is
reduced
IncludeDCoffset Whether to include or ignore the DC offset of the signal when computing the
spectrum
PowerThreshold Optical spectrum power threshold above which to plot the phase or group delay
Spec_ShowNoise Whether to plot the ASE noise of an optical signal in the same plot as the signal itself,
in a separate plot, both, stochastically combined, or neither. Valid only in wavelength
or frequency domain
seed Random number generator seed for stochastically added noise. Follows OptSim seed
convention.
filterSpecMode Whether OSA optical filter specs are specified in frequency units of Hz or wavelength
units of m
filterType Whether a Gaussian, trapezoidal, or no OSA optical filter is used. Can be applied only
when spectrum is in Power representation
filterBW Bandwidth of OSA optical filter in units determined by filterSpecMode
filterBW0dB For trapezoidal OSA optical filter, the bandwidth of the flat top of the filter response
with 0dB loss
filterOrder For Gaussian OSA optical filter, the order of the filter function
filterThreshold The filter loss at which all portions of filter response with a lower loss are set to
infinite loss
OSAsensitivityMode Whether to display full OSA optical spectrum data or limit it to power which is above
the specified sensitivity. Can be applied when signal is in Power representation, in
dBm units, and either wavelength or frequency domain.
OSAsensitivity The minimum optical power which the OSA registers; behaves as an optical noise
floor
Optical Frequency/Wavelength Chirp Analyzer

The Plot Chirp block is used to display the frequency chirp of an optical signal at the node connected to its
input port(s). It may be plotted in units of frequency (Hz) or wavelength (m). It has various settings which
allow the user to customize the signal waveform display. The user may set the timing offset of the start of
the plot, set the title of the plot and the filename it is to be written to, and set which of the two polarization
states should have their chirp displayed.
The frequency chirp is computed directly from the input optical signal using the following relation:
Frequency Chirp (Hz)
dt
d
2
1
=
where is the phase in units of radians.
Properties
Inputs
Outputs
None
Parameter Values

FilenameRoot string
Representation enumerated Frequency Frequency,
Wavelength

Polarization enumerated sep_x_and_y x_only, y_only,
sep_x_and_y

powerThreshold double 0 [ 0, 1e32 ] W


Plot Whether to crate plot data, display the plot, or skip it
Polarization Determines which polarization states should be shown
Representation Determines whether to plot in units of Frequency (Hz) or Wavelength (m).
PowerThreshold Optical signal power level above which the chirp should be plotted.

Optical Autocorrelator Analyzer

This model implements an optical autocorrelator for characterization of ultra-short pulses.
For pulses shorter than approximately 5-10 ps, real world photodetectors and other receivers are not able to resolve the
pulse profile. For ultra-short pulse work, autocorrelators may be used to characterize pulse shapes and phase profiles.
Of course in simulations, the PlotSignal model presents all time information for pulses of any length. However, for
comparison with experiments it may be useful to represent the pulse as an autocorrelation.
For each field component ( )
, x y
E t , the model calculates the complex autocorrelation function
( ) ( ) ( )
*
, , ,
d
x y x y x y
A t E t E t
= +

The plot is normalized to a maximum of 1.0 at 0 = .
If there is an ASE noise spectrum associated with the signal, the noise may be transferred to the stochastic signal
representation with the ShowNoise parameter.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical signal
Outputs
None
Parameter Values

FilenameRoot string
Representation enumerated Power/Phase Power,
Power/Phase,
Power/WrappedPha
se, Real/Imag

ShowNoise enumerated No No, Yes
PowerThreshold double 1e-10 [ 0, 1e32 ] W


Representation Display mode for plot
PowerThreshold Minimum power to display phase
ShowNoise Add ASE noise to signal before calculation
Multiplot

This model combines the features of five of the previous analyzer blocks: the Signal Analyzer, EyeDiagram Analyzer,
Spectrum Analyzer, Chirp Analyzer and the Optical Autocorrelator. Signals received by this block may be displayed
using any of these five analyzers and redisplayed with different settings at any time. The Multiplot is thus far more
flexible than the other plot blocks.
Usage
In setting up a topology, the Multiplot is used rather like any of the five standard analyzer blocks, in that its input node is
connected to any desired output source. Figure 1, for example shows the standard 10 Gigabit per second example from
Tutorial 1, with the various analyzers replaced by Multiplot blocks. Note that since a Multiplot serves as all of the other
blocks and since its settings can be changed and plots regenerated without repeating the simulation, there is never any
need to attach more than Multiplot to a particular block. This leads to simpler topologies as well as more flexible post-
processing.

Figure 1: Tutorial 1 topology using Multiplot blocks.
After the simulation is run, the output of the Multiplot is not activated by double clicking on the block as for a standard
analyzer block, but by opening the parameter dialog using a right-click. The parameter dialog for a Multiplot (see Fig.
2) is a little different to the standard appearance for all other blocks. Note the five buttons along the top. These are used
to generate any of the corresponding plots at any time simply by clicking the desired icon. (The icons match those for
the stanard plot blocks). The parameters of the dialog are divided into six tabs. The first General tab contains properties
that apply to all or several of the different output modes. The remaining five tabs contain parameters that only relate to a
particular output mode, say the Spectrum plot. The meanings of all these parameters are identical to the corresponding
parameters of the same names which are documented under the topics for each individual Analyzer block and we will
not repeat them here.

Figure 2: Multiplot parameter dialog showing plot icons for an electrical input.
The very first parameter datafile on the General tab is rather special. It is empty until a simulation is run, after which it
contains a list of available data files. These binary-format files contain a complete representation of the incoming signal.
The type of signal is indicated by the extension: .lsb (binary signal), .lse (electrical signal) or .lso (optical signal).
Since the data files contain a complete description of the signal, we can use them to generate any form of plot with any
settings we like as follows.
Display Procedure
The first step is to select a file from the datafile list. When this is done, OptSim will enable the appropriate
set of plot icons along the top row for that signal type. So if the selected datafile holds a binary signal, only
the Signal Analyzer icon is enabled and the remainder are greyed out. For an electrical signal, the
EyeDiagram and Spectrum icons are also enabled, while for an optical signal, all the icons are enabled.
(see Figs. 2 and 3).
To display a plot simply hit the icon of your choice.
On viewing the plot, you may decide that it would be more useful or more attractive with different settings.
You can adjust any of the properties in the parameter dialog you like and then regenerate the plot by hitting
the icon button again.
Each time an icon button is hit to generate a plot, a WinPLOT control file and one or more ascii data files
are created to represent the plot just as with the standard Analyzer blocks. By changing the FilenameRoot
property, you can create as many plots as you wish without having the WinPLOT files overwritten.

Figure 3: Multiplot parameter dialog showing icons for an optical signal.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical signal
Outputs
None
Parameter Values

datafile enumerated NOTHING NOTHING
style enumerated Signal Signal, Spectrum,
EyeDiagram, Chirp,
Autocorrelator

FilenameRoot string
Domain enumerated Default Default, Baseband,
Frequency,
Wavelength

ShowNoise enumerated Yes No, Yes
Polarization enumerated sep_x_and_y x_only, y_only,
sep_x_and_y,
comb_x_and_y

PowerThreshold double 1e-10 [ 0, 1e32 ] W
Sig_Representation enumerated Default Magnitude,
Mag/Phase,
Mag/Chirp,
Mag/Noise, Real,
Real/Imag, Default

Eye_Mode enumerated Default Default, Line,
Contour, ContourBW

Eye_Representation enumerated Default Magnitude, Real,
Default

Spec_Representatio
n
enumerated Power Amp/Phase,
Pow/Phase,
Amp/Delay,
Pow/Delay,
Real/Imag, Power

Spec_ShowNoise enumerated Combined No, Separately,
Combined, Both,
Stochastic

IncludeDCoffset enumerated Yes No, Yes
Normalize enumerated No No, Yes
Resolution enumerated Limited Limited, Full
ResolutionLimit integer 2049 [ 2, 1000000 ] points
filterType enumerated None None, Gaussian,
Trapezoidal

filterSpecMode enumerated Frequency Frequency,
Wavelength

filterBW double 10e9 [ 1e-32, 1e32 ] Hz or meters
filterBW0dB double 0.1e9 [ 0, 1e32 ] Hz or meters
filterThreshold double -100 [ -1000, 0 ] dB
OSAsensitivityMode enumerated Unlimited Unlimited, Limited
OSAsensitivity double -65 [ -1000, 0 ] dBm
AC_Representation enumerated Power/Phase Power, Power/Phase,
Power/WrappedPhas

e, Real/Imag

General Parameters

datafile Stored datasets available for display
FilenameRoot Filename roots for generated plots
Domain Frequency representation for spectrum abscissa or chirp plot ordinate
ShowNoise Include noise in display for Signal, EyeDiagram, and Autocorrelator plots
Polarization Which polarization states should be included in plot
PowerThreshold Optical signal power threshold above which the phase and frequency chirp may be
plotted
Seed Random number generator seed for stochastically added noise. Follows OptSim seed
convention

Signal Analyzer Parameters

Sig_Representation Format of the displayed signal: Magnitude/Phase, Magnitude/Chirp, Real/Imag etc

EyeDiagram Analyzer Parameters

Eye_Mode Appearance of eye diagram: Line, Contour, Black/White Contour
Eye_Representation Plot eye using magnitude or real part of the signal
Spectrum Analyzer Parameters

Spec_Representation Which combinations of signal spectrum amplitude, power, phase, group delay, or
real/imaginary to plot
Spec_ShowNoise Whether to plot the ASE noise of an optical signal in the same plot as the signal itself,
in a separate plot, both, stochastically combined, or neither. Valid only in wavelength
or frequency domain
IncludeDCoffset Whether to include or ignore the DC offset of the signal when computing the
spectrum
Normalize Whether to normalize the plot to dB or not
Resolution Whether to use the Full simulated resolution in the plot, or a reduced resolution for a
smaller plot file
ResolutionLimit The maximum number of data points to be included in plot data file if resolution is
reduced
filterType Whether a Gaussian, trapezoidal, or no OSA optical filter is used. Can be applied only
when spectrum is in Power representation
filterSpecMode Whether OSA optical filter specs are specified in frequency units of Hz or wavelength
units of m
filterBW Bandwidth of OSA optical filter in units determined by filterSpecMode
filterBW0dB For trapezoidal OSA optical filter, the bandwidth of the flat top of the filter response
with 0dB loss
filterOrder For Gaussian OSA optical filter, the order of the filter function
FilterThreshold The filter loss at which all portions of filter response with a lower loss are set to
infinite loss
OSAsensitivityMode Whether to display full OSA optical spectrum data or limit it to power which is above
the specified sensitivity. Can be applied when signal is in Power representation, in
dBm units, and either wavelength or frequency domain.
OSAsensitivity The minimum optical power which the OSA registers; behaves as an optical noise
floor

Autocorrelator Analyzer Parameters

AC_Representation Format for plot: Power/Phase, Power/WrappedPhase, Real/Imag

Transfer Function Analysis Tool

This model provides the facility to measure a spectrum change or a frequency response between any two points in
OptSim schematic. It can be applied to both optical and electrical signals.
The Tranfer Function Analysis Tool is an auxillary model that require use of other models to profuce the results. It does
not have any input ports and uses outputs of other model for its calculations. If, for example, we need to measure
frequency response or gain shape change of some device under test consisting of one or more components, first we have
to add spectrum analyzers before and after the device under test. Figure 1 demonstrates the example of Transfer Function
block usage. Here the device unbder test (DUT) consists of fiber and optical filter and we want to find out the frequency
response of that device. In addition to Transfer Function block we have two Spectrum Analyzer blocks connected before
and after the DUT. The parameter setting for both Spectrum Analyzers should be identical, specifically both have to use
setting PowerUnits: dBm and Spec_Representation: Power. Then to calculate the frequency response the Transfer
Funtion block will take a difference between two spectrums.

Figure 1: Topology demonstrating use of Transfer Function Analysis Tool.
In the properties dialog window for Tranfer Function Analysis Tool user has to specify names of input and output
spectrum in string parameters InputSpecrtrum and OutputSpecrtrum, correspondingly. These names should correspond
to parameter FilenameRoot of corresponding Spectrum Amalyzer, or in case if this field is blank, then to the name of
Spectrum Analyzer block.
The frequency response can be displayed in wavelength, frequency, and baseband domain by setting parameter Domain
in both Spectrum Analyzers. Also the spectrum can be normalized or not by setting parameter Normalize. Figure 2
shows the transfer function plots for the topology of Figure 1 in wavelength domain and baseband domain with
normalized spectra.
Setting the spectra in baseband domain and normalized give us conventional presentation of transfer fuucntion
(frequency response) and also allow determining graphically what is a 3-dB bandwidth for this transfer function. If we
zoom in the baseband plot of Figure 2 to the - 3dB level see Figure 3 - we can see that for this particular example 3-dB
bandwidth is about 6.3 GHz.

Figure 2: Examples of frequency response plots in wavelength (left) and basedand (right) domains.

Figure 3: 3-dB bandwidth of tranfer function derived from a plot.

Properties
Inputs
None
Outputs
None
Parameter Values
InputSpecrtrum string
OutputSpectrum string
FilenameRoot string
InputSpecrtrum Name of the spectrum analyzer block for input data
OutputSpectrum Name of the spectrum analyzer block for input data
OptSim Models Reference: Block Mode Chapter 11: Data Storage and Meta Blocks 407
Chapter 11: Data Storage and
Meta Blocks

This chapter describes data storage and meta blocks.

Save and Load Signal To/From File
save and load signal data to and from files
Repeat Loop and Typed Repeat Loop
repeat segment of the link several times
Delay Block
simulate iteration delay
Fork
split input signal losslessly
Typed Fork
split preset input signal type losslessly
Hierarchical Input Signal Port Block
input port for thehierarchical block
Hierarchical Output Signal Block
output port for the hierarchical block
Write Once Read Many (WORM) Block
write signal once to cache and read many times
Null Signal Block
feed null signal to the unused input ports of a compound component
408 Chapter 11: Data Storage and Meta Blocks OptSim Models Reference: Block Mode
Save and Load Signal To/From File
and
The Save Signal to File and Load Signal from File blocks are used to save and load signal data to and from files. The
save block saves the entire signal data structure so that future simulations can use the load block to use a previously
saved signal as a driving signal in the current simulation. For example, this allows the simulations of the transmitter,
channel, and receiver portions of an optical link to be simulated separately with results equivalent to performing a
simulation of all portions of the link at once.
Any type of signal may be saved by the Save Signal block. The Load Signal block will then create the type of output
signal which is specified in the data file.
The file is saved and loaded from the directory in which the simulation takes place, which also contains the topology
data file. The data files are formatted in a straightforward fashion to allow the user to modify the signal data if desired or
import it into other programs for further analysis.
File Formats
There are three file formats corresponding to the three signal types: Binary, Electrical, and Optical. Below we summarize
each format.
Binary Signal File Format
BEGINSIG
SET <simulation ID #>
INNERSWEEP <inner-sweep iteration>
OUTERSWEEP <outer-sweep iteration>
STATRUN <statistical-sweep iteration>
LOOP <repetition-loop iteration>
BinSigType
bitRate <bitrate (bps)>
startTime <start time (s)>
noPoints <number of bits>
bitSequence
<bit-value #1>
<bit-value #2>
...
<bit-value #noPoints>
ENDSIG
Electrical Signal File Format
BEGINSIG
ElecSigType
UnitType <CURRENT or VOLTAGE>
domain TIMEDOMAIN
patternLength <number of bits>
tStep <time step (s)>
startTime <start time (s)>
noPoints <number of samples>
elecSamples
<signal sample #1 (V)>
<signal sample #2 (V)>
...
<signal sample #noPoints (V)>
sigmaSamples
<rms noise sample #1 (V)>
<rms noise sample #2 (V)>
...
<rms noise sample #noPoints (V)>
ENDSIG
Optical Signal File Format
Not all of the sections in the Optical Signal file format presented below will appear in a particular data file. In cases
where no ASE spectrum is present, the OpSigASE ENDASE section will be absent. When no Y polarization is present,
no Ey_samples section will exist. Similarly, only for multimode signals will SpatialX (for the X polarization) and
SpatialY (for the Y polarization) sections be present. Finally, when multiple optical signals are present, there will be
multiple OpSigType ENDOpSig sections.
BEGINSIG
OpSigASE
fstart <ASE start frequency (Hz)>
fstep <ASE frequency step (Hz)>
noPoints <number of ASE data points>
powerSamples
<ASE value #1 (W/Hz)>
<ASE value #2 (W/Hz)>
...
<ASE value #noPoints (W/Hz)>
ENDASE
OpSigType
wavelength <wavelength (m)>
domain TIMEDOMAIN
noPoints <number of samples>
patternLength <number of bits>
tStep <time step (s)>
startTime <time step (s)>
RIN <RIN (Hz
-1
)>
SpatialX <mode type> <mode-data file name>
<l mode index> <m mode index>
<internal scaling factor (complex)>
<x shift (m)> <y shift (m)> <rotation (rad)>
<xmin (m)> <xmax (m)> <ymin (m)> <ymax (m)>
<dx (m)> <dy (m)>
<effective-index wavelength (m)> <effective index (complex)>
<group-velocity wavelength (m)> <group velocity (complex, m/s)>
<dispersion wavelength (m)> <dispersion (complex, s/m/m)>
SpatialY <mode type> <mode-data file name>
<l mode index> <m mode index>
<internal scaling factor (complex)>
<x shift (m)> <y shift (m)> <rotation (rad)>
<xmin (m)> <xmax (m)> <ymin (m)> <ymax (m)>
<dx (m)> <dy (m)>
<effective-index wavelength (m)> <effective index (complex)>
<group-velocity wavelength (m)> <group velocity (complex, m/s)>
<dispersion wavelength (m)> <dispersion (complex, s/m/m)>
Ex_samples
<Ex sample #1 (complex, W
1/2
)>
<Ex sample #2 (complex, W
1/2
)>
...
<Ex sample #noPoints (complex, W
1/2
)>
Ey_samples
<Ey sample #1 (complex, W
1/2
)>
<Ey sample #2 (complex, W
1/2
)>
...
<Ey sample #noPoints (complex, W
1/2
)>
ENDOpSig
ENDSIG
Mode-Data File Formats
As for the mode data files required by the SpatialX and SpatialY sections, there are different formats corresponding
to each of the possible settings for <mode type> (gridded, griddedradial, lpfiber, lg, hg, donut, uniform,
and mmfiber).
For gridded and griddedradial modes, the file formats are described in Section 9.3 of the OptSim User Guide.
For lpfiber modes, the file format is
<l mode index>
<m mode index>
<cladding material index>
<core material index>
<core radius (m)>
For lg modes, the file format is
<l mode index>
<m mode index>
<spot size (m)>
<inverse radius of curvature (m
-1
)>
For hg modes, the file format is
<l mode index>
<m mode index>
<x spot size (m)>
<y spot size (m)>
<x inverse radius of curvature (m
-1
)>
<y inverse radius of curvature (m
-1
)>
For donut modes, the file format is
<l mode index>
<inner radius(m)>
<outer radius (m)>
For uniform modes, the file format is
<width (m)>
For mmfiber modes, the file format is
<l mode index>
<m mode index>
<core material index>
<delta>
<core radius (m)>
Properties
Inputs
#1: Electrical, Optical, or Binary signal
Outputs
Same as Inputs

Parameter Values

FileName string


FileName
Name of the file to be saved or loaded

Repeat Loop and Typed Repeat Loop

The repetition loops are used to indicate a section of the topology which is to be repeated during the simulation the
specified number of times as if it were actually that many sets of component models connected together. The first input
at the left hand of the icon above is used to indicate the start of a repetition loop, while the output at the right of the icon
is used to indicate the end of a repetition loop. The number of times the loop is to be executed is defined by the
NumReps parameter.
The Repeat Loop model will automatically take at the run time the type of signal being repeated depending upon its input
port connection. On the other hand, a user needs to statically define the signal type in case of the Typed Repeat Loop
model via its parameter _vergil_signalType.
The input and output ports at the bottom of the icon above connect to the segment actually to be repeated. The following
schematic illustrates repetition loops:

The repetition loop icons may also be used to define network ring configurations. The loop begin icon would represent
the initialization of the ring. The loop end icon would represent the point in the ring where the signal wraps around to
the beginning, or the loop begin icon. Set the number of repetitions in the loop begin icon to represent the number of
times you wish the signal to circulate in the ring before the simulation completes.
Nested repetition loops are supported.
Properties
Inputs
#1-2: Electrical, Optical, or Binary signal
Outputs
Same as Inputs
Parameter Values

NumReps integer 1 [ 1, 100000 ] repetitions
_vergil_signalType enumerated Unknown_Signal Logical_Signal
Electrical_Signal
Optical_Signal
Unknown_Signal
Measurand_Signal
LambdaSim_Signal


NumReps Number of times the loop is to be repeated in the simulation
_vergil_signalType Type of the signal undergoing repetition loop(s)

Delay Block

The Delay Block model has a single parameter, the number_of_iterations_delay. In OptSim, a Delay Block with this
parameter equal to one simply puts out a single initial particle at its output port. This initial particle may enable a model,
assuming that the destination model for the Delay Block requires one particle in order to fire. To avoid deadlock, all
feedback loops must have a Delay Block. The simulation scheduler will flag an error if it finds a loop with no delays.
The particle type put out by the delay block depends on the type of signal connected to its input. The model uses a FIFO
queue to simulate delays greater than unity.

Properties
Inputs
#1: Any Block-Mode signal type
Outputs
#1: Same signal type as input signal
Parameter Values
number_of_iterations_delay int 1 [ 1, 100000 ]

number_of_iterations_delay the number of iterations to delay the signal at the input.
Fork

This block is used to represent the fork where input signal is losslessly split into many.
Properties
Inputs
#1: signal of any type
Outputs
#N: signals of input type

Typed Fork

This block is used to represent typed fork where input signal is losslessly split into many.
The type of the signal can be preset from the parameter box of this component.
Properties
Inputs
#1: signal of specific type
Outputs
#N: signals of input type

Hierarchical Input Signal Port Block

This block is used to represent the input ports to the superblock which the topology represents.
The input signal type is determined by the output signal type arriving at the input signal port block in the topology.
Properties
Inputs
none
Outputs

Hierarchical Output Signal Port Block

This block is used to represent the output ports of the superblock which the topology represents.
The output signal type is determined by the input signal type to the output signal port block in the topology.
Properties
Inputs
Outputs
none

Write Once Read Many (WORM) Block

The Write-Once/Read-Many model is a special model that is used to satisfy an unusual scheduling situation
in OptSim. In some cases the user will want to have a connection that branch into a reptition loop. The
simulation scheduler would normally treat this as an ambiguous connection diagram and issue and error.
The WO-RM model indicates a special situation to the scheduler. The scheduler ensures that the input
signal is cached inside the model and is read as many times as requested inside the loop. This model must
be used on all connections that branch into a repetition loop. The model has no parameters. The following
schematic illustrates its usage and purpose:

Properties
Inputs
Outputs
#1: signal of the input type
Null Signal Block

When not all of the input ports of a compound component are used in the main project file, OptSim issues
an error message. For example, if the compound component is a 4-channel transmitter, but the main project
file needs to use only, say, three of these four channels, a null signal block should be connected to the
fourth un-used input port of the compound component to fulfill the scheduling requirement. The following
schematic illustrates its usage and purpose. A single Null Signal block can be used to feed many input ports
at different points of the schematic. The model has no parameters.

Properties
Outputs

OptSim Models Reference: Block Mode Chapter 12: Transient Modules 423
Chapter 12: Transient Modules

This chapter describes transient modules.

Transient Pulse Generator
generate binary pulse
Compact Transient EDFA
model dynamic behavior of EDFA via a reservoir-based model
Transient EDFA
model dynamic behavior of EDFA via a set of well-established physical equations
Static Optical Switch (2X2)
model a 2X2 static optical switch
Transient Optical Switch (2X2)
model a 2X2 transient optical switch
Dynamic Optical Switch (2X2)
model a 2X2 dynamic optical switch
Transient Plotter
view generated live plots

424 Chapter 12: Transient Modules OptSim Models Reference: Block Mode
Transient Pulse Generator

This model generates a binary pulse. The model should be used in the transient simulation regime. A single sample of the
pulse is produced each iteration of a multiple iteration simulation. This model was created to drive the control input of
the Dynamic Optical Switch model that will be described later in this section. The pulse can control the state of the
optical switch. When the pulse is high the switch is in the cross state and when it is low it is in the bar state. The user can
set the period and duty cycle of the pulse in effect controlling the regular interval in which the state of the optical switch
will change. The user can also provide an array specifying an arbitrary sequence of bits that will be used at the
beginning of the simulation.
Properties
Inputs
None.
Outputs
#1-N: Binary signal
Parameter Values

pulse_period double 1.0e-4 [0,1] sec
pulse_duty_cycle double 50 [0,100] %
start_sequence enumerated ONES ONES, ZEROS
number_of_prebits int 0 [0, 10000 ]
prebits Integer array [0]

pulse_period The period of the binary pulse. This should be set relative to the Iteration and Time Step Per
Iteration parameters that are available from the Multiple Iteration Simulation tab in the Run
Window
pulse_duty_cycle The duty cycle of the pulse as a percent of the pulse period.
start_sequence Determines if the pulse should occur at the beginning or at the end of the pulse period.
number_of_prebits The number of special bits at the beginning of the simulation event. If this number N is
more than the number of bits M in the prebits array, the last bit in the array is repeated N-M
times.
prebits An integer array of the form [1,0,1,0,1,1] specifying an optional binary sequence of bits that
will be generated at the beginning of the simulation.

Compact Transient EDFA

This block models the dynamic operation of an erbium-doped fiber amplifier (EDFA) via a reservoir-based model
adapted from the work of Bononi et al. [1],[2] and Sun et al. [3]. The model supports a variety of pump and signal
configurations, as well as both fiber and waveguide amplifier geometries. (Strictly speaking, the latter geometry results
in an EDWA, but henceforth we will refer to the amplifier as an EDFA.) Forward-propagating optical signals are
launched into the EDFA via the first input node, while backward-propagating signals (e.g., counter-propagating pumps
and signals) can enter via the second input node. OptSims multiplexer components can be used to combine signals and
pumps at either input. The EDFA outputs are available at the output nodes, and include any signals, pumps, and
amplified spontaneous emission (ASE) that are exiting the amplifier. Output signals will be produced at the backward
output provided that there are input signals at the backward input.
Background
The Compact Transient EDFA model is based on a set of equations developed by Bononi et al. [1],[2] and Sun et al. [3].
Instead of dealing with propagation along the length of the EDFA, a reservoir approach is used wherein the total
EDFA upper-level population is used instead of the upper-level density as a function of length. This type of model can
be derived from standard EDFA models such as those described in [4]-[6].
As in the Physical and Transient EDFA models, the erbium atomic manifolds of interest can be reduced to a three-level
atomic system, as illustrated in Fig. 1(a), with population densities in each manifold assumed to be Boltzmann-
distributed at thermal equilibrium. Optical signals with wavelengths near 980 nm (henceforth referred to as the 980-
band) are used to pump from the first (
4
I
15/2
) to the third (
4
I
11/2
) level, while 1480-nm signals pump from the first to the
second (
4
I
13/2
) level. In the former case, fast non-radiative decay from the third to the second level effectively eliminates
any stimulated emission from the third to first level, allowing us to simplify the model to a two-level atomic system with
zero stimulated emission in the 980-band [5]. This reduced arrangement is depicted in Fig. 2(b), where R
13
is the
stimulated absorption rate for 980-band transitions, R
12
and R
21
4
I
15/2
and
4
I
13/2
levels, respectively, and is the spontaneous emission lifetime of the
4
I
13/2
level. The optical signals
being amplified by the EDFA usually have wavelengths ranging from 1530-1580-nm (the C-band) or 1580-1610-nm (the
L-band), and therefore interact with the same atomic populations as 1480-nm pumps. Thus, R
12
and R
21
account for both
signal and pump transitions at wavelengths typically ranging from 1450-1650-nm (henceforth referred to as the 1550-
band). Amplified spontaneous emission (ASE) in the EDFA also occurs in this band of wavelengths.

4
I
11/2
4
I
13/2
4
I
15/2
1550 nm
980 nm
1480 nm
pumps
level 2
level 1
R
13
R
21
R
12
1/

(a) (b)

Figure 1: Erbium atomic manifolds. (a) Three manifolds involved in predominant atomic transitions. (b) Simplified two-level model.
In order to describe the interaction between the erbium ions and local signal, pump, and noise powers, the model uses a
single rate equation for the total level-2 erbium ion population. This population is the reservoir r [1]. As shown in [1]-
[3], once r is known, the full spectral gain of the EDFA can be calculated. After dividing the frequency range of interest
into bins of width , the basic form of the equation, neglecting background loss, ASE noise, and upconversion is [1]:
( ) ( )
, ,
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) 1
j
G r t
j in j in
j
dr t r t
P t P t e
dt
+
(
( = + +

(1)
where j indexes the frequency bins at frequencies
j
,
,
( )
in j
P t
+
and
,
( )
in j
P t
are the forward and backward input signal

powers, is the Er metastable lifetime (metastable_lifetime), and G
j
is the gain (as a function of r). As shown in [2],
ASE noise generation can be added to the model if we assume a uniform inversion along the length of the EDFA. In this
model, we extend this assumption in order to include background loss and uniform upconversion [7]. In many situations
this approximation is a good one, giving results in good agreement with a full EDFA model. However, in cases where
the inversion is not uniform, the model will not be as accurate. This is a natural consequence of the tradeoff between
speed and accuracy, as this Compact Transient EDFA model is significantly faster than the full Transient EDFA model.
Below we present the model equations for both an overlap and Giles-based implementation. In these equations, 980-band
powers are denoted by
j
Q
k
P
, and ASE powers by

l
A
. A number of assumptions are inherent

to these equations. First, as noted above, uniform inversion along the length of the EDFA is assumed when including
ASE generation, background loss, and uniform upconversion. Second, we have assumed that 980-band signals all have
the same normalized mode profile ( )
p
r ; similarly, all 1550-band signals and ASE use a common profile ( )
s
r .
Third, higher order effects such as excited-state absorption (ESA) [4]-[5] are neglected. Finally, effects such as
dispersion and nonlinearities are also neglected, due to the relatively short lengths of most EDFAs. It should also be
noted that the model assumes no spectral overlap between separate optical signals. In cases where this is detected, the
model will issue an appropriate warning.
Model Levels
The different implementations of the Compact Transient EDFA model can be selected via the simulation_mode
parameter, and can take on values of giles_params, constant_overlap, or calculated_overlap.
Level giles_params
The Giles implementation should be used when measured gain and loss spectra (as opposed to emission and absorption
cross sections) are available. This well known approach significantly reduces the number of model parameters that are
necessary to model an EDFA. Such a model is generally valid for strongly confined erbium-doping profiles. The
reservoir rate equation and output-power equations are:

( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
, ,
2
, ,
, ,
1 1
1 1
1 1
1
(2) 1
j j
k k
l l
l l
l l
j in j in G L j
up
j
j j j
k in k in
G L k
k
k k k
l in l in
G L l
l
l l l
G L
l
G L
l
l l
Q Q
L
dr r
c r e
dt h G L
P P
L
e
h G L
A A
L
e
h G L
L e
D r e
G L
+ | |
= +
|
|
\ .
+
| |
+
|
\ .
+
| |
+
|
\ .

+
( )
1
1
l
l
l l
L
G L
(

(
`
(

)

(2)
, ,
j j
G L
j out j in
Q Q e

=
(3)
, ,
k k
G L
k out k in
P P e

=
(4)
, ,
1
(2)
l l
l l
G L
G L
l out l in l l
l l
e
A A e h D r
G L

| |
= +
|
\ .

(5)
where
2 2
giles
up
c
c
L
=
(6)
, ,
,
e j a j
j a j
g g
G r g L
+
=
(7)
, e l
l
g
D
=
(8)
In the above equations, g
e,j
and g
a,j
are the measured Giles gain and loss spectra, respectively (where the gain is zero in
the 980-band); is the fiber saturation parameter (fiber_saturation_param); L is the device length (length); c
giles

(giles_upconversion_coeff) is the Giles-model homogeneous upconversion coefficient; and h is Plancks constant.
Also, the factor of 2 in Equations (2) and (5) assumes that both polarizations are included in ASE generation. However,
as noted below, this factor can be controlled via the parameters inject_ASE and ASE_polarization.
In terms of computational complexity, the constant_overlap and calculated_overlap models are equivalent to the
giles_params model, but support a more thorough parameterized description of the EDFA, including
absorption/emission cross sections, doping profiles, and mode profiles. In these versions of the model, any explicit
transverse spatial dependence is replaced by factors that account for the spatial overlap between the erbium population
densities and optical modes [4]. In the calculated_overlap model, these overlap factors are determined from explicit
doping and mode profiles, whereas in the constant_overlap model, the user provides these values directly. For 980-band
signals, the overlap parameter is
p
s
(overlap_1550). Like the
giles_params model, the overlap models are ideally suited for EDFAs with strongly confined erbium-doping profiles.
The core equations for these models are the same as Equations (2)-(5), but with the following definitions for c
up
, G
j
, and
D
l
:
2
2
2 2 2
0
f
up
eff eff
cU
N c
c dA
A L A L N
= =

(9)
, ,
, 0
e j a j
j j a j j
eff
G r LN
A

+
=
(10)
, e l l
l
eff
D
A

=
(11)
where
e,j
and
a,j
are the emission and absorption spectra, respectively (where the emission is zero in the 980-band);
j

is the overlap factor, equal to
s
or
p
, depending on the frequency; N
2
is the upper-level density; N
0
is the average
doping density; c (upconversion_coeff) is the homogeneous upconversion coefficient; and A
eff
is the effective
transverse doping area. Note that both A
eff
and the transverse integral in Equation (9) are calculated internally by the
model.
EDFA Configurations
In specifying the configuration of the EDFA, the user must always specify a device length via the length parameter.
They should also specify whether the device is a fiber or waveguide amplifier via the parameter amplifier_type. They
may also provide coupling losses at both the input and output nodes via the parameters forward_input_loss,
backward_input_loss, output_loss, and backward_output_loss.
Noise Settings
From the ASE power propagation equations, we can see that the amount of ASE power locally injected at any point
along the length of the EDFA is typically 2 h [5]. The factor of two takes into account ASE injected in both
polarizations. In cases where only a single polarization is desired, the parameter ASE_polarization should be set to
single (as opposed to both). Local ASE injection may be completely eliminated from the simulation by setting
inject_ASE to no.
For optical signals and ASE in the 1550-band, the user must specify the Giles gain/loss spectra (for the Giles model), or
absorption/emission cross-section spectra (for the other models). By setting the spectra_1550_model parameter, the
user may select either built-in default spectra or device-specific data that is to be read in from a file.
germanosilicate fiber are used. If spectra_1550_model is set to default_GeAl, then spectra for an alumino-
germanosilicate fiber are chosen instead. In both cases, the data is based on analytical expressions taken from [5].
If spectra_1550_model is set to user_specified, then spectra must be provided through input files. For the Giles model,
the appropriate Giles loss/gain files are identified with the parameters giles_loss_1550_file and giles_gain_1550_file.
For the other models, cross-section data files are specified using the parameters absorption_1550_file and
emission_1550_file. The file format is described in the appendix.
A loss or absorption spectrum must also be provided for signals in the 980-band. In this case, three choices are available
via the parameter spectra_980_model. For either a rectangular profile (rectangular) or Gaussian profile (gaussian), the
user must specify a center wavelength (spectra_980_center) and spectral width (spectra_980_width). For the Giles
model, the center-wavelength loss is set via giles_loss_980. For the other models, the absorption cross-section center-
wavelength value is set via absorption_980.
If spectra_980_model is set to file, then the 980-band spectrum must be provided through an input file. For the Giles
model, the Giles loss file is identified with the parameter giles_loss_980_file. For the other models, the 980-band
absorption cross-section data file is specified using the parameter absorption_980_file. The file format is described in
the appendix.
Depending on the provided data, the model can automatically determine the range of wavelengths that comprise the 980-
band and 1550-band based on the range of the gain/loss or emission/absorption spectra. However, by setting
spectra_1550_auto_limit to no, the user may directly limit the 1550-band to a specific range of wavelengths via the
parameters spectra_1550_low and spectra_1550_high. Similarly, by setting spectra_980_auto_limit to no, the 980-
band limits can be set via the parameters spectra_980_low and spectra_980_high.
Thermal Dependence
Thermal dependence of either the absorption/emission or loss/gain spectra is modeled based on the work of M.
Bolshtyansky et al. in [8]. Given a set of reference spectra
ref
(absorption or loss) and g
ref
(emission or gain) at a
temperature T
ref
, spectra
new
and g
new
new
are calculated as:

1 2
1 2
/ /
/ /
( )
( ) ( )
( )
new new
ref ref
T T T T
ref
new ref T T T T
new
T
K e e
T K e e

+
=
+

(12)

1 2
1 2
/ 1
/ /
/ /
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
ref new
new new
ref ref
T T
T T T T
ref ref
new ref T T T T
new ref
T g
K e e
g g
T K e e

(
+
=
(
+
(

(13)
where K(), T
1
, and T
2
are empirical fitting parameters used to fit the thermal dependence to measured data. K() is equal
to F
1
()/F
2
(), where F
1
() and F
2
To activate this model, the user must set thermal_model equal to builtin or user, and specify the temperature
(reference_temp) at which the reference spectra were measured, and the new temperature (actual_temp) at which the
spectra should be modeled. The absorption/emission or loss/gain spectra specified earlier by the user are considered to be
the reference spectra.
1
, and T
2
are used, as these were reported to give good agreement
with experimental results for a wide range of silica-based aluminum co-coped EDFAs with varying levels of germanium
and aluminum. If the user has their own measured spectra that they would like to use, then they should select the user
model. For both the 980- and 1550-band spectra, they must specify a data file for K() (F1F2_ratio_1550_file and
F1F2_ratio_980_file) and values for T
1
(T1_1550 and T1_980) and T
2
(T2_1550 and T2_980). The format for the data
files is described in the appendix. Given a set of measured spectra at reference temperature T
ref
, and additional spectra at
temperatures T
a
, T
b
, T
c
, etc., the following procedure is suggested for determining optimal values for the empirical
parameters K(), T
1
, and T
2
:
1
and T
2
.
a
, T
b
, T
c
, etc., use equations (12) and (13) to determine K() for each additional gain and
loss spectra.
1
and T
2
. Repeat
steps 2 and 3, optimizing T
1
and T
2
until the error between the different calculations of K() is minimized.
Select one of the K() functions for use in the model.
Doping Profile
A number of choices are available for specifying the EDFA erbium doping profile. For fiber amplifiers, these options are
available through the doping_model parameter. For both rectangular and gaussian doping profiles, a doping radius and
peak density must be provided via the parameters doping_radius and doping_density, respectively. Alternatively, the
user may choose to provide a data file containing the doping density profile by setting doping_model to file and
specifying a file name through the parameter doping_file. The file format is described in the appendix.
For waveguide amplifiers, the parameter waveguide_doping_model is set to file, and the user must specify the doping-
profile data file via the parameter waveguide_doping_file. The format of this file is described in the appendix.
Mode Profiles
For the calculated_overlap and spatial models, 980-band and 1550-band mode profiles are required. For fiber
amplifiers, different mode shapes may be selected using the parameter mode_model. If mode_model is set to lp, then
LP
01
mode solutions [5] are determined for a fiber with the specified numerical aperture (fiber_NA) and fiber core radius
(fiber_core_radius). For all 1550-band signals, a wavelength of 1550 nm is used in the calculation, whereas a 980-nm
wavelength is adopted for all 980-band signals.
If a rectangular or gaussian set of mode shapes is chosen, then relevant mode widths must be specified via the
mode_1550_width and mode_980_width parameters. Because the calculated mode shapes are normalized, no
additional information is required.
Mode shapes can also be input from a data file by setting mode_model to file. The 1550-band file name must be
provided through the mode_1550_file parameter, while the 980-band file name must be entered through the
mode_980_file parameter. The file format is described in the appendix.
For waveguide amplifiers, mode shapes are input from a data file (waveguide_mode_model is set to file). The 1550-
band file name must be provided through the waveguide_mode_1550_file parameter, while the 980-band file name
must be entered through the waveguide_mode_980_file parameter. The file format is described in the appendix. Note
that as before, mode shapes are automatically normalized by the model.
Background Loss
In most fiber-amplifier simulations, fiber background loss can be neglected [5], in which case the parameter
If background_loss_model is set to constant, then uniform background loss is assumed, the value of which may be
specified with the parameter background_loss. Alternatively, different loss values can be provided for signals in the
1550- and 980-bands by setting background_loss_model to two_constant and specifying an additional 980-band loss
value through the background_loss_980 parameter. Finally, a background loss spectrum may be read in from a file by
setting background_loss_model to file and specifying a file name with the background_loss_file parameter. The file
Note that with the exception of the waveguide doping and mode profiles, all of the model characteristics that may be
specified via a data file support encrypted file formats. Data files from vendors may be provided in this manner. In this
case, an accompanying password file would be included with the data file, and should be placed in the same directory as
the link topology, or in the directory containing the RSoft software license files.
Numerical Settings
A number of numerical parameters are available to optimize the numerical calculations of the model. Adjustment of
these parameters may help overcome difficulties encountered during a simulation.
The nominal width for the discretized frequency intervals in the 980- and 1550-bands may be set using the
spectral_step parameter. As this parameter is set in units of nanometers, an equivalent spectral step in Hertz is
calculated internally by the model. The resolution of transverse calculations may also be adjusted by setting the
radial_points parameter to the desired number of points in the radial direction.
The user can set the number of simulation iterations to calculate steady state solutions before entering the transient
regime. This is done using the num_steady_state_iter parameter. This is often desirable, since it can take a number of
simulation iterations before some system topologies reach a steady state. We typically want to perturb the system after it
has reached a steady state operating point.
A very important numerical parameter for the Transient EDFA model is the Time Step Per Iteration value that is set in
the Multiple Iterations tab of the Run Window. This value is often referred to as the simulation time step. This is
implemented as a global simulation parameter rather than being local to the model because many of the models that
support transient simulations need to be synchronized to the same time step. The size of the simulation time step is often
limited by some physical properties associated with the design of the EDFA. For instance, an all-optical fixed-gain
EDFA may impose limits on the maximum time step. The propagation delay around the lasing loop or lasing cavity must
be taken into consideration. Otherwise, except for considerations related to numerical convergence, the user can adjust
the simulation time step while trading accuracy for total simulation time.
Finally, when amplifying or attenuating any incoming optical signals, the model applies its calculated gain spectrum to a
Fourier-domain representation of these signals. Normally, the spectral variation in the gain across the frequency band of
each signal is fully accounted for by setting the parameter gain_application to continuous. However, given the narrow-
band nature of most signals relative to typical spectral variations in EDFA gain, it sometimes may be easier to use a
constant gain value for each signal based on its carrier wavelength. In this case, gain_application should be set to
carrier. This approach may prove useful when discontinuities in an optical inputs phase at the signal boundaries lead to
anomalous output waveforms.
Reference Plots
In order to help study the performance of an EDFA within an optical link, a variety of reference plots can be generated
by the model. The generate_plots parameter allows the user to turn on and off all plots. The units for the displayed data
may be selected via the parameters spectral_units, power_units, and signal_gain_units (for gain and noise figure
data). The plotting_interval parameter allows the user to set the simulation times at which the model will periodically
generate internal plots. This level of control is very important when working with topologies that are simulated using
OptSims multiple iteration capability. Generating a set of plots for each execution of the system under study could lead
to an excessively large number of result files being saved to disk.
Below we summarize the different plots that may be generated, listing them by their root WinPlot file names.
1550_power_spectra_fwd.pcs:
Displays the forward input/output signal and ASE power spectra in the 1550-band.
Displays the backward input/output signal and ASE power spectra in the 1550-band.
980_power_spectra_fwd.pcs:
Displays the forward input and output 980-band power spectra.
Displays the backward input and output 980-band power spectra.
gain_fwd.pcs:
Displays the overall forward 1550-band signal gain spectra (1480-nm pumps excluded).
gain_bwd.pcs:
Displays the overall backward 1550-band signal gain spectra (1480-nm pumps excluded).
absolute_gain_fwd.pcs:
Displays a spectrum of the absolute change in forward input-signal power.
Displays a spectrum of the absolute change in backward input-signal power.
noise_figure_fwd.pcs:
Displays the overall forward 1550-band noise figure, calculated as a function of signal gain ( ) G , output
ASE spectral density ( )
ASE
, and input ASE spectral density
,
( )
ASE in
[4]:

,
( ) 1
1
( )
( )
1
ASE
ASE in
G h
NF
h

(
+
(

=
(
+
(

Note that the input ASE is taken into account when performing this calculation.
Displays the overall backward 1550-band noise figure
Test Functions
In selecting the input parameters for a particular EDFA, it may at times be necessary to visualize the various input
spectra, doping profiles, and mode shapes. By setting the test_function parameter to the desired output and clicking the
Test button in the component-parameter editing window, the user may display the EDFA characteristics summarized
below. Furthermore, the default plot ranges for each characteristic may be overridden by setting test_default_settings
to no, and specifying values for test_function_x_low, test_function_x_high, and test_function_points (the number of
data points to plot). The appropriate units for each characteristics overrides are listed in parentheses below. Units for
the displayed plots may be specified using the parameters spectral_units, radial_units, cross_section_units,
density_3d_units, and loss_units.
1550_spectra(nm):
Plots the 1550-band gain/loss (for the Giles model), or emission/absorption cross section spectra (for the
other models).
980_spectra(nm):
Plots the 980-band loss (for the Giles model), or absorption cross section spectrum (for the other models).
doping(um):
For fiber amplifiers, plots the erbium doping profile as a function of radius. For waveguide amplifiers, plots
the doping profile as a function of X and Y using internally generated plot ranges.
modes(um):
For fiber amplifiers, plots the 1550- and 980-band normalized mode profiles as functions of radius. For
waveguide amplifiers, plots the 1550- and 980-band normalized profiles as functions of X and Y using
internally generated plot ranges.
References
[1] A. Bononi and L. A. Rusch, Doped-fiber amplifier dynamics: A system perspective, Journal of Lightwave
Technology, 16, 945-956, (1998).
[2] A. Bononi, L. Barbieri, and L. A. Rusch, Using Spice to simulate gain dynamics in doped-fiber amplifier chains,
OFC 98 Workshop 204, February 1998.
[3] Y. Sun, J. L. Zyskind, and A. K. Srivastava, Average inversion level, modeling, and physics of erbium-doped fiber
amplifiers, IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics, 3, 991-1007, (1997).
[4] P. C. Becker, N. A. Olsson, and J. R. Simpson, Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifiers: Fundamentals and Technology.
(San Diego, Academic Press, 1999).
[6] C. R. Giles and E. Desurvire, Modeling erbium-doped fiber amplifiers, Journal of Lightwave Technology 9, 271-
283 (1991).
3+
-doped fiber
amplifiers: Experiments and modeling, IEEE Photonics Technology Letters, 3, 996-998 (1991).
[8] M. Bolshtyansky, P. Wysocki, and N. Conti, Model of temperature dependence for gain shape of erbium-doped
fiber amplifier, Journal of Lightwave Technology, 18, 1533-1540 (2000).
Properties
Inputs
Outputs
Parameter Values

constant_overlap,
calculated_overlap

-1
s
-1
overlap _1550 double 0.35 0 x 1e32
upconversion_coeff double 0 0 x 1e32 m
3
/s
giles_upconversion_coeff double 0 0 x 1e32 m
-1
s
-1
user_specified


2

two_constant, file

T1_1550 double 90 -1e32 x 1e32 K
T2_1550 double 650 -1e32 x 1e32 K
T1_980 double 90 -1e32 x 1e32 K
T2_980 double 650 -1e32 x 1e32 K
amplifier_type enumerated fiber fiber, waveguide
doping_model enumerated rectangular rectangular, gaussian, file
-3
doping_file string
waveguide_doping_model enumerated file file
waveguide_doping_file string
mode_model enumerated lp lp, gaussian, rectangular,
file

waveguide_mode_model enumerated file file
waveguide_mode_1550_file string
waveguide_mode_980_file string
num_steady_state_iter integer 10 1 x 100000
generate_plots enumerated no yes, no
plotting_interval double 100e-6 0.0 x 100000.0
cm^-1, m^-1, s^-1

km^2, Mm^2

cm^-3, m^-3, km^-3, Mm^-3

cm^-1, m^-1, km^-1, Mm^-1,
dB/km, dB/Mm

980_spectra(nm),
background_loss(nm)



forward_input_loss forward-propagation input coupling
backward_input_loss backward- propagation input coupling
output_loss forward-propagation output coupling
backward_output_loss backward- propagation output coupling
length EDFA length
upconversion_coeff upconversion coefficient for non-Giles models
emission_1550_file user-specified 1550-band emission cross-section data file
absorption_980 center-value of 980-band absorption cross-section
spectra_980_center center-wavelength of 980-band spectrum
1
/F
2
T1_1550 empirical T
1
T2_1550 empirical T
2
1
/F
2
T1_980 empirical T
1
T2_980 empirical T
2
amplifier_type switch for selecting between fiber and waveguide geometries
doping_model erbium-doping density options for fiber amplifier
doping_radius doping radius for fiber amplifier
doping_density center doping density (at r = 0) for fiber amplifier
doping_file user-specified doping-profile data file for fiber amplifier
waveguide_doping_model erbium-doping density options for waveguide amplifier
waveguide_doping_file user-specified doping-profile data file for waveguide amplifier
mode_model optical mode shape options for fiber amplifier
fiber_NA fiber numerical aperture for fiber amplifier
fiber_core_radius fiber core radius for fiber amplifier
mode_1550_width 1550-band optical-mode width for fiber amplifier
mode_980_width 980-band optical-mode width for fiber amplifier
mode_1550_file user-specified 1550-band mode-profile data file for fiber amplifier
mode_980_file user-specified 980-band mode-profile data file for fiber amplifier
waveguide_mode_model optical mode shape options for waveguide amplifier
waveguide_mode_1550_file user-specified 1550-band mode-profile data file for waveguide amplifier
waveguide_mode_980_file user-specified 980-band mode-profile data file for waveguide amplifier
num_steady_state_iter number of steady-state iterations to calculate during transient simulation
generate_plots switch to override individual plot settings
plotting_interval the regular time interval to generate internal plots
For two-dimensional data files, the X-values should be monotonically increasing or decreasing. Furthermore, the field
<num_pts> specifies the number of data lines in the file, while the choice of settings for the various unit fields are as
follows:
<loss_units>: [nm^-1], [um^-1], [cm^-1], [m^-1], [km^-1], [Mm^-1], [dB/nm], [dB/um], [dB/cm],
[dB/m], [dB/km], [dB/Mm]
Data files with gain and loss spectra for the Giles model are specified through the parameters giles_gain_1550_file,
giles_loss_1550_file, and giles_loss_980_file. The X-values are in units of frequency, and the Y-values are in units of
loss per distance.
Format:
<num_pts>
...
Example:
5
1450 0.3
1500 0.6
1530 2.0
1550 1.2
1600 0.4
Data files with absorption/emission cross sections are specified through the parameters absorption_1550_file,
emission_1550_file, and absorption_980_file. The X-values are in units of frequency, and the Y-values are in units of
area.
Format:
<num_pts>
...
Example:
5
1450 0.7e-25
1500 2.4e-25
1530 7.0e-25
1550 4.3e-25
1601 0.2e-25
F1F2_ratio_1550_file and F1F2_ratio_980_file. The X-values are in units of frequency, and the Y-values are unitless.
Format:
<num_pts>
...
Example:
5
1500 0.40
1510 0.45
1520 0.50
1530 0.45
1540 0.40
Doping Profile
For fiber amplifiers, a user-specified doping profile may be specified via the parameter doping_file. The X-values are in
units of distance, and the Y-values are in units of cubic density.
Format:
<num_pts>
...
Example:
5
0 1.00e19
0.25 1.00e19
0.50 1.00e19
0.75 0.50e19
1.0 0.25e19

For waveguide amplifiers, a user-specified doping profile may be specified via the parameter waveguide_doping_file.
The X- and Y-values should be in m, the doping density values in units of m
-3
. The file format is shown below, where
<num_x_pts> (<num_y_pts>) is the number of points in the X- (Y-) direction, <x_min> (<y_min>) and <x_max>
(<y_max>) are the minimum and maximum X- (Y-) values, respectively, and <data @ (x,y)> is the doping density at
grid point (x,y).
Format:
/rn,a,b/nx0/ls1
/r,qa,qb
<num_x_pts> <x_min> <x_max> 0 OUTPUT_REAL_3D
<num_y_pts> <y_min> <y_max>
<data @ (x_min,y_min)> <data @ (x_min,y_max)>

<data @ (x_max,y_min)> <data @ (x_max,y_max)>
Mode Profiles
For fiber amplifiers, data files with mode shapes may be specified using the parameters mode_1550_file and
mode_980_file. The X-values are in units of distance, and the Y-values are considered unitless (the mode profiles are
Format:
<num_pts>
...
Example:
5
0 1
1 0.7
2 0.4
3 0.25
5 0.15
For waveguide amplifiers, waveguide profiles may be specified via the parameters waveguide_mode_1550_file and
waveguide_mode_980_file. The X- and Y-values should be in m, the mode values are unitless. The file format is
shown below, where <num_x_pts> (<num_y_pts>) is the number of points in the X- (Y-) direction, <x_min>
(<y_min>) and <x_max> (<y_max>) are the minimum and maximum X- (Y-) values, and <data @ (x,y)> is the mode
value at grid point (x,y).
Format:
/rn,a,b/nx0/ls1
/r,qa,qb
<num_x_pts> <x_min> <x_max> 0 OUTPUT_REAL_3D
<num_y_pts> <y_min> <y_max>
<data @ (x_min,y_min)> <data @ (x_min,y_max)>

<data @ (x_max,y_min)> <data @ (x_max,y_max)>
Background Loss
A data file with the background-loss spectrum may be specified using the background_loss_file parameter. The X-
values are in units of frequency, and the Y-values are in units of loss per distance.
Format:
<num_pts>
...
Example:
5
1.40 0.25
1.45 0.21
1.50 0.19
1.55 0.17
1.60 0.21
Transient EDFA

This block models the dynamic operation of an erbium-doped fiber amplifier (EDFA) via a set of well-established
physical equations. The component is based on the Giles model that was presented in the section that described the
Physical EDFA model. The model supports a variety of pump and signal configurations. Figure 1 illustrates an OptSim
schematic that utilizes the Transient EDFA model. Forward-propagating optical signals are launched into the EDFA via
the first input node, while backward-propagating signals (e.g., counter-propagating pumps and signals) can enter via the
second input node. OptSims multiplexer components can be used to combine signals and pumps at either input. The
EDFA outputs are available at the output nodes, and include any signals, pumps, and amplified spontaneous emission
(ASE) that are exiting the amplifier. When the model operates in bi-directional propagation mode output signals will also
be produced at the backward output provided that there are input signals at the backward input.

Figure 1: OptSim topology depicting a Transient EDFA with forward propagating signals and a feedback loop.
Background
Like the Physical EDFA model, the Transient EDFA model is based on a standard set of equations for an EDFAs
atomic manifold population densities and the evolution of optical powers along the length of the device [1]-[3]. Unlike
the Physical EDFA model, the Transient EDFA model also models the transient response of the EDFA. Therefore, this
model can be used to study the transitional interval between two steady-state operating points. Although the model can
handle detailed sampled signals, it is more efficient to study transient effects using CW signals. The gain dynamics of the
EDFA does not respond to the bit transitions in an optical signal so using CW signals does not affect the behavior of the
amplifier.
Optical signals propagating along the EDFA interact with the local population densities, resulting in power gain or loss
via stimulated emission and absorption. Spontaneous emission and its subsequent amplification also occur. The general
background that was presented for the Physical EDFA model is repeated below for completeness.
Generally, the erbium atomic manifolds of interest can be reduced to a three-level atomic system, as illustrated in
Fig.2(a), with population densities in each manifold assumed to be Boltzmann-distributed at thermal equilibrium.
Optical signals with wavelengths near 980 nm (henceforth referred to as the 980-band) are used to pump from the first
(
4
I
15/2
) to the third (
4
I
11/2
) level, while 1480-nm signals pump from the first to the second (
4
I
13/2
) level. In the former
case, fast non-radiative decay from the third to the second level effectively eliminates any stimulated emission from the
third to first level, allowing us to simplify the model to a two-level atomic system with zero stimulated emission in the
980-band [2]. This reduced arrangement is depicted in Fig.2(b), where R
13
is the stimulated absorption rate for 980-band
transitions, R
12
and R
21
4
I
15/2
and
4
I
13/2
levels, respectively, and
is the spontaneous emission lifetime of the
4
I
13/2
level. The optical signals being amplified by the EDFA usually have
wavelengths ranging from 1530-1580-nm (the C-band) or 1580-1610-nm (the L-band), and therefore interact with the
same atomic populations as 1480-nm pumps. Thus, R
12
and R
21
account for both signal and pump transitions at
wavelengths typically ranging from 1450-1650-nm (henceforth referred to as the 1550-band). Amplified spontaneous
emission (ASE) in the EDFA also occurs in this band of wavelengths.

4
I
11/2
4
I
13/2
4
I
15/2
1550 nm
980 nm
1480 nm
pumps
level 2
level 1
R
13
R
21
R
12
1/

(a) (b)

Figure 2: Erbium atomic manifolds. (a) Three manifolds involved in predominant erbium atomic transitions. (b) Simplified two-level
model.
In order to describe the interaction between the erbium ions and local signal, pump, and noise powers, the model uses a
set of rate equations for erbium ion densities in each atomic level. However, because the sum of these two densities
should equal the total erbium doping density N, we can in fact adopt a single rate equation for the level-2 population
density N
2
. Furthermore, in most EDFA applications, the long lifetime of the metastable level-2 population acts to
eliminate any significant transient changes in the level populations, thereby allowing us to set the time rate-of-change for
N
2
to zero. In other words, the EDFAs operating characteristics depend on average optical powers. Thus [2],

12 21
2 2
13 1 12 1 21 2 1 2 ASE ASE
dN N
R N R N R N R N R N
dt
= + +

(1)
where N
1
= N N
2
is the level-1 population density, R
ASE12
is the stimulated absorption rate for spontaneous emission,
and R
ASE21
is the corresponding stimulated emission rate. Generally, because there is a continuum of transition
frequencies between the erbium atomic manifolds, each of the transition rates R in Eq.(1) are of the form:

d
h
r
R

=
) ( ) ( ) (
r

(2)
where is the transition frequency, ( ) is the frequency-dependent transition cross section, ( ) is the local
optical spectral density, and ( ) r
v
is the normalized optical mode profile. By assuming homogeneous broadening of
the atomic transitions, we have adopted a single frequency-dependent function for the transition cross sections [2].
Following the approach in Ref.[2], we can discretize the above integral over fixed frequency intervals , in which
case the transition rates take the form

( )
i i i
i i
P P
R
h

+
+
=

(3)
i
P
+
) and backward (
i
P
) signal powers in each

frequency interval.
To complete the model, rate equations are necessary for describing the evolution of signal, pump, and noise powers
along the EDFA. Separate equations for both forward and backward propagation are required for 980-band signals,
1550-band signals, and 1550-band ASE. Again following the approach taken in [2], we have adopted the following
equations:

dQ
dz
N r r r dr N r r r dr Q
j
a j p a j p
j
j

2
2
2

, ,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
(4)

dP
dz
k
e k a k s a k s
k
k
= +

2
2
2

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
, , ,

(5)

( )
, , 2 ,
, 2
2 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2
2 ( ) ( ) 2
l l
e l a l s a l s l
e l s l
dA
dz
N r r r dr h
(
= +
(

(

(6)
where 980-band powers are denoted by
j
Q
k
P
, and ASE powers by

l
A
. Intrinsic background
loss is accounted for by , and locally generated spontaneous emission is included via the last term in Eq.(6).
A number of assumptions are inherent to Eqs.(4)-(6). First, we have assumed that the erbium-doping and mode profiles
have no azimuthal dependence. Second, we have assumed that 980-band signals all have the same normalized mode
profile ( )
p
r ; similarly, all 1550-band signals and ASE use a common profile ( )
s
r . Third, higher order effects
such as excited-state absorption (ESA) [1]-[2] are neglected. However, higher order effects such as upconversion and
pair-induced quenching, while not included in the above equations, are included in the model, and will be explained
shortly. Finally, fiber effects such as dispersion and nonlinearities are also neglected, due to the relatively short lengths
of most EDFAs. It should also be noted that the model assumes no spectral overlap between separate optical signals. In
cases where this is detected, the model will issue an appropriate warning.
The number of wavelength channels passing through an EDFA in a multiwavelength network will vary as a result of
network reconfiguration, network growth to larger number of channels, or component failures that can cause one or more
channel to drop out. Because these amplifiers are operating near saturation, and since the total output power of a
saturated EDFA is very nearly constant, independent of the number of channels, the gain experienced by each channel
will, therefore, depend on the number of channels present. This will induce time-varying perturbations, via transient
cross-saturation in the amplifier, on other wavelengths. These perturbations, which in general accumulate along an
amplifier chain, may grow large in systems that undergo reconfiguration. Cross-saturation in the networks EDFAs will
induce power transients in the surviving channels, the speed of which is proportional to the number of amplifiers in the
network. The increased gain when channels are dropped can give rise to surviving channel errors since the power of the
surviving channels may surpass the thresholds for nonlinear effects such as Brillouin scattering. Rapidly changing gain,
due to channel drop or addition, can lead to errors as the receivers ability to adapt to changing power levels may be
exceeded. An important design goal in multiwavelength optical networks is to ensure that information in one channel is
not degraded by any changes in the other channels. Therefore, both steady state gain and fast transients must be
controlled. The transient gain changes that occur at the time of channel dropping present a particular challenge in
amplifier cascades. While typical time scales for gain changes in a single amplifier are tens of microseconds, the time
constant for a chain of N amplifiers is 1/N times shorter than that of a single amplifier [6]. Thus long chains of amplifiers
will require faster control to limit the undesirable power excursions, presenting a greater gain stabilization challenge.

The Transient EDFA model is based on the spectrally resolved numerical model of Giles [3] which assumes a
homogeneous broadened gain medium.. As shown in [3], the model equations presented above can be significantly
simplified by dealing with the average level-population densities and eliminating their explicit spatial dependence via
measured gain and loss spectra (as opposed to emission and absorption cross sections) that are weighted by the local
doping and mode profiles. The Giles model uses these simplifications. Such a model is generally valid for strongly
confined erbium-doping profiles.The fiber is completely characterized by only four parameters; the Er
3+

absorption
coefficient a(), the gain coefficient g(), the fiber intrinsic background loss , and fiber saturation parameter
( fiber_saturation_param) = An
t
/ . Here A is the erbium core area, n
t
is the ion density, and is the metastable
lifetime. The model uses both the time and space dependent rate (Eqn. 20) and propagation (Eqn. 18) equations of [3]
which are repeated below as equations (7) and (8) respectively:
.
) ( ) (
2
2
2 2 ,
2
1 1 ,
2

n
n P n P n d
k
eff k
k ek k
k
eff k
k ak k
b hv
z
b hv
z
dt
=

(7)
dP
dz
u g
n
n
P z u g
n
n
mhv u l P
k
k k k
t
k k k
t
k k k k k
= + + + ( ) ( ) ( )
* *
.

2 2
(8)
() =
a
()()n
t
(9)

g
() =
e
()()n
t
(10)
t n n n
r z r z r z ( , , ) ( , , ) ( , , ). = +
1 2
(11)
The first term of equation (7) represents the metastable population through absorption of light, the second term
represents the stimulated emission which causes depletion of the metastable level and the last term represents
spontaneous emission from the metastable level. Using equations (9) and (10), defining a new fiber parameter,

= b
n
eff
t
2
, the ratio of the linear density of ions to the metastable lifetime, assuming that
k,1
and
k,2
are nearly
equal (i.e. the erbium ions are well confined to the center of the optical modes), equation (7) becomes:
2
1
2
2
2
2
dn
n
n
n
n
n
dt hv b
P z
g
hv b
P z
k
t
k eff
k
k
k
t
k eff k
k
=

( ) ( )
*
(12)
simplifying further we have:
2 1 2 2 dn n n n
dt hv
P z
g
hv
P z
k
k
k
k
k
k k
k
=

( ) ( )
*
(13)
Letting n
n
n
t
=
2
and using equation (11), equation (13) becomes
dn
dt
P z
hv
n
g P z
hv
n
n
k k
k k
k k
k k
=

( )
( )
( )
*
1 (14)
The parameter can be determined from measurements of the fiber saturation power P
k
sat
as,
= + P g hv
k
sat
k k k
( ) /
*
. Solving equations (8) and (14) iteratively is the foundation of the numerical Transient
EDFA model. The boundary conditions at z = 0 and L for the k beams must be specified in order to solve the equations
numerically. Both equations are integrated over space (z), optical frequency (k), and time (t). The fourth-order Runge-
Kutta method is used to solve the equations. The space and time are decomposed into a grid of M x N discrete bins z
and t, respectively. The space equations are integrated iteratively for each time t = mt (m = 1, 2,,N). The initial
conditions of the system for the metastable state population [i.e., n
2
(z,t = 0)], are given by solving the steady state
inversion equation (Eqn. 19) of [3], repeated below as equation (15). In the steady state regime where the populations are
time invariant, i.e.
dn
dt
i
= 0 , equation (7) provides the static solution:
2
1
n
nt
k k
k k
k k k
k k
P z
hv
P z g
hv
=
+
+
( )
( )( )
*
(15)
This condition is applicable for CW beams and those modulated at frequencies in excess of 10 kHz [3]. The initial set of
power levels at each discrete point of the fiber is obtained by substituting equation (15) into equation (8). The algorithm
uses the initial conditions to evaluate the inversion for the first time step t. The calculated value of the inversion is then
used to calculate the signal, ASE noise spectrum, and power in the pump as a function of position. These powers are then
used to evaluate the inversion at the next time step 2t. By this computationally intense iterative process, we are able to
capture and accurately characterize the dynamic behavior of the EDFA.
Higher-Order Effects
The above equations ignore higher-order effects such as homogeneous upconversion [4] and pair-induced quenching [5].
Based on the treatments in [1], [4], and [5], we have incorporated these effects into the Physical EDFA model.
Homogeneous upconversion is accounted for via the parameter giles_upconversion_coeff . Pair-induced quenching is
incorporated via the parameter pair_fraction, which should be set equal to the fraction of Er ions that appear in pairs
within the fiber. This parameter is equal to twice the parameter k from [1] and [5].
EDFA Configurations
In specifying the configuration of the EDFA, the user must always specify a fiber length via the length parameter. They
may also provide coupling losses at both the input and output nodes via the parameters forward_input_loss,
backward_input_loss, and output_loss. Furthermore, they may select to have any pumps (i.e., optical signals with
wavelengths near 980 or 1480 nm) excluded from the model output via the output_pumps parameter. Setting this
option to no is useful in cases where the pump signal no longer impacts system performance in components that follow
the EDFA.
The EDFA model may also be used to simulate bidirectional signal propagation. In this case, the parameter bidirectional
should be set to yes. The user may then provide input signals at both the forward and backward input nodes. The
backward output appears at the backward output node of the model. The user may specify a backward output coupling
loss via the parameter backward_output_loss. Note that the parameter bidirectional must be set to yes if the user is
only providing input signals at the backward input.
In addition to these basic configuration settings, the Transient EDFA model also supports various EDFA pump/signal
recycling schemes [2]. By placing mirrors at either end of an EDFA, pumps and/or signals may be recycled, thereby
providing the opportunity for enhanced amplification. Such configurations may be selected through the
mirror_configuration parameter. The most basic option is no_mirror, in which no pump/signal reflectors are included
in the EDFA (This configuration is always activated if bidirectional is set to yes.). In cases where forward-propagating
optical inputs are to be recycled (typically pumps), the forward_mirror option should be selected. This arrangement is
illustrated in Fig.3(a). Alternatively, backward-propagating inputs may be recycled via the backward_mirror option,
shown in Fig.3(b). In this case, the user may select to have the reflected signal included in the EDFA output via the
output_reflected option. Finally, the user may choose to adopt a signal recycling scheme, such as that depicted in
Fig.3(c), wherein the EDFA input and output are actually at the same end of the device, with an optical circulator
providing separation between the two. Both signal and pump may be recycled in this manner. This option may be
chosen by setting mirror_configuration to signal_mirror.

input
EDFA
output
EDFA
input
output
O
reflector
reflector
input
EDFA
output
reflector
input (bwd)
circulator
(a) (b)
(c)

Figure 3: EDFA pump/signal recycling configurations. (a) Co-propagating pump reflector. (b) Counter-propagating pump
reflector. (c) Signal/pump recycler.
The spectral characteristics of any mirrors included in the EDFA are set via the mirror_model, mirror_reflectivity,
mirror_center, mirror_bandwidth, and mirror_file parameters. Setting mirror_model to rectangular implements a
rectangular spectra with the in-band reflectivity specified by mirror_reflectivity, a center wavelength specified by
mirror_center, and a bandwidth specified by mirror_bandwidth. The Gaussian option for mirror_model uses the same
parameters, but of course implements a Gaussian wavelength dependence. Alternatively, a reflectivity spectrum may be
read in directly from a file by setting mirror_model to file, and providing a file name in mirror_file. The file format is
described in the appendix.
Noise Settings
From the ASE power propagation equations, we can see that the amount of ASE power locally injected at any point
along the length of the EDFA is typically 2 h [2]. The factor of two takes into account ASE injected in both
polarizations. In cases where only a single polarization is desired, the parameter ASE_polarization should be set to
single (as opposed to both). Local ASE injection may be completely eliminated from the simulation by setting
inject_ASE to no.
For optical signals and ASE in the 1550-band, the user must specify the Giles gain/loss spectra . By setting the
spectra_1550_model parameter, the user may select either built-in default spectra or device-specific data that is to be
read in from a file.
germanosilicate fiber are used. If spectra_1550_model is set to default_GeAl, then spectra for an alumino-
germanosilicate fiber are chosen instead. In both cases, the data is based on analytical expressions taken from [2].
If spectra_1550_model is set to user_specified, then spectra must be provided through input files. The appropriate
Giles gain/loss files are identified with the parameters giles_loss_1550_file and giles_gain_1550_file. The file format
is described in the appendix.
A loss or absorption spectrum must also be provided for signals in the 980-band. In this case, three choices are available
via the parameter spectra_980_model. For either a rectangular profile (rectangular) or Gaussian profile (Gaussian), the
user must specify a center wavelength (spectra_980_center) and spectral width (spectra_980_width). The center-
wavelength loss is set via giles_loss_980. If spectra_980_model is set to file, then the 980-band spectrum must be
provided through an input file. The Giles loss file is identified with the parameter giles_loss_980_file. The file format
is described in the appendix.
Depending on the provided data, the model can automatically determine the range of wavelengths that comprise the 980-
band and 1550-band based on the range of the gain/loss or emission/absorption spectra. However, by setting
spectra_1550_auto_limit to no, the user may directly limit the 1550-band to a specific range of wavelengths via the
parameters spectra_1550_low and spectra_1550_high. Similarly, by setting spectra_980_auto_limit to no, the 980-
band limits can be set via the parameters spectra_980_low and spectra_980_high.
Thermal Dependence
Thermal dependence of the loss/gain spectra is modeled based on the work of M. Bolshtyansky et al. in [7]. Given a set
of reference spectra
ref
(loss) and g
ref
(gain) at a temperature T
ref
, spectra
new
and g
new
new
are
calculated as:

1 2
1 2
/ /
/ /
( )
( ) ( )
( )
new new
ref ref
T T T T
ref
new ref T T T T
new
T
K e e
T K e e

+
=
+

(16)

1 2
1 2
/ 1
/ /
/ /
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
ref new
new new
ref ref
T T
T T T T
ref ref
new ref T T T T
new ref
T g
K e e
g g
T K e e

(
+
=
(
+
(

(17)
where K(), T
1
, and T
2
are empirical fitting parameters used to fit the thermal dependence to measured data. K() is equal
to F
1
()/F
2
(), where F
1
() and F
2
To activate this model, the user must set thermal_model equal to builtin or user, and specify the temperature
(reference_temp) at which the reference spectra were measured, and the new temperature (actual_temp) at which the
spectra should be modeled. The loss/gain spectra specified earlier by the user are considered to be the reference spectra.
1
, and T
2
are used, as these were reported to give good agreement
with experimental results for a wide range of silica-based aluminum co-coped EDFAs with varying levels of germanium
and aluminum. If the user has their own measured spectra that they would like to use, then they should select the user
model. For both the 980- and 1550-band spectra, they must specify a data file for K() (F1F2_ratio_1550_file and
F1F2_ratio_980_file) and values for T
1
(T1_1550 and T1_980) and T
2
(T2_1550 and T2_980). The format for the data
files is described in the appendix. Given a set of measured spectra at reference temperature T
ref
, and additional spectra at
temperatures T
a
, T
b
, T
c
, etc., the following procedure is suggested for determining optimal values for the empirical
parameters K(), T
1
, and T
2
:
1
and T
2
.
a
, T
b
, T
c
, etc., use equations (15) and (16) to determine K() for each additional gain and
loss spectra.
1
and T
2
. Repeat
steps 2 and 3, optimizing T
1
and T
2
until the error between the different calculations of K() is minimized.
Select one of the K() functions for use in the model.
Background Loss
In most simulations, fiber background loss can be neglected [2], in which case the parameter background_loss_model
should be set to no_loss. However, other options are available if required.
If background_loss_model is set to constant, then uniform background loss is assumed, the value of which may be
specified with the parameter background_loss. Alternatively, different loss values can be provided for signals in the
1550- and 980-bands by setting background_loss_model to two_constant and specifying an additional 980-band loss
value through the background_loss_980 parameter. Finally, a background loss spectrum may be read in from a file by
setting background_loss_model to file and specifying a file name with the background_loss_file parameter. The file
Note that all of the model characteristics that may be specified via a data file support encrypted file formats. Data files
from vendors may be provided in this manner. In this case, an accompanying password file would be included with the
data file, and should be placed in the same directory as the link topology, or in the directory containing the RSoft
software license files.
Numerical Settings
A number of numerical parameters are available to optimize the numerical solution of the bidirectional rate equations for
the pump/signal/ASE power evolution. Adjustment of these parameters may help overcome any convergence difficulties
encountered during a simulation.
The numerical integration of the power evolution rate equations is handled via a constant-step-size fourth-order Runge-
Kutta algorithm. The integration step along the length of the EDFA may be adjusted using the z_step parameter.
Similarly, the nominal width for the discretized frequency intervals in the 980- and 1550-bands may be set using the
spectral_step parameter. As this parameter is set in units of nanometers, an equivalent spectral step in Hertz is
calculated internally by the model.
As mentioned before, the initial conditions of the model is calculated by solving the steady-state equation shown in
equation (15). The bidirectional nature of the power-evolution rate equations requires an iterative solution scheme in this
case, the control of which may be achieved through the iterative_damping and convergence_tolerance parameters.
The iterative_damping controls the rate at which the solution is allowed to progress to a final answer. Larger values
slow down this process, and may be required when convergence is difficult to achieve. Parameter
convergence_tolerance is the convergence criterion. Convergence is achieved when the largest change in the power
solution between successive iterations is less than convergence_tolerance. To limit the time spent on a poorly
converging solution, the maximum number of iterations may be set with the parameter max_iterations. The user can set
the number of simulation iterations to calculate steady state solutions before entering the transient regime. This is done
using the num_steady_state_iter parameter. This is often desirable, since it can take a number of simulation iterations
before some system topologies reach a steady state. We typically want to perturb the system after it has reached a steady
state operating point.
A very important numerical parameter for the Transient EDFA model is the Time Step Per Iteration value that is set in
the Multiple Iterations tab of the Run Window. This value is often referred to as the simulation time step. This is
implemented as a global simulation parameter rather than being local to the model because many of the models that
support transient simulations need to be synchronized to the same time step. The size of the simulation time step is often
limited by some physical properties associated with the design of the EDFA. For instance, an all-optical fixed-gain
EDFA may impose limits on the maximum time step. The propagation delay around the lasing loop or lasing cavity must
be taken into consideration. Otherwise, except for considerations related to numerical convergence, the user can adjust
the simulation time step while trading accuracy for total simulation time.
Finally, when amplifying or attenuating any incoming optical signals, the model applies its calculated gain spectrum to a
Fourier-domain representation of these signals. Normally, the spectral variation in the gain across the frequency band of
each signal is fully accounted for by setting the parameter gain_application to continuous. However, given the narrow-
band nature of most signals relative to typical spectral variations in EDFA gain, it sometimes may be easier to use a
constant gain value for each signal based on its carrier wavelength. In this case, gain_application should be set to
carrier. This approach may prove useful when discontinuities in an optical inputs phase at the signal boundaries lead to
anomalous output waveforms.
Reference Plots
In order to help study the performance of an EDFA within an optical link, a variety of reference plots can be generated
by the model in order to study internal power evolution, signal gain, noise figure, and the atomic-manifold population
densities. What plots are generated is determined via the parameters power_plots, spectra_plots, density_plots,
gain_nf_plot (by setting them to either yes or no); they may be displayed at the conclusion of a simulation by double-
clicking on the EDFAs icon. The generate_plots parameter allows the user to turn on and off all plots using a single
control. The units for the displayed data may be selected via the parameters spectral_units, power_units, length_units,
radial_units, density_3d_units, and signal_gain_units (for gain and noise figure data). . Below we summarize the
different plots that may be generated, listing them by their root WinPlot file names. The plotting_interval parameter
allows the user to set the simulation times at which the model will periodically generate internal plots. This level of
control is very important when working with topologies that are simulated using OptSims multiple iteration capability.
Generating a set of plots for each execution of the system under study could lead to an excessively large number of result
files being saved to disk.
power_plots
Displays the evolution of total power in the 1550-band signals (1480-nm pumps excluded) and ASE along
the length of the EDFA. Both forward and backward directions of propagation are included.
pump_evolution.pcs:
Displays the evolution of forward- and backward-propagating optical powers for pump wavelengths near
980 and 1480 nm.
gain_evolution.pcs:
Displays the evolution of signal gain along the EDFA.
Displays a contour plot of the complete forward-propagating 1550-band power spectra solution along the
length of the EDFA.
Displays the corresponding contour plot for the backward-propagating 1550-band power spectra solution.
.
spectra_plots
Bidirectional mode only. Displays the backward input/output signal and ASE power spectra in the 1550-
band.
Displays the internal ASE power spectra at both ends of the EDFA.
gain.pcs:
gain_bwd.pcs:
Bidirectional mode only. Displays the overall backward 1550-band signal gain spectra (1480-nm pumps
excluded).
absolute_gain.pcs:
Bidirectional mode only. Displays a spectrum of the absolute change in backward input-signal power.
noise_figure.pcs:
Displays the overall 1550-band noise figure, calculated as a function of signal gain ( ) G and output ASE
spectral density ( )
ASE
[1]:

( ) 1
1
( )
ASE
NF
G h

(
= +
(


density_plots
Displays the average population densities along the length of the EDFA in both the upper and lower atomic
levels.
n2(r)_vs_z.pcs:
(spatial model only) Displays a contour plot of the transverse population density along the EDFA for the
upper atomic level.
gain_nf_plot
gain_scan.pcs:
Displays the gain of the EDFA at the wavelength specified via the parameter target_wavelength. If the
topology is simulated via a parameter scan, then this plot shows the gain as a function of the scanned
parameters. This plot can be useful for gain optimization of the EDFA.
gain_scan_bwd.pcs:
Bidirectional mode only. Displays the backward gain of the EDFA at the wavelength specified via the
parameter target_wavelength.
Displays the noise figure of the EDFA at the wavelength specified via the parameter target_wavelength. If
the topology is simulated via a parameter scan, then this plot shows the noise figure as a function of the
scanned parameters.
Bidirectional mode only. Displays the backward noise figure of the EDFA at the wavelength specified via
the parameter target_wavelength.

Test Functions
In selecting the input parameters for a particular EDFA, it may at times be necessary to visualize the various input
spectra, doping profiles, and mode shapes. By setting the test_function parameter to the desired output and clicking the
Test button in the component-parameter editing window, the user may display the EDFA characteristics summarized
below. Furthermore, the default plot ranges for each characteristic may be overridden by setting test_default_settings
to no, and specifying values for test_function_x_low, test_function_x_high, and test_function_points (the number of
data points to plot). The appropriate units for each characteristics overrides are listed in parentheses below. Units for
the displayed plots may be specified using the parameters spectral_units, density_3d_units, loss_units, and
reflectivity_units.
1550_spectra(nm):
Plots the 1550-band gain/loss (for the Giles model), or emission/absorption cross section spectra (for the
other models).
980_spectra(nm):
Plots the 980-band loss (for the Giles model), or absorption cross section spectrum (for the other models).
mirror(nm):
References
[1] P. C. Becker, N. A. Olsson, and J. R. Simpson, Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifiers: Fundamentals and Technology.
(San Diego, Academic Press, 1999).
[3] C. R. Giles and E. Desurvire, Modeling erbium-doped fiber amplifiers, Journal of Lightwave Technology 9, 271-
283 (1991).
3+
-doped fiber
amplifiers: Experiments and modeling, IEEE Photonics Technology Letters, 3, 996-998 (1991).
[5] E. Delevaque, T. Georges, M. Monerie, P. Lamouler, and J.-F. Bayon, Modeling of pair-induced quenching in
erbium-doped silicate fibers, IEEE Photonics Technology Letters, 5, 73-75 (1993).
[6] J. L. Zyskind, Y. Sun, A. K. Srivastava, J. W. Sulhoff, A. J. Lucero, C. Wolf, and R. W. Tkach, Fast Power
Transients in Optically Amplified Optical Networks, Optical Fiber Communication Conference (Optical Society of
America) postdeadline paper PD31.
[7] M. Bolshtyansky, P. Wysocki, and N. Conti, Model of temperature dependence for gain shape of erbium-doped
fiber amplifier, Journal of Lightwave Technology, 18, 1533-1540 (2000).

Properties
Inputs
Outputs
#1: Optical signals
Parameters Values

simulation_mode Noneditable
string
giles_params
backward_mirror,
signal_mirror

-1
s
-1
pair_fraction double 0.0 0 x 1
-1
s
-1
user_specified

spectra_980_model enumerated rectangular rectangular, Gaussian, file

T1_1550 double 90 -1e32 x 1e32 K
T2_1550 double 650 -1e32 x 1e32 K
T1_980 double 90 -1e32 x 1e32 K
T2_980 double 650 -1e32 x 1e32 K

two_constant, file
mirror_model enumerated rectangular rectangular, Gaussian, file
mirror_file string
num_steady_state_iter integer 10 0 x 100000
generate_plots Enumerated no yes,no
plotting_interval double 100e-6 0 x 100 sec
cm^-1, m^-1, s^-1

cm^-3, m^-3, km^-3, Mm^-3

cm^-1, m^-1, km^-1, Mm^-1,
dB/km, dB/Mm

980_spectra(nm),
mirror(nm)



simulation_mode fixed to giles_param for now.
length EDFA length
pair_fraction fraction of dopant ions that are paired
spectra_1550_auto_limits option for automatically determining 1550-band spectral range
spectra_980_auto_limits option for automatically determining 980-band spectral range
spectra__980_center center-wavelength of 980-band spectrum
1
/F
2
T1_1550 empirical T
1
T2_1550 empirical T
2
1
/F
2
T1_980 empirical T
1
T2_980 empirical T
2
z_step integration step along EDFA length
generate_plots switch to override individual plot settings
plotting_interval the regular time interval to generate internal plots
For all data files, the x values should be monotonically increasing or decreasing. Furthermore, the field <num_pts>
specifies the number of data lines in the file, while the choice of settings for the various unit fields are as follows:
<loss_units>: [nm^-1], [um^-1], [cm^-1], [m^-1], [km^-1], [Mm^-1], [dB/nm], [dB/um], [dB/cm],
[dB/m], [dB/km], [dB/Mm]
Data files with gain and loss spectra for the Giles model are specified through the parameters giles_gain_1550_file,
giles_loss_1550_file, and giles_loss_980_file. The x-values are in units of frequency, and the y-values are in units of
loss per distance.
Format:
<num_pts>
...
Example:
5
1450 0.3
1500 0.6
1530 2.0
1550 1.2
1600 0.4
F1F2_ratio_1550_file and F1F2_ratio_980_file. The X-values are in units of frequency, and the Y-values are unitless.
Format:
<num_pts>
...
Example:
5
1500 0.40
1510 0.45
1520 0.50
1530 0.45
1540 0.40
Background Loss
A data file with the background-loss spectrum may be specified using the background_loss_file parameter. The X-
values are in units of frequency, and the Y-values are in units of loss per distance.
Format:
<num_pts>
...
Example:
5
1.40 0.25
1.45 0.21
1.50 0.19
1.55 0.17
1.60 0.21
A data file with the mirror reflectivity spectrum may be specified using the parameter mirror_file. The x-values are in
units of frequency, and the y-values are in units of power-reflectivity.
Format:
<num_pts>
...
Example:
5
970 10
975 100
980 100
985 100
990 10
Static Optical Switch (2x2)

This model represents a 2X2 static optical switch. It takes an optical input signal on each port and switches it to one of
the two output ports depending on the state of the switch. The model allows the user to set independent loss values for
both the bar and the cross states. The crosstalk levels for both states can also be set independent of each other. The
switch state can be set to bar or cross. In bar state the signal at input #1 is connected to output #1. In cross state
the signal at input #1 is connected to output #2. Input #2 will have the opposite connectivity of the signal at input #1. A
third option allows the user to set the switch state using an indexed value of an array. In this case, the array is specified
by the switch_array parameter and the particular index is set using the array_index parameter. An index of 0 refers to
the first element of the array. The array should contain binary values where a 0 indicates bar state and a 1 indicates
cross state. The array option is very useful when this simple 2X2 component is used to create larger switch architectures
in the context of a Compound Component (CC). All the switch states can be controlled from a single array with the
individual switch blocks indexing different elements of the array to control their individual states.
Crosstalk in switches can be categorized by its order. When a 2X2 elementary switch is in the bar or cross states, a
fraction of the iput optical power to the switch will leak into the wrong output port. The leakage fraction , expressed in
dB, is called first order crosstalk. Another terminology that is often used is extinction ration, which is defined as:
Power at inactive port

Power at active port 1
Extinction Ratio
= =

A crosstalk signal through a switching fabric that passes through K of these wrong-way hops is referred to as a k-th order
crosstalk term. The parameter single_band_mode determines if the signal and crosstalk terms are combined in single-
band or multi-band representation at the output ports. Single-band mode should only be used for time-sequenced signals.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical signal
#2: Optical signal
Outputs
#1: Optical signal
#2: Optical signal
Parameter Values

bar_loss double 0.0 [ 0, 1e32 ] dB
cross_loss double 0.0 [ 0, 1e32 ] dB
bar_state_xtalk_level double -30 [ -1e32, 0 ] dB
cross_state_xtalk_level double -30 [ -1e32, 0 ] dB
switch_state enumerated bar bar, cross,
array_index
none
switch_array Integer array [0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0] none
array_index integer 0 [ 0,64] none
single_band_mode enumerated No No, Yes none
drop enumerated No No, Yes none
drop_threshold double -1e-32 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] dBm

bar_loss the loss experienced by signals when the switch is in bar state
cross_loss the loss experienced bys signals when the switch is in the cross state
bar_state_xtalk_level the bar state crosstalk level of the switch
cross_state_xtalk_level the cross state crosstalk level of the switch
switch_state the state of the switch. If it is set to array_index the array_index parameter is used
to index into the switch_array integer array to read a binary value that is used to set
the state. A 0 means bar state and a 1 means cross statet
swtch_array An array containing binary values that can be used to set the switch state.
aray_index the index of the switch_array array that is used to set the switch state.
single_band_mode turns on and off single-band signal combination mode.
drop turns on and off the option to drop signals with power levels below a threshold value
drop_threshold The threshold level below which signals are dropped if the drop parameter is set to
Yes
Transient Optical Switch (2x2)

This model represents a transient 2X2 switch that is capable of a single state change during the course of a simulation
event. The initial state can be controlled by the initial_state parameter. The initial state can also be set from using the
switch_array parameter. In this case, the state will be taken from the array using the array_index parameter, where an
index value of 0 represents the first member of the array. As was the case in the Static Optical Switch model, a 0
represents bar state and a 1 is used to represent cross state. The model has a number of parameters that control the
switching time of the model. Figure 4 shows the optical power at an output of the switch for two different wavelengths at
the input. The other output port will experience a similar state transition, but the nominal wavelengths will be
interchanged. The parameters start_first_trans, end_first_trans, start_second_trans, and end_second_trans occur at
100 s, 150 s, 200 s, and 250 s respectively, in Figure 4 below. The parameter single_band_mode determines if the
signal and crosstalk terms are combined in single-band or multi-band representation at the output ports. Single-band
mode should not be used for CW input signals.

Figure 4: Switch Transition Times
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical signal
#2: Optical signal
Outputs
#1: Optical signal
#2: Optical signal
Parameter Values

initial_state enumerated bar bar, cross,
array_index
none
switch_array Integer array [0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0] none
array_index integer 0 [ 0,64] none
start_first_trans double 10e-6 [0,1] sec
end_first_trans double 20e-6 [0,1] sec
start_second_trans double 40e-6 [0,1] sec
end_second_trans double 50e-6 [0,1] sec

switch_state the state of the switch. If it is set to array_index the array_index parameter is used
to index into the switch_array integer array to read a binary value that is used to set
the state. A 0 means bar state and a 1 means cross statet
swtch_array An array containing binary values that can be used to set the switch state.
aray_index the index of the array that is used to set the switch state.
single_band_mode turns on and off single-band signal combination mode.
drop_threshold the threshold level below which signals are dropped if the drop parameter is set to
Yes
start_first_trans time at which the switch starts changing state
end_first_trans time at which the switch puts out no light
start_second_trans time at which the switch starts putting out a minimum amout of light
end_second_trans time at which the state change is complete.

Dynamic Optical Switch (2x2)

This model represents a dynamic optical switch. It takes two optical input signals and a single binary input signal on the
input ports. There are two optical output ports. The binary signal acts as the control signal of the switch. At 1 buts it in
cross state and a 0 puts it in bar state. The switch itself has a set of parameters that control the time it takes for it to
change state. The time_to_turn_off is the time that it takes the light out at the output ports to go from maximum output
to zero output. The time_off is the time that the light output from either output port is exactly zero. Practically, this can
occur if the switch is based on moving mechanical parts. The time_to_turn_on parameter determines how much time it
takes for the light output to go from zero to maximum optical power at the output of the switch. The total of these three
times is the total switching time of the switch. The other parameters have the same meaning as the other switches that
were described in the previous two sections. The parameter single_band_mode determines if the signal and crosstalk
terms are combined in single-band or multi-band representation at the output ports. Single-band mode should not be used
for CW input signals.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical signal
#2: Optical signal
#3: Binary signal
Outputs
#1: Optical signal
#2: Optical signal
Parameter Values

time_to_turn_off double 5e-6 [0,1] sec
Time_off double 1e-6 [0,1] sec
Time_to_turn_on double 5e-6 [0,1] sec

Single_band_mode turns on and off single-band signal combination mode.
drop_threshold the threshold level below which signals are dropped if the drop parameter is set to
Yes
time_to_turn_off time at which the switch starts changing state
time_off time at which the switch puts out no light
time_to_turn_on time at which the switch starts putting out a minimum amout of light
Transient Plotter

This model plots the signals at its input using a Java plotting package that is capable of generating live plots (i.e. the user
can start the display immediately after starting the simulation and observe the progress of the simulation). The graph is
automatically rescaled every fillInterval iterations to enhance the viewing for the user. The horizontal scale is in units of
seconds and is automatically calibrated by the iterations and the Time Step Per Iteration global simulation parameters.
The model also allows for the monitoring of a single signal generated from the ASE noise of optical amplifiers. The
aseCenterWavelength can be used to set the center wavelength of the region of the ASE spectrum that should be
plotted. The plotAseSignal parameter is used to turn on and off the plotting of this signal. The power values of the
signal can be generated either in units of dBm or mW. If the unit is specified in dBm, the zeroPowerFloor parameter
becomes relevant. It is used to truncate the display of power values that are nominally at 0 Watts. The model has a
multiporthole input. This allows several input signals to be simultaneously connected to the component and displayed for
comparison. The order of the plots as shown in the legend on the plot window depends on the order in which the
connections are made. This model can also be used inside an iteration loop. However, in this case, the number of
connections is restricted to one. The plotter will output signals generated at each loop iteration. The legend in the plot
window indicates the number of the loop iteration associated with a particular plot.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical signal
Parameter Values

plotTitle string Transient Plots
powerUnits enumerated mW dBm, mW
displayOptions string "-tk =500x300 -x
seconds -y dBm "

fillInterval integer 1000
plotAseSignal enumerated No No, Yes
aseCenterWavelength double 1531 nm
zeroPowerFloor double -90 dBm

plotTitle The title of the plot
powerUnits the units to use for the vertical scale. This overrides the vertical label that is set in
transientOptions
displayOptions options that set the size of the frame and optionally the labels for the vertical and
horizontal scales.
fillInterval Regular interval at which the live plot is automatically rescaled to allow better
viewing
plotAseSignal Indicates if an ASE signal should be plotted or not. Useful for a ring laser
configuration.
aseCenterWavelength optional center wavelength to plot an amplified spontaneous emission (ASE) noise
i l hi i l d l i l l i i l h i d f h
signal. This is mostly used to plot a particular lasing signal that is generated from the
ASE noise.
zeroPowerFloor the zero power level that is used when powerUnits is set to dBm

OptSim Models Reference: Block Mode Chapter 13: Multimode Modules 469
Chapter 13: Multimode
Modules
This chapter describes the spatial multimode models.
Spatial Adder
attach a spatial field to an optical signal
Spatial Direct Modulated Laser
the spatially enabled version of the direct-modulated laser
Spatial Mode-Locked Laser
the spatially enabled version of the mode-locked laser
Spatial CW Laser
the spatially enabled version of the continuous-wave laser
Spatial VCSEL
the spatially enabled version of the vertical-cavity surface emitting laser
Spatial LED
the spatially enabled version of the light-emitting diode
Thin Lens
focus a spatial field
Vortex Lens
focus a spatial field with vortex phase transformation
Spatial Coupler
perform rotational and translational offsets as well as free-space propagation
Spatial BeamPROP Interface
provide interface to RSofts BPM simulation tool BeamPROP
Multimode Fiber
model for the multimode fiber
Spatial Aperture
pass spatial fields through an aperture, cropping when necessary
Spatial Photodetector
the spatially enabled version of the photodetector
Spatial Receiver
the spatially enabled version of the photoreceiver
470 Chapter 13: Multimode Modules OptSim Models Reference: Block Mode
Spatial Analyzer
perform various calculations on spatial fields and produce spatial field plots
Encircled Flux Analysis Tool
calculate the encircled flux of a laser/fiber pair
Differential Mode Delay Analysis Tool
measure the differential mode delay of a given fiber
Signal Band Converter
collapse a linked list of spatially orthogonal fields into a single signal
Gridded Field Converter
convert an optical signals spatial mode profiles into two-dimensional gridded representations

Spatial Adder

The spatial adder takes multiple optical inputs, and attaches transverse mode profiles to their X and Y
polarizations. Different profiles can be attached to each polarization, and a single-mode input can be
converted into a set of multimode optical signals with identical time-domain shapes (scaled by a specified
power distribution) but different mode shapes. The available mode profiles include those presented in
Chapter 6 of the OptSim User Guide.
While the spatial adder supports multiple input nodes, with potentially multiple optical signals at each
node, the entire set of input signals is treated as if it had appeared on a single node. The output signals at
each node, however, do correspond to the correct input.
General Options
The spatial adder can be deactivated by setting spatial_effects to off. With this parameter on, however, the
full range of options become available. The first of these is the mode_polarization parameter, and it
determines how modes are attached to an input fields different polarizations. If
mode_polarization=x_only, then a transverse mode profile is only attached to an input signals X
polarization. If mode_polarization=y_only, then a profile is only attached to the Y polarization. If
mode_polarization=xy_same, then the same profile that is attached to the X polarization is attached to the
Y polarization. Finally, if mode_polarization=xy_unique, then different mode profiles must be specified
for each polarization.
Each transverse mode profile in OptSim has a default grid spacing and domain, in order to facilitate
numerical calculations. The grid spacing is specified on a rectangular XY grid. The user may override the
default grid spacings by setting mode_default_grid_spacing=no, and then adjusting parameters mode_dx
and mode_dy. The domain, meanwhile, determines the default rectangular space over which the field is
considered to have non-negligible magnitude. Again, the user may override the default by setting
mode_default_domain=no, and adjusting mode_width_x and mode_width_y. The domain is
automatically centered about the origin.
Mode-Attachment Styles
The user has a variety of options for the style in which mode profiles are attached to the Spatial Adders
optical inputs, and these are selected via the mode_mapping parameter. The three options are: single,
multi, and multi_from_single. In the descriptions that follow, parameters for the X polarization are prefixed
with x_, while parameters for the Y polarization are prefixed with y_.
single
With this option, the user identifies specific mode profiles for either or both polarizations, and
these profiles are attached to every optical input. For each polarization, the user selects a
mode shape via the parameter x_single_mode_type (y_single_mode_type). The available
mode types are: file, radial_file, LG, HG, LP, spot, and donut. These will be described
shortly. The user must also identify mode indices via the parameters x_l (y_l) and x_m
(y_m).
multi
With this option, the user specifies a family of m mode profiles for either or both
polarizations. These profiles are attached in sequence to the Spatial Adders n optical input
signals. If m > n, then only the first n profiles are used. If n > m, then the profiles are
reused in sequence until each input has been handled. For each polarization, the user selects a
mode shape via the parameter x_multi_mode_type (y_multi_mode_type). The available
types are: file, LG, HG, and LP. For built-in mode shapes, the user must then specify a range
of values for the mode indices. This is accomplished via the parameters x_l_lo (y_l_lo),
x_l_hi (y_l_hi), x_m_lo (y_m_lo) and x_m_hi (y_m_hi) In cycling through these mode
indices during processing of the input signals, the Spatial Adder first loops through the l
index, and for each value, loops through all of the m indices.
If x_multi_mode_type (y_multi_mode_type) is set to file, then the user must provide a file
which specifies a list of different mode shapes. The advantage of this approach is that
different profile types can be mixed, such as LP modes with Laguerre-Gaussian modes. The
name of this file is specified through the parameter x_multimode_file (y_multimode_file).
The format for this file is described later.
multi_from_single
The Spatial Adder can also convert individual optical inputs into multiple output signals, each
with different mode shapes, but with time-domain behaviors identical except for a power
distribution scaling factor. The user specifies the family of modes for each polarization in the
same manner as was used for the multi setting. However, in this case each input is copied into
multiple signals, and the modes are then attached to these copies. This technique is useful for
converting a single-mode optical signal into a multimode one.
The number of copies of each signal is determined by the multi_mode_powers parameter.
This parameter should be set to a list of power values which describe the power distribution
between the multiple modes. These values are normalized so that they add to 1.0, and are
then used to scale each copy. For example, if multi_mode_powers is set to:
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
then each optical input is converted into four copies, each with 10, 20, 30, and 40% of the
input power, respectively. The user may also use the multi_mode_powers parameter to
specify a file in which these values are stored.
Mode Types
The different mode types available in the Spatial Adder (as specified via the various mode_type
parameters) are as follows. (Unless otherwise noted, detailed mode descriptions can be found in Chapter 6
of the OptSim User Guide.) As before, parameters for the X polarization are prefixed with x_, while
parameters for the Y polarization are prefixed with y_.
file
Using the x_mode_file (y_mode_file) parameter, the user must specify a data file name for a
two-dimensional gridded mode.
radial_file
In this case, the user must specify a data file name for a one-dimensional gridded mode.
LG
Laguerre-Gaussian modes will be used. The mode spot size and inverse radius of curvature
are specified via the parameters x_wo (y_wo) and x_iRo (y_iRo), respectively.
HG
Hermite-Gaussian modes will be used. The X-axis spot size and inverse radius of curvature
are specified via the parameters x_wox (y_wox) and x_iRox (y_iRox), respectively; the Y-
axis parameters are specified via x_woy (y_woy) and x_iRoy (y_iRoy), respectively.
LP
Linearly polarized modes will be used. The cladding index is specified via x_Nclad
(y_Nclad); the core index via x_Ncore (y_Ncore); and the core radius via x_core_radius
(y_core_radius).
spot
Spot modes will be used, with radius specified via x_outer_radius (y_outer_radius).
donut
Donut modes will be used, with inner radius specified via x_inner_radius (y_inner_radius);
and outer radius specified via x_outer_radius (y_outer_radius).
Multimode File Format
The multimode settings of the Spatial Adder support the use of a data file for describing the modes. Each
line of this data file contains a brief description of the modes. The format is:
<# of modes>
<mode description 1>
...
Line 1 always contains the number of modes in the file. Each subsequent line contains a description for one
of these modes. The supported mode types are gridded modes (one- and two-dimensional), LG modes, HG
modes, and LP modes. The line format for each mode is as follows:
Two-dimensional gridded mode:
gridded <l> <m> <filename>
where l and m are mode indices, and filename is the name of the file containing the field
data.
One-dimensional gridded mode:
griddedradial <l> <m> <filename>
data.
LG mode:
lg <l> <m> <wo> <iRo>
where l and m are mode indices, wo is the spot size in microns, and iRo is the inverse radius
of curvature in inverse microns.
HG mode:
hg <l> <m> <wox> <woy> <iRox> <iRoy>
where l and m are mode indices; wox and woy are the X- and Y-axis spots sizes, respectively,
in microns; and iRox and iRoy are the X- and Y-axis radii of curvature, respectively, in
inverse microns.
LP mode
lpfiber <l> <m> <Nclad> <Ncore> <rcore>
where l and m are mode indices, Nclad is the cladding index, Ncore is the core index, and
rcore is the core radius in microns.
Test Parameters
A number of parameters are available for testing the Spatial Adder settings. First, test_mode_polarization
is used to select which polarization to use when plotting the mode profiles. test_mode_number is used
when the Spatial Adder is in multi or multi_from_single mode. The available modes are numbered from
zero, and in the order by which they are attached to optical signals. test_mode_wavelength determines
the field wavelength at which to plot the test mode. Finally, test_mode_plot determines the type of plot to
generate: magnitude plots the profiles transverse magnitude, mag_phase plots its magnitude and phase,
and real_imag plots the real and imaginary parts of the mode.
Properties
Inputs
#1-#512: Optical Signal
Outputs
Parameter Values
spatial_effects enumerated on on, off
mode_mapping enumerated single single,
multi_from_single,
multi

multi_mode_powers string 1.0
mode_polarization enumerated x_only x_only, y_only,
xy_same, xy_unique

mode_default_domain enumerated yes yes, no
mode_width_x double 1 [ 0, 1e32 ] um
mode_width_y double 1 [ 0, 1e32 ] um
mode_default_grid_spacing enumerated yes yes, no
mode_dx double 0.1 [ 0, 1e32 ] um
mode_dy double 0.1 [ 0, 1e32 ] um
x_single_mode_type enumerated LG file, radial_file, LG,
HG, LP, spot, donut

x_multi_mode_type enumerated LG file, LG, HG, LP
x_mode_file string
x_multimode_file string
x_l integer 0 [ -75, 75 ] none
x_m integer 0 [ 0, 75 ] none
x_l_lo integer 0 [ -75, 75 ] none
x_l_hi integer 0 [ -75, 75 ] none
x_m_lo integer 0 [ 0, 75 ] none
x_m_hi integer 0 [ 0, 75 ] none
x_wo double 1 [ 0, 1e32 ] um
x_iRo double 0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] um^-1
x_wox double 1 [ 0, 1e32 ] um
x_iRox double 0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] um^-1
x_woy double 1 [ 0, 1e32 ] um
x_iRoy double 0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] um^-1
x_Nclad double 1 [ 0, 1e32 ] none
x_Ncore double 1 [ 0, 1e32 ] none
x_core_radius double 1 [ 0, 1e32 ] um
x_outer_radius double 1 [ 0, 1e32 ] um
x_inner_radius double 0 [ 0, 1e32 ] um
y_single_mode_type enumerated LG file, radial_file, LG,
HG, LP, spot, donut

y_multi_mode_type enumerated LG file, LG, HG, LP
y_mode_file string
y_multimode_file string
y_l integer 0 [ -75, 75 ] none
y_m integer 0 [ 0, 75 ] none
y_l_lo integer 0 [ -75, 75 ] none
y_l_hi integer 0 [ -75, 75 ] none
y_m_lo integer 0 [ 0, 75 ] none
y_m_hi integer 0 [ 0, 75 ] none
y_wo double 1 [ 0, 1e32 ] um
y_iRo double 0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] um^-1
y_wox double 1 [ 0, 1e32 ] um
y_iRox double 0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] um^-1
y_woy double 1 [ 0, 1e32 ] um
y_iRoy double 0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] um^-1
y_Nclad double 1 [ 0, 1e32 ] none
y_Ncore double 1 [ 0, 1e32 ] none
y_core_radius double 1 [ 0, 1e32 ] um
y_outer_radius double 1 [ 0, 1e32 ] um
y_inner_radius double 0 [ 0, 1e32 ] um
test_mode_polarization enumerated x x, y
test_mode_number integer 0 [ 0, 100000 ] none
test_mode_wavelength double 1 [ 0, 1e32 ] um
test_mode_plot enumerated magnitude magnitude,
mag_phase,
real_imag

spatial_effects Switch to turn spatial-addition by model block on or off.
mode_mapping Transverse mode profile style selection (single- vs. multimode).
multi_mode_powers List of mode powers, or file-name with this data.
mode_polarization Polarization mode-attachment selection.
mode_default_domain Default mode domain override.
mode_width_x User-specified mode domain width along the X axis.
mode_width_y User-specified mode domain width along the Y axis.
mode_default_grid_spacing Default grid spacing override.
mode_dx User-specified X-axis grid spacing.
mode_dy User-specified Y-axis grid spacing.
x_single_mode_type Single-mode profile selection for X polarization.
x_multi_mode_type Multimode profile selection for X polarization.
x_mode_file Single-mode gridded mode data file for X polarization.
x_multimode_file Multimode data file for X polarization.
x_l Mode index l for X polarization.
x_m Mode index m for X polarization.
x_l_lo Lower bound for X polarization sweep of mode index l.
x_l_hi Upper bound for X polarization sweep of mode index l.
x_m_lo Lower bound for X polarization sweep of mode index m.
x_m_hi Upper bound for X polarization sweep of mode index m.
x_wo Laguerre-Gaussian spot size for X polarization.
x_iRo Inverse of Laguerre-Gaussian radius of curvature for X polarization.
x_wox Hermite-Gaussian X-axis spot size for X polarization.
x_iRox Inverse of Hermite-Gaussian X-axis radius of curvature for X polarization.
x_woy Hermite-Gaussian Y-axis spot size for X polarization.
x_iRoy Inverse of Hermite-Gaussian Y-axis radius of curvature for X-polarization.
x_Nclad Cladding index for X-polarized LP mode.
x_Ncore Core index for X-polarized LP mode.
x_core_radius Core radius for X-polarized LP mode.
x_outer_radius Outer radius for X-polarized donut and spot modes.
x_inner_radius Inner radius for X-polarized donut mode.
y_single_mode_type Single-mode profile selection for Y polarization.
y_multi_mode_type Multimode profile selection for Y polarization.
y_mode_file Single-mode gridded mode data file for Y polarization.
y_multimode_file Multimode data file for Y polarization.
y_l Mode index l for Y polarization.
y_m Mode index m for Y polarization.
y_l_lo Lower bound for Y polarization sweep of mode index l.
y_l_hi Upper bound for Ypolarization sweep of mode index l.
y_m_lo Lower bound for Y polarization sweep of mode index m.
y_m_hi Upper bound for Y polarization sweep of mode index m.
y_wo Laguerre-Gaussian spot size for Y polarization.
y_iRo Inverse of Laguerre-Gaussian radius of curvature for Y polarization.
y_wox Hermite-Gaussian X-axis spot size for Y polarization.
y_iRox Inverse of Hermite-Gaussian X-axis radius of curvature for Y polarization.
y_woy Hermite-Gaussian Y-axis spot size for Y polarization.
y_iRoy Inverse of Hermite-Gaussian Y-axis radius of curvature for Y-polarization.
y_Nclad Cladding index for Y-polarized LP mode.
y_Ncore Core index for Y-polarized LP mode.
y_core_radius Core radius for Y-polarized LP mode.
y_outer_radius Outer radius for Y-polarized donut and spot modes.
y_inner_radius Inner radius for Y-polarized donut mode.
test_mode_polarization Test plot field polarization selection.
test_mode_number Test plot mode number.
test_mode_wavelength Test plot field wavelength.
test_mode_plot Test plot style selection.
Spatial Direct Modulated Laser

This block models a semiconductor laser directly modulated with an electrical signal. It is identical to the
standard Direct Modulated Laser model, except for the ability to include transverse mode profiles in the
optical output.
This model computes the electrical current injected into the lasers optical cavity and solves the laser rate
equations for the optical output. The behavior of the model can be partitioned into three blocks, as shown
in Fig. 1.
inductance and shunting capacitance. Finally, the laser cavity is modeled via a simplified current-voltage
(IV) relationship and the laser rate equations.

Figure 1: Main components of the Direct Modulated Laser model
Driving Source
The Direct Modulated Laser is driven by a combination of the electrical signal at its input and, when
o
(Io). I
o
can also be specified via a dc bias output power P
o
(Po).
The user determines which will be used via the parameter Bias_Value. The other parameter is then
calculated automatically.
parameter Drive_Scheme. This parameter can take on values of direct_drive, bias_tee, or bias_tee_old.
Direct_drive
o
to form
the total input current. Figure 2(a) illustrates this scenario. If the input signal is a voltage,
then the bias current I
o
turn-on voltage V
on
Fig. 2(b).

bias_tee
s
(Rs),
o

bias_tee_old
This choice implements the driving scheme from OptSim versions prior to 3.0. Note that
these previous implementations intended to model the bias tee as described above, but did not
remove any dc component which may have been present in the electrical input signal that
would naturally occur via the tees capacitive leg. While future releases of OptSim may no
longer support this option, it is included here for compatibility.
Parasitics
b
p
(Cp), as shown in Fig. 1.
These can be turned on or off via the parameter Parasitics.
Laser Cavity
Both electrical and optical effects are modeled within the laser cavity.
Electrical
The electrical model of the laser cavity is that of a simplified diode IV relationship, consisting of a series
resistance R
d
on
(Von). During solution of the cavity current I, the model ensures
that negative currents are effectively limited to zero.
Rate Equations
The core of the Direct Modulated Laser block are the semiconductor laser rate equations, which determine
the optical output in response to the cavity current I. Relative intensity noise is modeled via a constant
value RIN (RIN). The rate equations, based largely on those discussed in [1], are:

dN
dt
I
qV
R N R N G N N N
i
sp nr p p
=
( ) ( ) ( , )
(1)

dN
dt
N
R N G N N N
p p
p
sp sp p p
= + +
( ) ( , )
(2)

d
dt
G N N
N
p
p
p
p

= +
|
\
|
.
|
|
2
1
( , )
(3)
P c N V
hc
v A
F
out fact p
g mir
= =

(4)
where I is the injection current, N is the carrier density, N
p
is the photon density, is the optical phase,
I

(effint) is the current injection efficiency, q is the electron charge, V is the cavity volume,
p
is the photon
lifetime, (K) is the confinement factor,
sp
(b) is the spontaneous emission coupling coefficient, (a) is
the linewidth enhancement factor, is a modified gain saturation factor (see Gain section below), h is
Plancks constant, c is the speed of light in a vacuum, (wavelength) is the lasing wavelength, v
g
is the
group velocity (c/n, where n (indx) is the material index), A
mir
is the mirror, or facet, loss, F is the fraction
of light that escapes the output facet, R
sp
(N) is the radiative recombination, R
nr
(N) is the nonradiative
recombination, and G(N,N
p
) is the laser gain. The recombination terms are modeled using:
R N BN
sp
( ) =
2

(5)
R N AN CN
nr
( ) = +
3

(6)
where A (A) is the unimolecular recombination coefficient, B (B) is the radiative recombination coefficient,
and C (C) is the Auger recombination coefficient.
Device Geometry
The device geometry can be modeled in a number of ways via the parameter geometry, which can take on
values of rectangular, cylindrical, or volumetric.
Rectangular
The laser is assumed to be an edge emitting laser with cavity width L
stp
(Lstp), cavity
thickness L
act
(Lact), and cavity length L
cav
(Lcav). The volume V is then computed as:
V L L L
stp act cav
=
(7)
cylindrical
The laser is assumed to be a vertical-cavity device with cavity diameter W (W), cavity
thickness L
act
, and total cavity length L
cav
. The volume V is then computed as:
V L
W
act
=
2
4

(8)
volumetric
The volume is directly specified via the parameter V (V).
Mirror Effects
When the parameter mirror_effects is set to defined, the mirror parameters A
mir
and F are directly specified
by the parameters Amir and F, respectively. When mirror_effects is set to calculated, the mirror
parameters are calculated using L
cav
and the mirror reflectivities R
1
(R1) and R
2
(R2), where the optical
output is assumed to exit from mirror #1 [2]:
A
R R
L
mir
cav
=
ln( )
1 2
2

(9)
F
R
R R R R
=
+
1
1 1
1
1 2 1 2
( ) /

(10)
Intrinsic Loss
If the parameter intrinsic_loss is set to defined, then the intrinsic loss of the cavity is directly specified as
A
int
(Aint). When intrinsic_loss is set to calculated, then A
int
is defined in relation to A
mir
via the scaling
factor loss_ratio (loss_ratio):
A loss ratio A
mir int
= _
(11)
Photon Lifetime
When parameter photon_lifetime is set to defined, the photon lifetime is directly specified via
p
(tp).
When photon_lifetime is set to calculated, the photon lifetime is calculated using [2]:

p
gr mir
v A A
=
+
1
( )
int

(12)
Gain
The laser gain G(N,N
p
) consists of the material gain g(N) and the optical gain saturation (N
p
), with both
terms able to take on a number of forms via the setting of the gain and saturation parameters:
G N N v g N N
p gr p
( , ) ( ) ( ) =
(13)
The gain parameter can take on values of logarithmic:N, logarithmic:R(N), or linear:
Logarithmic:N
The material gain is modeled as a logarithmic function of N [1]:
g N G
N N
N N
o
s
tr s
( ) ln =
+
+
|
\
|
.
|
(14)
where G
o
(Go) is the gain coefficient, N
tr
(Ntr) is the transparency density, and N
s
(Ns) is an
adjustable correction parameter [1].
Logarithmic:R(N)
The material gain is modeled as a logarithmic function of the carrier recombination [3],[4].
This approach is a more general version of the simple logarithmic gain.
g N G
R N R N N
R N R N N
o
sp nr s
sp tr nr tr s
( ) ln
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
=
+ +
+ +
|
\
|
.
|
|

(15)
linear
The material gain is assumed to be linearized about the transparency density N
tr
, and is
described by [2]:
g N G V N N
o tr
( ) ( ) =
(16)
Gain Saturation
The saturation parameter can also take on three values: Channin, Agrawal, or linear.
Channin
The gain saturation is modeled following the approach in [1] and [5]:
( )
p
p
N
N
+
=
1
1

(17)
where (e) is the gain saturation factor. In this case, the modified gain saturation factor is
simply = .
Agrawal
The gain saturation is modeled following the approach in [4] and [6], and is applicable when
intraband effects are important:
( ) N
N
p
p
=
+
1
1

(18)
In this case, the modified gain saturation factor is = / 2 .
Linear
The gain saturation is assumed to be linear, though the expression is strictly only valid when
N
p
< 1/. The modified gain saturation factor is = .
( ) N N
p p
= 1
(19)
Polarization
to the X axis.
Spatial Effects
This model allows different transverse mode profiles to be attached to the output signals X and Y
General Options
The spatial effects can be deactivated by setting spatial_effects to off. With this parameter on, however,
the full range of options become available. The first of these is the mode_polarization parameter, and it
determines how modes are attached to an output fields different polarizations. If
Y polarization. If mode_polarization=xy_unique, then different mode profiles must be specified for each
polarization.
The user has a variety of options for the style in which mode profiles are attached to the lasers optical
outputs, and these are selected via the mode_mapping parameter. The two options are: single and
multi_from_single. In the descriptions that follow, parameters for the X polarization are prefixed with x_,
while parameters for the Y polarization are prefixed with y_.
single
With this option, the user identifies specific mode profiles for either or both polarizations.
For each polarization, the user selects a mode shape via the parameter x_single_mode_type
(y_single_mode_type). The available mode types are: file, radial_file, LG, HG, LP, spot,
and donut. These will be described shortly. The user must also identify mode indices via the
parameters x_l (y_l) and x_m (y_m).
multi_from_single
The model can also convert an individual optical output into multiple output signals, each
distribution scaling factor. The optical output is copied into multiple signals, and different
modes are attached to each copy. This technique is useful for converting a single-mode optical
signal into a multimode one.
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
then the output signal is converted into four copies, each with 10, 20, 30, and 40% of the
original power, respectively. The user may also use the multi_mode_powers parameter to
The user must also specify a family of m mode profiles for either or both polarizations. These
profiles are attached in sequence to the multiple output signals. Let n denote the number of
signals into which the single output has been split. If m > n, then only the first n profiles are
used. If n > m, then the profiles are reused in sequence until each input has been handled.
For each polarization, the user selects a mode shape via the parameter x_multi_mode_type
(y_multi_mode_type). The available types are: file, LG, HG, and LP. For built-in mode
shapes, the user must then specify a range of values for the mode indices. This is
accomplished via the parameters x_l_lo (y_l_lo), x_l_hi (y_l_hi), x_m_lo (y_m_lo) and
x_m_hi (y_m_hi) In cycling through these mode indices during processing of the signals, the
model first loops through the l index, and for each value, loops through all of the m indices.
Mode Types
The different mode types available in the model (as specified via the various mode_type parameters) are as
follows. (Unless otherwise noted, detailed mode descriptions can be found in Chapter 6 of the OptSim User
Guide.) As before, parameters for the X polarization are prefixed with x_, while parameters for the Y
polarization are prefixed with y_.
file
radial_file
LG
HG
are specified via the parameters x_wox (y_wox) and x_iRox(y_iRox), respectively; the Y-
LP
(y_core_radius).
spot
donut
The multimode setting of the model supports the use of a data file for describing the modes. Each line of
this data file contains a brief description of the modes. The format is:
<# of modes>
...
data.
data.
LG mode:
HG mode:
inverse microns.
LP mode:
Multi-Line Output
DWDM simulations especially, a series of regularly spaced optical sources is common. The Direct
Modulated Laser model provides a number of convenient facilities so that many or all required lines can be
generated from a single icon. To produce a series of lines spaced equally in wavelength or frequency, set
the parameter mode=LambdaGrid or mode=FreqGrid, respectively. The number of sources is controlled
by the number of electrical inputs to the laser, and in both modes the parameter wavelength specifies the
first line in a series of ascending wavelengths or ascending frequencies, respectively. The source
separation in wavelength or frequency is specified with deltaFreq. To set the number of electrical inputs to
the laser, select the direct modulated laser icon and open the menu item Properties. In the Ports tab,
number_input_ports field, enter the number of inputs.
output node. To achieve the latter behavior, select the direct modulated laser icon and open the menu item
Properties. Set the value of the number_output_ports field in Ports tab to that of the
number_input_ports field.
Numerical Settings
Test Parameters
In order to ascertain whether the parameter settings for the Direct Modulated Laser block provide the
Depending on the setting of the parameter test_function, this test produces a light-current (LI) curve
(test_function set to LI), small-signal frequency response curves (ac), performance report (report), or
mode profile (mode_profile). These are typically used to fit rate-equation laser model parameters to the
performance of actual semiconductor lasers. The test can be controlled via model parameters carrying a
prefix Test_. These parameters allow the user to set sweep limits, bias conditions, etc.
LI Curve
The LI curve is controlled via the parameters Test_LItype, Test_Imin, Test_Imax, and Test_Lipoints.
When Test_Litype is set to auto-scaled, an LI curve is generated over currents ranging from 0 to I
max
,
where I
max
is the larger of 3I
th
or 2I
o
, I
th
being the calculated laser threshold current. With Test_Litype set
to user-specified, the LI curve is generated over currents ranging from Test_Imin to Test_Imax. The total
number of points in the LI curve is determined by Test_Lipoints. A sample LI curve is shown in Fig. 4.

Figure 4: Sample test LI curve, generated using automatic scaling
Small-Signal Frequency Responses
Two sets of frequency response curves are generated. The first set depicts the devices transfer function T
f
,
i.e. the small-signal output power vs. small-signal input current. This calculation includes parasitics if any
are present. The second set of curves depicts the devices normalized S
21
response using the relationship
S
21
= 2T
f
/(Z
in
+50), where Z
in
is the device input impedance and a 50- test setup is assumed. Both sets of
curves are generated at five different bias currents. With the parameter Test_actype set to Ith-based, these
currents are 1.1I
th
, 1.5I
th
, 2.0I
th
, 3.0I
th
, and I
o
. When Test_actype is set to user-specified, these currents are
defined by the parameters Test_I1ac, Test_I2ac, Test_I3ac, Test_I4ac, and Test_I5ac. Parameters
Test_acxscale and Test_acyscale control the type of scales on the x- and y-axes, respectively. Log
results in logarithmic scaling, and linear in linear scaling. Test_freqlow and Test_freqhigh specify the
range of frequencies over which to generate the response curves, and Test_acpoints defines the number of
points in each curve. Sample frequency-response curves are shown in Fig. 5.

Figure 5: Sample transfer-function and S
21
frequency-response curves at threshold-based bias values
Performance Report
In addition to the above plots, a report is generated highlighting some of the important performance metrics
of the laser. These include the threshold current, differential quantum efficiency, power, or slope,
efficiency, bias values I
o
and P
o
, as well as bandwidths and relaxation-peak locations for the transfer-
function, S
21
, and intrinsic (i.e., no parasitics) frequency responses at the five bias currents of interest.
Mode Profile
A number of parameters are available for testing the spatial settings. First, test_mode_polarization is used
to select which polarization to use when plotting the mode profiles. test_mode_number is used when the
model is in multi_from_single mode. The available modes are numbered from zero, and in the order by
which they are attached to optical signals. test_mode_wavelength determines the field wavelength at
which to plot the test mode. Finally, test_mode_plot determines the type of plot to generate: magnitude
plots the profiles transverse magnitude, mag_phase plots its magnitude and phase, and real_imag plots the
real and imaginary parts of the mode.
Compatibility with OptSim version 2.1 VCSEL Model
With this release of OptSim, the OptSim 2.1 VCSEL model can be invoked through the use of the Direct
Modulated Laser block. In most cases, the old VCSEL parameters can be mapped into the present ones
with little or no change. However, the old parameters
n
,
s
, a, and can be converted to new parameters
by setting
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) /( )
n old s old n old s old
A = + ,
( )
/
o old
G a V = , and
( )
/
old
V = .
References
[1] L. A. Coldren and S. W. Corzine, Diode Lasers and Photonic Integrated Circuits (John Wiley
& Sons, New York, 1995).
York, 1993).
[3] T. A. DeTemple and C. M. Herzinger, On the semiconductor laser logarithmic gain-current
density relation, IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics, 29, 1246 (1993).
[4] P. V. Mena, S.-M. Kang, and T. A. DeTemple, Rate-equation-based laser models with a single
solution regime, Journal of Lightwave Technology, 15, 717 (1997).
[5] D. J. Channin, Effect of gain saturation on injection laser switching, Journal of Applied
Physics, 50, 3858 (1979).
[6] G. P. Agrawal, Effect of gain and index nonlinearities on single-mode dynamics in
semiconductor lasers, IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics, 26, 1901 (1990).
1999).
Properties
Inputs
Outputs
Parameter Values
wavelength double 1550e-9 [ 0, 1 ] m
LambdaGrid

effint double 0.9 [ 0, 1 ] none
K double 0.1 [ 0, 1 ] none
indx double 4.1 [ 0, 1e32 ] none
geometry enumerated rectangular rectangular,
cylindrical,
volumetric

Lact double 500e-8 [ 0, 1e32 ] cm
Lstp double 2.5e-4 [ 0, 1e32 ] cm
Lcav double 345e-4 [ 0, 1e32 ] cm
W double 1.5e-3 [ 0, 1e32 ] cm
V double 4.3125e-11 [ 0, 1e32 ] cm^3
mirror_effects enumerated defined defined, calculated
Amir double 33 [ 0, 1e32 ] 1/cm
F double 1 [ 0, 1 ] none
R1 double 0.9966 [ 0, 1e32 ] none
R2 double 0.9989 [ 0, 1e32 ] none
intrinsic_loss enumerated defined defined, calculated
Aint double 40 [ 0, 1e32 ] 1/cm
loss_ratio double 2.0 [ 0, 1e32 ] none
b double 1e-4 [ 0, 1 ] none
photon_lifetime enumerated calculated calculated, defined
tp double 1e-12 [ 0, 1e32 ] s
A double 0 [ 0, 1e32 ] 1/s
B double 1e-10 [ 0, 1e32 ] cm^3/s
C double 30e-30 [ 0, 1e32 ] cm^6/s
gain enumerated logarithmic_N logarithmic_N,
logarithmic_RN,
linear

Go double 1537 [ 0, 1e32 ] 1/cm
Ntr double 1.5e18 [ 0, 1e32 ] 1/cm^3
Ns double 0 [ 0, 1e32 ] none
saturation enumerated Channin Channin, Agrawal,
linear

e double 10e-17 [ 0, 1e32 ] cm^3
a double 2 [ 0, 1e32 ] none
Von double 2.0 [ 0, 1e32 ] V
Drive_Scheme enumerated bias_tee_old direct_drive,
bias_tee,
bias_tee_old

Bias_Value enumerated Io Io, Po
Io double 30e-3 [ 0, 1e32 ] A
Po double 0 [ 0, 1e32 ] W
Lb double 0.3e-9 [ 0, 1e32 ] H
Cp double 2e-12 [ 0, 1e32 ] F
multi_from_single
mode_polarization enumerated xy_same xy_same, xy_unique
HG, LP, spot, donut

x_mode_file string
x_iRo double 0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] um^-1
HG, LP, spot, donut

y_mode_file string
y_iRo double 0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] um^-1
test_function enumerated LI LI, ac, report,
mode_profile

Test_LItype enumerated auto-scaled auto-scaled, user-
specified

Test_actype enumerated Ith-based Ith-based, user-
specified

Test_I2ac double 2.5e-3 [ 0, 1e32 ] A
Test_acxscale enumerated log log, linear
Test_acyscale enumerated linear log, linear
Test_freqlow double 1e7 [ 0, 1e32 ] Hz
Test_freqhigh double 1e12 [ 0, 1e32 ] Hz
Test_acpoints integer 201 [ 0, 100000 ] none
mag_phase,
real_imag

I

K Optical confinement factor,
indx Optical mode index, n
geometry Device geometry: rectangular, cylindrical, volumetric
Lact Laser active region thickness, L
act

Lstp Laser active region width, L
stp

Lcav Laser cavity length, L
cav

W Laser diameter (for cylindrical geometries), W
V Laser cavity volume, V
mirror_effects Mirror effects: defined, calculated
Amir Laser mirror loss, A
mir

F Fraction of power that escapes from the output mirror, F
1

2

intrinsic_loss Intrinsic loss: defined, calculated
Aint Laser internal loss, A
int

loss_ratio Ratio of intrinsic loss to mirror loss, loss_ratio
sp

photon_lifetime Photon lifetime definition: calculated, defined
tp Photon lifetime,
p

A Unimolecular recombination coefficient, A
B Radiative recombination coefficient, B
C Auger recombination coefficient, C
gain Gain definition: logarithmic:N, logarithmic:R(N), linear
o

Ntr Carrier transparency density, N
tr

Ns Logarithmic gain correction factor, N
s

saturation Gain saturation definition: Channin, Agrawal, linear
a Linewidth enhancement factor,
RIN Laser relative intensity noise, RIN
Rd Laser cavity resistance, R
d

Von Laser turn-on voltage, V
on

Drive_Scheme Drive signal definition: direct_drive, bias_tee, bias_tee_old
s

Bias_Value Bias definition: Io, Po
o

Po Laser dc power level, P
o

Lb Laser bond inductance, L
b

Cp Laser parasitic capacitance, C
p

x_iRo Inverse of Laguerre-Gaussian radius of curvature for X
polarization.
x_iRox Inverse of Hermite-Gaussian X-axis radius of curvature for X
polarization.
x_iRoy Inverse of Hermite-Gaussian Y-axis radius of curvature for X-
polarization.
y_iRo Inverse of Laguerre-Gaussian radius of curvature for Y
polarization.
y_iRox Inverse of Hermite-Gaussian X-axis radius of curvature for Y
polarization.
y_iRoy Inverse of Hermite-Gaussian Y-axis radius of curvature for Y-
l i i
polarization.
test_function Test function selection: LI curve, ac curves, or performance
report
Test_LItype LI curve definition: auto-scaled, user-specified
Test_Imin Minimum current for LI curve
Test_Imax Maximum current for LI curve
Test_Lipoints Number of points in LI curve
Test_actype Frequency-response curve definition: Ith-based, user-specified
Test_I1ac Bias current for first ac curve
Test_I2ac Bias current for second ac curve
Test_I3ac Bias current for third ac curve
Test_I4ac Bias current for fourth ac curve
Test_I5ac Bias current for fifth ac curve
Test_acxscale Scale for x axis: log, linear
Test_acyscale Scale for y axis: log, linear
Test_freqlow Minimum frequency for ac curves
Test_freqhigh Maximum frequency for ac curves
Test_acpoints Number of points per ac curve
Spatial Mode-Locked Laser

This models a mode-locked laser. It is identical to the standard Mode-Locked Laser model, except for the
ability to include transverse mode profiles in the optical output.
The following pulse types are presently supported for the output optical signal (u(t) is the field amplitude):
gaussian
( ) [ ]
2
0
5 . 0 exp ) ( T t t u =
sech
( )
0
sec ) ( T t h t u =
on_off
|u(t)|
2
= linear ramp to 1 for t
r
; flat at 1 for t
FWHM
-t
r
/2-t
f
/2; linear ramp to 0 for t
f
.
raisedCosAmp
( )
0
2 cos 5 . 0 5 . 0 ) ( T t t u + =
raisedCosPow
( ) ( )
0
2
2 cos 5 . 0 5 . 0 T t t u + =
supGaussian
( ) [ ]
m
T t t u
2
0
5 . 0 exp ) ( =
supGaussian (Super Gaussian) is an approximation to square pulses but with rounded edges. The m
parameter is determined from the rise time of the pulse. Although t
r
and t
f
may be different for on_off pulse
type, they must be the same for supGaussian type. The 10%-90% rise time rule is used for the
supGaussian while for the on_off it is the total rise or fall time.
The FWHM of these pulse types are:
gaussian

0
2 ln 2 T T
FWHM
=
sech
) 2 1 ln( 2
0
+ = T T
FWHM

raisedCosAmp
) 1 2 cos(
1
0

= a T T
FWHM

raisedCosPow
2 /
0
T T
FWHM
=
supGaussian

m
FWHM
T T
2
1
0
) 2 (ln 2 =
Arbitrary amounts of linear chirp may be added to each of these pulse forms. The chirp is included via a
chirp factor C. The expression for the field amplitude of a chirped pulse u
chirp
(t) is given by (this is a
general result irrespective of the pulse shape, see G. P. Agrawal, Nonlinear Fiber Optics, Academic
Press),

|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
2
0
2
exp ) ( ) ( T
T
C
j t u t u
chirp

The expression for the additional spectral width due to pulse chirp is given by,

(
(

|
|
.
|
\
|
0
1
0 0
4
1
2
cT
C

In the case of mode-locked sources, phase shift between adjacent bits is allowed so that the phase shifted
soliton transmission technique can be studied.
Note that this models output can be disabled by setting its peak-power value to 0.
Polarization
to the X axis.
Spatial Effects
General Options
polarization.
single
multi_from_single
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
Mode Types
file
radial_file
LG
HG
LP
(y_core_radius).
spot
donut
<# of modes>
...
data.
data.
LG mode:
HG mode:
inverse microns.
LP mode:
Multi-Line Output
DWDM simulations especially, a series of regularly spaced optical sources is common. The Mode-Locked
Laser model provides a number of convenient facilities so that many or all required lines can be generated
noSources, and in both modes the parameter wavelength specifies the first line in a series of ascending
wavelengths or ascending frequencies, respectively. The source separation in wavelength or frequency is
specified with deltaFreq.
as follows:
MultiModeLockedLaserFormat1 <freq_format> <power_format>
<freq_1> <power_1>
<freq_2> <power_2>
etc..
output node. To achieve the latter behavior, first set multiNodeOutput=YES. Then select the mode-locked
laser icon and open the menu item Properties. In the Ports tab, number_output_ports field, enter the
number of lines that the model will generate (i.e. either noSources or the number of lines in the user data
file if mode=File).
Test Parameters
A number of parameters are available for testing the models spatial settings. First,
test_mode_polarization is used to select which polarization to use when plotting the mode profiles.
test_mode_number is used when the model is in multi_from_single mode. The available modes are
numbered from zero, and in the order by which they are attached to optical signals.
test_mode_wavelength determines the field wavelength at which to plot the test mode. Finally,
test_mode_plot determines the type of plot to generate: magnitude plots the profiles transverse
magnitude, mag_phase plots its magnitude and phase, and real_imag plots the real and imaginary parts of
the mode.
References
1999).
Properties
Inputs
None
Outputs
Parameter Values
pattern enumerated Multiple Single, Multiple
type enumerated gaussian sech, gaussian,
supGaussian,
on_off,
raisedCosPow,
raisedCosAmp

mode enumerated Single Single,
LambdaGrid,
FreqGrid, File

filename string
width double 10e-12 [ 0, 1e32 ] sec
pointsPerBit integer 5 [ 1, 27 ] 2^x_bits
repRate double 10e9 [ 1, 1e32 ] Bit/s
ChirpFactor double 0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] none
phaseShift double 0 [ -6.284, 6.284 ] rad
riseTime double 10e-12 [ 0, 1e32 ] sec
fallTime double 10e-12 [ 0, 1e32 ] sec
multi_from_single

HG, LP, spot, donut

x_mode_file string
x_iRo double 0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] um^-1
HG, LP, spot, donut

y_mode_file string
y_iRo double 0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] um^-1
mag_phase,
real_imag

type Mode-locked source type: gaussian, supGaussian, sech, on_off,
raisedCosAmp, raisedCosPow
repRate Repetition rate of the source
patternLength Bit pattern length = 2
x
, x is input
pointsPerBit Number of sampling points per bit period in output optical signal
peakPower Peak power
wavelength Wavelength of the laser
width Pulse FWHM Parameter
ChirpFactor Chirp factor C
phaseShift Phase Shift Between Adjacent Pulses
pattern Single or multiple pulses in bit stream
riseTime Pulse Rise Time for on-off and supGaussian types
fallTime Pulse Fall Time for on-off type
polarization.
polarization.
polarization.
polarization.
Spatial CW Laser

This model produces the optical signal output of one or more CW lasers. It is most commonly used in
conjunction with the external modulator model to encode a binary signal upon the CW source. It is
identical to the standard CW Laser model, except for the ability to include transverse mode profiles in the
optical output.
In this model, the CW source is characterized completely by its power, wavelength, linewidth, relative
intensity noise (RIN) and phase. These are controlled directly through the parameters peakPower,
wavelength, linewidth, RIN and phase. The laser can also be assigned a random phase by setting
randomPhase=YES. Note that by setting peakPower to 0, you can disable this models output.
There are two options for the temporal representation of the laser output selected by the parameter
signalType. For topologies in which a CW laser model provides direct input to a modulator model or the
pumps of a Raman fiber amplifier, the PowerValue signal representation is most convenient. In this
For topologies in which a CW laser models output is used as input to other component models or is to be
multiplexed with different optical signals from other types of sources, the TimeSequence signal
representation should be used. This is the standard time-sampled representation of optical signals. For this
representation, the timeStep and noSamples parameters must be set appropriately to match the sampling
rate and number of data samples of any other signals with which it will interact in the simulation. The
nominalBitRate parameter should also be set to an appropriate data rate.
Linewidth
Inclusion of a source linewidth in the laser output is controlled via the parameter linewidth_model, which
by default is set to none (for a linewidth of zero). If linewidth_model=phase_noise, and the laser output
uses the TimeSequence signal representation, then linewidth is added to the output via phase noise. These
random phase variations (seeded via the same phaseSeed parameter that controls random initial phase
values) result in a Lorentzian output power spectrum [1].
Polarization
to the X axis.
Spatial Effects
General Options
polarization.
single
multi_from_single
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
Mode Types
file
radial_file
LG
HG
LP
(y_core_radius).
spot
donut
<# of modes>
...
data.
data.
LG mode:
HG mode:
inverse microns.
LP mode:
Multi-Line Output
It is frequently necessary to produce several CW signals with similar properties but different wavelengths.
In DWDM simulations especially, a series of regularly spaced optical sources is common. The CW Laser
model provides a number of convenient facilities so that many or all required lines can be generated from a
single icon. To produce a series of lines spaced equally in wavelength or frequency, set the parameter
mode=LambdaGrid or mode=FreqGrid, respectively. The number of sources is controlled by noSources,
and in both modes the parameter wavelength specifies the first line in a series of ascending wavelengths or
ascending frequencies, respectively. The source separation in wavelength or frequency is specified with
deltaFreq.
as follows:
MultiCWLaserFormat1 <freq_format> <power_format>
etc..
output node. To achieve the latter behavior, first set multiNodeOutput=YES. Then select the cw laser icon
and open the menu item Properties. In the Ports tab, number_output_ports field, enter the number of
lines that the model will generate (i.e. either noSources or the number of lines in the user data file if
mode=File). Figure 1 indicates the use of multi-node output mode to produce a series of WDM sources.

Figure 1: CW laser in multi-node output mode for WDM sources.
Test Parameters
A number of parameters are available for testing the models spatial settings. First,
test_mode_polarization is used to select which polarization to use when plotting the mode profiles.
the mode.
References
York, 1993).
1999).
Properties
Inputs
None
Outputs
Parameter Values
FreqGrid, File

filename string
value

wavelength

TimeSequence

randomPhase enumerated NO NO, YES
multi_from_single

HG, LP, spot, donut

x_mode_file string
x_iRo double 0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] um^-1
HG, LP, spot, donut

y_mode_file string
y_iRo double 0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] um^-1
mag_phase,
real_imag

peakPower Peak power (also average power for CW laser)
phase Select amplitude of phase randomization
phaseSeed Random number seed for phase randomization. (Standard OptSim seed convention).
mode_default_grid_spaci
ng
Default grid spacing override.
Spatial VCSEL

This block models a vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser (VCSEL) directly modulated with an electrical
signal. It is identical to the standard VCSEL model, except for the ability to include transverse mode
profiles in the optical output.
The model computes the electrical current injected into the lasers optical cavity and solves the laser rate
equations for the optical output. Important VCSEL behaviors such as spatial hole burning, lateral carrier
diffusion, thermally dependent gain, and thermal carrier leakage are all accounted for. The behavior of the
model can be partitioned into three blocks, as shown in Fig. 1.

Figure 1: Main components of the VCSEL model
inductance and shunting capacitance. Finally, the VCSEL cavity is modeled via a simplified current-
voltage (IV) relationship and spatially independent VCSEL rate equations.
Driving Source
The VCSEL is driven by a combination of the electrical signal at its input and, when applicable, a dc bias
current specified by I
o
(Io). The input electrical signal can be interpreted in a variety of ways, based on the
settings of the model parameter Drive_Scheme. This parameter can take on values of direct_drive,
direct_user_iv, or bias_tee.
direct_drive
o
to form
the total input current. Figure 2(a) illustrates this scenario. If the input signal is a voltage,
then the bias current I
o
turn-on voltage V
on
Fig. 2(b).

OptSim 4.0 Models Reference: Block Mode Chapter 13: Multimode Modules 515
direct_user_iv
Equivalent to direct_drive, but with support for a user-specified equation for the cavity
voltage (see below).
bias_tee
s
(Rs),
o

Parasitics
b
p
(Cp). These can be turned
on or off via the parameter Parasitics.
VCSEL Cavity
Both electrical and optical effects are modeled within the VCSEL cavity.
Electrical
In both the direct_drive and bias_tee modes of operation, the electrical model of the VCSEL cavity is that
of a simplified diode IV relationship, consisting of a series resistance R
d
on

(Von). During solution of the cavity current I, the model ensures that negative currents are effectively
limited to zero.
For the direct_user_iv mode of operation, the user may specify a nonlinear equation for the cavity voltage
via the parameter voltage_equation. This equation should be a function of cavity current I and device
temperature T. For example, to implement a simple diode, the user might set voltage_equation equal to
I*100+17.2e-5*T*log(I/1e-18+1.0), where we have assumed a 100- series resistance, a saturation
current of 10
-18
A, and a diode ideality factor of 2.
Rate Equations
At the core of the VCSEL block are spatially independent semiconductor laser rate equations, which
determine the optical output in response to the cavity current I [1]. Relative intensity noise is modeled via
a constant value RIN (RIN), and the optical emission frequency is set by (wavelength). The model rate
equations are based on the following single-mode spatially dependent equations [1]:

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
2
2
, , , ,
, ,
eff i l
n n
L N r t I r t N r t I N T
G r t S t r N r t
t q q
= +
r r r
r r r

(1)

S t
t
S t
V
N r t dv
V
G r t S t r dv
p n
V V
( ) ( )
( , ) ( , ) ( ) ( ) = + +

1 1 v v v

(2)
In (1), I is the spatially dependent injection current, N is the carrier density scaled by the effective active-
layer volume V, S and are the total photon number and normalized transverse mode profile, T is the
device temperature, G is the gain, I
l
is the thermal leakage current,
I
(effint) is the current-injection
efficiency,
n
(tn) is the carrier lifetime, L
eff
is the effective carrier diffusion length, and q is the electron
charge. In (2), (b) is the spontaneous-emission coupling coefficient, and
p
(tp) is the photon lifetime.
Following the approach taken in [1], we can eliminate the explicit spatial dependence from (1) and (2) by
assuming a cylindrical geometry, neglecting azimuthal variations, and adopting a two-term Bessel-series
expansion for the carrier profile:
N N J r R
0 1 0 1
( / )
(3)
where
1
is the first nonzero root of J
1
(x), and R is the active-layer effective radius. If we further assume a
uniform current distribution and linear gain, we can eliminate the explicit spatial dependence from (1) and
(2), thereby obtaining the following spatially independent VCSEL rate equations:

dN
dt
I
q
N G T N N T N
S
S
I N T
q
i
n
t l 0 0 00 0 01 1 0
1
=

+

( ) [ ( ( )) ] ( , )

(4)

dN
dt
N
h
G T N N T N
S
S
n
diff
t 1 1 100 0 101 1
1
1
= + +

+
( )
( ) [ ( ( )) ]

(5)

dS
dt
S N G T N N T N
S
S
p n
t
= + +

+
0 00 0 01 1
1
( ) [ ( ( )) ]

(6)
In (4)-(6), the spatial dependence of the gain is now accounted for via the overlap coefficients
00
(gam00),
01
(gam01),
100
(phi100), and
101
(phi101), while diffusive effects are taken care of via h
diff
(hdiff),
which is equal to
2
1
( / )
eff
L R . The thermal dependence of the gain is taken into account via the thermally
dependent gain constant G(T) and transparency number N
t
(T), while gain saturation is modeled via (e),
the gain saturation factor. Furthermore, the leakage I
l
is now a function of N
0
(the average carrier number),
as opposed to N. Finally, the photon number S is converted to an output power via the output-power
coupling coefficient k
f
(kf) using the expression P
out
= k
f
S.

Phase Rate Equation
A rate equation for the optical phase is also included in the model, and is based on work presented in [7]
and [8]:

00 0 01 1
( ) [ ( ) ]
2 1
th
G T N N N d
dt S

=
+

(7)
is the optical phase, (alpha) is the linewidth enhancement factor, and N
th
is the room-temperature
threshold carrier number (the model assumes that the specified laser wavelength is defined at room
temperature).
Mode-Carrier Overlap
If the transverse mode profile I is normalized such that

2
1
2
0
R
r r dr =
( )
(8)
then the mode overlap coefficients can be calculated as [1]:

0
2
0
0
2
i i
R
R
J r R r r dr =
( / ) ( )
(9)

10
2
0
2
1
0 0 1
0
2
i i
R
R J
J r R J r R r r dr =
( )
( / ) ( / ) ( )
(10)
where I = 0 or 1, and
0
= 0. By setting the parameter overlap_calculation to off, the user is free to
calculate specific values for the overlap coefficients depending on their particular choice of mode profile.
In many situations, one can model the mode profile of a single mode device as a Gaussian with
characteristic radius R
m
. In this case, it can be shown that the overlap coefficients reduce to functions of
(overlap), where = R
m
/R [2]. By setting overlap_calculation to on, the overlap coefficients are
calculated as functions of , overriding the specified values.
Thermally Dependent Gain
In order to account for a VCSEL gains unique thermal dependence, the gain is modeled as a linear
function of carrier number N, with thermally dependent gain constant and transparency number. The gain
constant G(T) and transparency number N
t
(T) are described via the following empirical relationships [1]:
G T G
a a T a T
b b T b T
o
g g g
g g g
( ) =
+ +
+ +
0 1 2
2
0 1 2
2

(11)
N T N c c T c T
t tr n n n
( ) ( ) = + +
0 1 2
2

(12)
where G
o
(Go) is a gain constant, N
tr
(Ntr) is a transparency number, and a
g0
-a
g2
(ag0-ag2), b
g0
-b
g2
(bg0-
bg2), and c
n0
-c
n2
(cn0-cn2) are fitting parameters. Generally, the gain constant will be peaked about some
optimal temperature value, as a result of the temperature-dependent mismatch between lasing wavelength
and gain peak. An example of the gain constant based on the models default values is illustrated in Fig. 4.
The transparency number generally increases with temperature.

Figure 4: Sample thermally dependent gain constant based on default model values
Thermal Carrier Leakage
Thermally dependent carrier leakage is modeled using the following empirical relationship [1], based on
the analysis of [3]:
I N T I
a a N a N T a N
T
l lo
( , ) exp
/
0
0 1 0 2 0 3 0
=
+ +
(

(13)
where I
lo
(Ilo) is the leakage current factor, and a
0
-a
3
(a0-a3) are fitting parameters. This expression
accounts for the interdependence of the carrier number and temperature in determining the total leakage
current. An example of (13) for various temperatures is illustrated in Fig. 5.

Figure 5. Sample thermal leakage current based on default model values
Temperature Rate Equation
To complete the thermal aspect of the model, a rate equation for the device temperature as a function of
dissipated heat is included. Heat generation is assumed to arise from any power not dissipated as part of
the optical output. The resulting equation is [1],[4]:
T T I V P R
dT
dt
o tot out th th
= + ( )
(14)
where T
o
(To) is the ambient temperature, I
tot
is the total current flowing through the VCSEL (including
current through the intrinsic parasitic shunting capacitance C
p
), R
th
(Rth) is the device thermal impedance,
and
th
(tth) is the thermal time constant.
Polarization
to the X axis.
Spatial Effects
General Options
polarization.
single
multi_from_single
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
Mode Types
file
radial_file
LG
HG
LP
(y_core_radius).
spot
donut
<# of modes>
...
data.
data.
LG mode:
HG mode:
inverse microns.
LP mode:
Multi-Line Output
DWDM simulations especially, a series of regularly spaced optical sources is common. The VCSEL model
provides a number of convenient facilities so that many or all required lines can be generated from a single
icon. To produce a series of lines spaced equally in wavelength or frequency, set the parameter
mode=LambdaGrid or mode=FreqGrid, respectively. The number of sources is controlled by the number
of electrical inputs to the laser, and in both modes the parameter wavelength specifies the first line in a
series of ascending wavelengths or ascending frequencies, respectively. The source separation in
wavelength or frequency is specified with deltaFreq. To set the number of electrical inputs to the laser,
select the VCSEL icon and open the menu item Properties. In the Ports tab, number_input_ports field,
enter the number of inputs.
output node. To achieve the latter behavior, select the VCSEL icon and open the menu item Properties.
Set the value of the number_output_ports field in the Ports tab to that of the number_input_ports field.
Numerical Settings
Test Parameters
In order to ascertain whether the parameter settings for the VCSEL block provide the component
performance desired, the user may test them from the component parameter editing window. Spatial
settings may also be tested. The test can be controlled via model parameters carrying a prefix Test_.
These parameters allow the user to set sweep limits, etc.
LI Curve
If test_function=LI, then a family of LI curves will be generated. The LI curve is controlled via the
parameters Test_Imin, Test_Imax, Test_Lipoints, Test_Tomin, Test_Tomax, and Test_Topoints. Based
on these parameters, a family of LI curves is generated over a range of ambient temperatures from
Test_Tomin to Test_Tomax. The number of curves is determined by Test_Topoints. Each LI curve is
generated over currents ranging from Test_Imin to Test_Imax, with the total number of points per curve
specified by Test_LIpoints. A sample family of LI curves is shown in Fig. 6. Note that if a user-specified
cavity voltage equation is being used, a plot of cavity voltage versus current will also be displayed.

Figure 6: Sample test family of LI curves at ambient temperatures of 25-75 C
Mode Profile
If test_function=mode_profile, then a number of parameters are available for testing the spatial settings.
First, test_mode_polarization is used to select which polarization to use when plotting the mode profiles.
the mode.
References
[1] P. V. Mena, J. J. Morikuni, S.-M. Kang, A. V. Harton, and K. W. Wyatt, A comprehensive
circuit-level model of vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers, Journal of Lightwave Technology, 17, 2612
(1999).
[2] P. V. Mena, J. J. Morikuni, and K. W. Wyatt, Compact representations of mode overlap for
circuit-level VCSEL models, IEEE/LEOS Annual Meeting Conference Proceedings, 234 (2000).
[3] J. W. Scott, R. S. Geels, S. W. Corzine, and L. A. Coldren, Modeling temperature effects
and spatial hole burning to optimize vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser performance, IEEE Journal of
Quantum Electronics, 29, 1295 (1993).
[4] N. Bewtra, D. A. Suda, G. L. Tan, F. Chatenoud, and J. M. Xu, Modeling of quantum-well
lasers with electro-opto-thermal interaction, IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics, 1,
331 (1995).
1999).
[6] G. P. Agrawal and N. K. Dutta, Semiconductor Lasers, 2nd. Ed. (Van Nostrand Reinhold, New
York, 1993).
[7] M. X. Jungo, D. Erni, and W. Bchtold, VISTAS: A comprehensive system-oriented
spatiotemporal VCSEL model, IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics, 9, 939 (2003).
[8] L. A. Coldren and S. W. Corzine, Diode Lasers and Photonic Integrated Circuits (John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., New York, 1995).
Properties
Inputs
Outputs
Parameter Values
LambdaGrid

effint double 1.0 [ 0, 1e32 ] none
kf double 1.5e-8 [ 0, 1e32 ] W
b double 1e-3 [ 0, 1e32 ] none
tp double 2.5e-12 [ 0, 1e32 ] s
tn double 2.5e-9 [ 0, 1e32 ] s
Go double 3e4 [ 0, 1e32 ] 1/s
ag0 double -0.4 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] none
ag1 double 0.00147 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] 1/K
ag2 double 7.65e-7 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] 1/K^2
bg0 double 1.3608 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] none
bg1 double -0.00974 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] 1/K
bg2 double 1.8e-5 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] 1/K^2
Ntr double 1e7 [ 0, 1e32 ] none
cn0 double -1 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] none
cn1 double 0.008 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] 1/K
cn2 double 6e-6 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] 1/K^2
e double 5e-7 [ 0, 1e32 ] none
alpha double 0 [ 0, 1e32 ] none
Ilo double 9.61 [ 0, 1e32 ] A
a0 double 4588.24 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] K
a1 double 2.12e-5 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] K
a2 double 8e-8 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] none
a3 double 9.01e9 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] K
overlap_calculation enumerated off on, off
overlap double 1 [ 0.01, 10.00 ] none
gam00 double 1 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] none
gam01 double 0.37978 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] none
hdiff double 15 [ 0, 1e32 ] none
To double 25 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] C
Rth double 900 [ 0, 1e32 ] K/W
tth double 1e-6 [ 0, 1e32 ] s
Von double 1.75 [ 0, 1e32 ] V
Drive_Scheme enumerated direct_drive direct_drive,
bias_tee

Io double 1.5e-3 [ 0, 1e32 ] A
Lb double 0.3e-9 [ 0, 1e32 ] H
Cp double 2e-12 [ 0, 1e32 ] F
multi_from_single

HG, LP, spot, donut

x_mode_file string
x_iRo double 0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] um^-1
HG, LP, spot, donut

y_mode_file string
y_iRo double 0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] um^-1
test_function enumerated LI LI, mode_profile
Test_Tomin double 25 [ 0, 1e32 ] C
Test_Tomax double 75 [ 0, 1e32 ] C
Test_Topoints integer 3 [ 0, 20 ] none
mag_phase,
real_imag

I

kf Output power coupling coefficient, k
f

tp Photon lifetime,
p

tn Carrier lifetime,
n

o

ag0-ag2, bg0-bg2 Gain coefficient empirical parameters, a
g0
-a
g2
, b
g0
-b
g2

Ntr Carrier transparency number, N
tr

cn0-cn2 Transparency number empirical parameters, c
n0
-c
n2

alpha Linewidth enhancement factor,
Ilo Leakage current factor, A
a0-a3 Leakage current empirical parameters, a
0
-a
3

overlap_calculation Overlap calculation flag: on, off
overlap Overlap parameter,
gam00, gam01 Overlap coefficients for N
0
and S rate equations,
00
and
01

phi100, phi101 Overlap coefficients for N
1
rate equation,
100
and
101

hdiff Diffusion parameter, h
diff
RIN VCSEL relative intensity noise, RIN
To Ambient temperature, T
o
Rth VCSEL thermal impedance, R
th

tth Thermal time constant,
th

Rd VCSEL cavity resistance, R
d

Von VCSEL turn-on voltage, V
on

Drive_Scheme Drive signal definition: direct_drive, bias_tee
s

o

Lb VCSEL bond inductance, L
b

Cp VCSEL parasitic capacitance, C
p

x_iRo Inverse of Laguerre-Gaussian radius of curvature for X
polarization.
polarization.
polarization.
y_iRo Inverse of Laguerre-Gaussian radius of curvature for Y
polarization.
polarization.
polarization.
test_function Test-function selection.
Test_Imin Minimum current for LI curves
Test_Imax Maximum current for LI curves
Test_LIpoints Number of points per LI curve
Test_Tomin Minimum ambient temperature for LI curve generation
Test_Tomax Maximum ambient temperature for LI curve generation
Test_Topoints Number of LI curves (one per ambient temperature setting)
Spatial Light Emitting Diode (LED)

This block models a Light Emitting Diode (LED) directly modulated with an electrical signal. It is
identical to the standard LED model, except for the ability to include transverse mode profiles in the optical
output.
The model computes the electrical current injected into the LEDs optical cavity and generates the optical
response, including linewidth and relative intensity noise. The behavior of the model can be partitioned
into three blocks, as shown in Fig. 1.
inductance and shunting capacitance. Finally, the LED optical cavity is modeled via a simplified current-
voltage (IV) relationship and linear carrier rate equation.

Figure 1: Main components of the Light Emitting Diode model.
LED Optical Response
The LED cavitys optical response is modeled via a linear rate equation for the cavity carrier density.
Relative intensity noise is modeled via a constant value RIN (RIN). The carrier rate equation, following the
treatment in [1], is:

n
dN I N
dt qV
=
(1)
where I is the injection current, N is the carrier density, q is the electron charge, V is the cavity volume, and
n
is the carrier lifetime. The optical output power at wavelength (wavelength) is proportional to
N/
n
. When the parasitic response time is much shorter than
n
, the carrier lifetime is proportional to the
intrinsic LED rise/fall time
rf
(rise_fall_time), where ln(9)
rf n
= . Because (1) is linear and the
optical output is proportional to N, we can readily convert (1) into a frequency-domain transfer function for
the output power versus input current, whose dc value is simply the LED responsivity (responsivity),
measured in W/A. Thus, the intrinsic optical response is (in the frequency domain):
( ) ( )
1
out
n
P I
j

=
+

(2)
where P
out
is the optical output power and I is the cavity current. Note that when the parasitic response
time contributes significantly to the rise/fall time, the value of the parameter rise_fall_time should be
adjusted accordingly by removing any parasitic contributions which are accounted for via the models
parasitic element parameters.
In order to add a constant optical phase to this output, the user may specify either a fixed value
(initial_phase), or request a randomly generated value (by setting randomInitialPhase to yes). In the
latter case, the user must provide an integer seed (randomSeed) in the range 1e8 to 1. If randomSeed <
0, then randomSeed itself acts as the seed value for random number generation. If randomSeed = 0, then
the LED component name acts as the seed. In both cases, the same random number is generated in
successive simulations. Alternatively, if randomSeed = 1, then the system clock setting serves as the seed
value, in which case different random numbers will be generated in successive simulations.
Linewidth
Inclusion of a source linewidth in the LED output is controlled via the parameter linewidth_model, which
by default is set to none (for a linewidth of zero). If linewidth_model=phase_noise, then linewidth is
added to the output via phase noise. These random phase variations (seeded via the same randomSeed
parameter that controls the random initial phase value) result in a Lorentzian output power spectrum [2].
LED Electrical Model
The electrical model of the LEDs optical cavity is that of a simplified diode IV relationship, consisting of a
series resistance R
d
on
(Von). During solution of the cavity current I, the model
ensures that negative currents are effectively limited to zero.
Device parasitics may consist of a bond inductance L
b
p
(Cp), as shown in
Fig. 1. These can be turned on or off via the parameter parasitics.
Driving Source
The Light Emitting Diode is driven by a combination of the electrical signal at its input and, when
bias
(Ibias).
parameter drive_scheme. This parameter can take on values of direct_drive or bias_tee.
direct_drive
voltage source. In other words, the LED is assumed to be undergoing direct-drive
bias
to
form the total input current. Figure 2(a) illustrates this scenario. If the input signal is a
voltage, then I
bias
is ignored. Note that the input voltage should be larger than the LEDs turn-
on voltage V
on
; otherwise, the resulting current is zero. This arrangement is illustrated in Fig.
2(b).
bias_tee
s
(Rs),
connected to the LED via an ideal bias tee. The bias current I
bias

Figure 2: Direct-drive modulation schemes: (a) current and (b) voltage.

Figure 3: Bias-tee modulation schemes: (a) voltage source and (b) current source.
Polarization
to the X axis.
Spatial Effects
General Options
polarization.
single
multi_from_single
1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
Mode Types
file
radial_file
LG
HG
LP
(y_core_radius).
spot
donut
<# of modes>
...
data.
data.
LG mode:
HG mode:
inverse microns.
LP mode:
Multi-Line Output
DWDM simulations especially, a series of regularly spaced optical sources is common. The LED model
provides a number of convenient facilities so that many or all required lines can be generated from a single
icon. To produce a series of lines spaced equally in wavelength or frequency, set the parameter
mode=LambdaGrid or mode=FreqGrid, respectively. The number of sources is controlled by the number
of electrical inputs to the laser, and in both modes the parameter wavelength specifies the first line in a
series of ascending wavelengths or ascending frequencies, respectively. The source separation in
wavelength or frequency is specified with deltaFreq. To set the number of electrical inputs to the laser,
select the LED icon and open the menu item Properties. In the Ports tab, number_input_ports field, enter
the number of inputs.
output node. To achieve the latter behavior, select the LED icon and open the menu item Properties. Set
the value of the number_output_ports field in the Ports tab to that of the number_input_ports field.
Test Functions
In order to ascertain whether the parameter settings for the Light Emitting Diode block provide the
This test produces either a light-current curve, small-signal frequency response curves, or a mode profile.
By setting the test_function parameter to the desired output and clicking the Test button in the component-
parameter editing window, the user may display the LED characteristics summarized below. Furthermore,
the default plot ranges for most of the characteristics may be overridden by setting test_default_settings
to no, and specifying values for test_function_x_low, test_function_x_high, and test_function_points
(the number of data points to plot). For frequency response curves, the user may also select whether or not
to display the x-axis in log scale (test_log_x).
LI: Plots the LEDs light-current (LI) characteristic. The plot range should be specified in
amperes. The plot units can be set via the parameters power_units and current_units.
transfer_function: Displays the LEDs small-signal optical transfer function (optical power
versus current), including parasitic effects. The plot range should be specified in Hertz. The
plot units can be set via the parameters response_units and frequency_units.
S21: Displays the LEDs small-signal S21 response. The plot range should be specified in
Hertz. Plot units can be set via the parameters response_units and frequency_units.
mode_profile: A number of parameters are available for testing the spatial settings. First,
test_mode_polarization is used to select which polarization to use when plotting the mode
profiles. test_mode_number is used when the model is in multi_from_single mode. The
available modes are numbered from zero, and in the order by which they are attached to
optical signals. test_mode_wavelength determines the field wavelength at which to plot the
test mode. Finally, test_mode_plot determines the type of plot to generate: magnitude plots
the profiles transverse magnitude, mag_phase plots its magnitude and phase, and real_imag
plots the real and imaginary parts of the mode.
References
[1] B. E. A. Saleh and M. C. Teich, Fundamentals of Photonics (John Wiley & Sons, New York,
1991).
York, 1993).
1999).
Properties
Inputs
Outputs
Parameter Values
mode enumerated FreqGrid FreqGrid, LambdaGrid
deltaFreq double 100e9 [ 0, 1e18 ] meters or
Hz
responsivity double 1.0 [ 0, 1e32 ] W/A
rise_fall_time double 1e-9 [ 0, 1e32 ] s
linewidth_model enumerated phase_noise none, phase_noise, value
linewidth_units enumerated frequency frequency, wavelength
Rd double 5.0 [ 0, 1e32 ] ohm
Von double 2.0 [ 0, 1e32 ] V
drive_scheme enumerated direct_drive direct_drive, bias_tee
Rs double 50.0 [ 0, 1e32 ] ohm
Ibias double 25e-3 [ 0, 1e32 ] A
parasitics enumerated no no, yes
Cp double 2e-12 [ 0, 1e32 ] F
Lb double 0.3e-9 [ 0, 1e32 ] H
mode_mapping enumerated single single, multi_from_single
x_single_mode_type enumerated LG file, radial_file, LG, HG,
LP, spot, donut

x_mode_file string
x_iRo double 0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] um^-1
y_single_mode_type enumerated LG file, radial_file, LG, HG,
LP, spot, donut

y_mode_file string
y_iRo double 0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] um^-1
test_function enumerated LI LI, transfer_function, S21,
mode_profile

test_function_x_low double 0 [ 0, 1e32 ] none
test_function_x_high double 100e-3 [ 0, 1e32 ] none
test_function_points integer 201 [ 2, 100000 ] none
test_log_x enumerated yes yes, no
test_mode_plot enumerated magnitude magnitude, mag_phase,
real_imag

current_units enumerated mA nA, uA, mA, A
frequency_units enumerated Hz Hz, kHz, MHz, GHz, THz
response_units enumerated dB linear, dB
wavelength
Wavelength of the LED,
responsivity
Optical response coefficient
rise_fall_time
Intrinsic rise/fall time ln(9)
rf n
=
linewidth_model Linewidth model selection
linewidth_units Linewidth units selection
randomInitialPhase Random phase setting
initial_phase Constant phase value, when randomInitialPhase = no
randomSeed Random-number-generation seed value
RIN Relative intensity noise, RIN
Rd Cavity resistance R
d

Von Turn-on voltage V
on

drive_scheme Drive signal setting
Rs Source impedance R
s

Ibias Bias current I
bias

parasitics Parasitics setting
Cp Parasitic capacitance C
p

Lb Bond inductance L
b
power_units Units for optical power
current_units Units for electrical current
frequency_units Units for modulation frequency
response_units Units for small-signal response data
test_function Test function output selection.
test_default_settings Selection for default settings in test function output
test_function_x_low Lowest x-value for test function output
test_function_x_high Highest x-value for test function output
test_function_points Number of points in test function output
test_log_x Switch for using log scale for test function x-values
Thin Lens

This block models an optical lens using the thin lens approximation [1]. For a set of optical input signals, a
phase transformation is applied to each signals transverse mode profile. This transformation changes an
incident signals phase front, thereby affecting focusing (positive focal length) or defocusing (negative
focal length) of the beam. The applied phase transformation is:
( )
( )
(
(
+
=
f
y x
j y x t
2 2
exp ,
(1)
where x and y are transverse coordinates, is the signal wavelength, and f (focal_length) is the lens focal
length. It should be noted that for spherical lenses with surface radii of curvature R
1
and R
2
, and material
index n, the focal length can be expressed as:
( )
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2 1
1 1
1
1
R R
n
f

(2)
Typical lenses will not transmit all of the incident power. To account for this, the model provides a power-
reflectivity parameter, lens_reflectance. Aperturing due to finite lens dimensions can also be activated via
the parameter aperturing. In this case, the lens is assumed to be circular, with diameter lens_diameter.
Outside of this diameter, no phase transformation occurs, but a secondary power reflectivity may be
specified via outer_reflectance. By setting outer_reflectance to 100%, the aperture completely blocks the
field outside of the lens boundaries.
Numerical Effects
If aperturing is turned off, then for incident optical signals with Gaussian (e.g., Laguerre- or Hermite-
Gaussian) transverse mode profiles that have not been translationally or rotationally modified (e.g., by the
Spatial Coupler), the Thin Lens block directly modifies the mode profiles radius of curvature. This
technique preserves the modes exact analytical description. In all other cases, the output signal is
generated as a gridded mode, with data stored over a rectangular grid of points. The grid spacing is
determined by the default settings of the input signal. However, to ensure that this grid spacing is
sufficiently small to capture the fine detail of the lenss phase transformation, the model parameter
grid_correction should be set to yes.
References
[1] J. W. Goodman, Introduction to Fourier Optics, 2nd. ed. (McGraw-Hill, New York, 1996).
Properties
Inputs
Outputs
Parameter Values
focal_length double 10 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] mm
aperturing enumerated no yes, no
lens_diameter double 5 [ 0, 1e32 ] mm
lens_reflectance double 0 [ 0, 100 ] %
outer_reflectance double 0 [ 0, 100 ] %
grid_correction enumerated yes yes, no
focal_length Lens focal length.
aperturing Lens aperturing selection.
lens_diameter Diameter of circular lens.
lens_reflectance Power reflectance within lens boundaries.
outer_reflectance Power reflectance outside of lens boundaries.
grid_correction Output-field grid auto-correction setting.
Vortex Lens

This block models a diffractive optical element that combines incident signals phase front transformation
like in thin parabolic lens with phase vortex [1]. In general, solutions of propagation equation in graded
index multimode fiber yields a complex set of propagating modes corresponding to both axial/meridional
and skew rays. Vortex lens can be used to improve the coupling into the skew rays of graded index fiber.
This approach offers an alternative to existing methods based on tilting and angular offsets for the
conditioned launch problem.
For a set of optical input signals, a phase transformation is applied to each signals transverse mode profile.
This transformation changes an incident signals phase front, thereby affecting focusing (positive focal
length) or defocusing (negative focal length) of the beam. The applied phase transformation is:
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
m
f
r n
j y x t
2
exp ) , (
2
,
r
2
= x
2
+ y
2
and = atan (y/x),
(1)
where x and y are transverse coordinates, is the signal wavelength, n (lens_index), is material index
and f (focal_length) is the lens focal length. The parameter m is a vortex order. The skew rays correspond
to all modes with m > 0, which correlates to rays spiraling both clockwise and counterclockwise. Therefore,
the skew rays can be selectively excited by properly choosing the phase profile of the incident beam with
the desired dependence.
Typical lenses will not transmit all of the incident power. To account for this, the model provides a power-
reflectivity parameter, lens_reflectance. Aperturing due to finite lens dimensions can also be activated via
the parameter aperturing. In this case, the lens is assumed to be circular, with diameter lens_diameter.
Outside of this diameter, no phase transformation occurs, but a secondary power reflectivity may be
specified via outer_reflectance. By setting outer_reflectance to 100%, the aperture completely blocks
the field outside of the lens boundaries.
Numerical Effects
If aperturing is turned off, then for incident optical signals with Gaussian (e.g., Laguerre- or Hermite-
Gaussian) transverse mode profiles that have not been translationally or rotationally modified (e.g., by the
Spatial Coupler), the Vortex Lens block directly modifies the mode profiles radius of curvature. This
technique preserves the modes exact analytical description. In all other cases, the output signal is
generated as a gridded mode, with data stored over a rectangular grid of points. The grid spacing is
determined by the default settings of the input signal. However, to ensure that this grid spacing is
sufficiently small to capture the fine detail of the lenss phase transformation, the model parameter
grid_correction should be set to yes.
References
[1] E. G. Johnson, J. Stack, and C. Koehler, Light Coupling by a Vortex Lens into Graded Index
Fiber, J. of Lightwave Technology, vol.19, no.5, p.753 (2001)
Properties
Inputs
Outputs
Parameter Values
vortex_order integer 0 [ 0, 1000 ]
focal_length double 1 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] mm
aperturing enumerated no yes, no
lens_diameter double 5 [ 0, 1e32 ] mm
lens_index double 1.4 [ 1, 10 ]
lens_reflectance double 0 [ 0, 100 ] %
outer_reflectance double 0 [ 0, 100 ] %
vortex_order Vortex order.
focal_length Lens focal length.
aperturing Lens aperturing selection.
lens_diameter Diameter of circular lens..
lens_index Power reflectance outside of lens boundaries.
lens_reflectance Power reflectance within lens boundaries..
outer_reflectance Power reflectance outside of lens boundaries
grid_correction Output-field grid auto-correction setting
Spatial Coupler

This model is used to connect the output of one spatial model to the input of another. It allows the spatial
models to be translationally and rotationally offset, and it performs a free-space propagation between the
two components. Consider the topology of Figure 1 as an example:

Figure 1: Spatial coupler topology.
In this figure, the output of a spatial VCSEL model is to be connected to the input of the multimode fiber
model. The coupler has six position-dependent parameters; the first three ) , , ( z y x allow the user to
specify a translational offset between the two components. The parameters x (xoffset) and y (yoffset)
enable the user to attribute a transverse offset between the two models while the parameter z (distance)
specifies the free-space distance between them (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Translational offsets in the spatial coupler model.
The remaining three positional parameters ) , , (
z y x
specify rotation about the x, y, and z axes,
respectively. These parameters are labeled phi_x, phi_y, and phi_z. Because the commutative property
does not apply to rotations, it is necessary to specify the order in which the rotations occur. The convention
adopted in OptSim is to first apply the rotation about the z-axis
z
, then the rotation about the x-axis
x
and finally
y
. The rotations are defined in Figure 3. Note that the coordinate system is defined to be
right handed with propagation in the +z direction.

Figure 3: Rotational definitions.
The spatial coupler functions by first applying five of the six transformations ) , , , , (
z y x
y x to the
spatial field that emerges from the first model (e.g., the VCSEL in Figure 1). Once these transformations
have been completed, the field is expressed in a new coordinate system ) , , ( z y x [1]. The spatial coupler
performs a free-space propagation over the specified distance in this new coordinate system then
transforms the field back into the ) , , ( z y x coordinate system that is expected by the second model (e.g., the
multimode fiber in Figure 1).
Modification of the spatial field as a result of translation, rotation, and propagation is only one function of
the coupler model. If the spatial field is rotated, this effect must also be accounted for in the time-varying
fields. If the incoming signal is expressed as ) , , , ( t z y x E , once it is rotated and translated, it is expressed
as ) , , , ( t z y x E . It is then propagated in the ) , , ( z y x coordinate system after which it is mapped back
into the ) , , ( z y x domain. Here the primed quantities denote values in the transformed coordinate system.
The coordinate transformations can be expressed as:
z c y b x a x + + =
z f y e x d y + + =
z i y h x g z + + =
where a-i are the direction cosines of the transformation [1]. If the spatial fields are denoted by , the
input field can be expressed as:
y z y x t E x z y x t E t z y x E
y y x x
) , , ( ) ( ) , , ( ) ( ) , , , ( + =
The time-varying and spatial fields are clearly related here through multiplication. Note also that the
spatial fields have only x and y components; the OptSim convention is that spatial components in the z
direction are either nonexistent or are negligible. After transformation, the field is expressed as:
z y z y x t E x z y x t E t z y x E
y y x x
+ + = 0 ) , , ( ) ( ) , , ( ) ( ) , , , (
Note that the coordinate transform is defined so that there is no field component in the z direction.
However, as evidenced by the ) , , ( ) , , ( z y x z y x coordinate system mappings described above, the
transformation back to ) , , ( z y x will result in a nonzero field component in the z direction.

[ ]
[ ]
[ ]z z y x t fE z y x t cE
y z y x t eE z y x t bE
x z y x t dE z y x t aE t z y x E
y y x x
y y x x
y y x x
) , , ( ) ( ) , , ( ) (
) , , ( ) ( ) , , ( ) (
) , , ( ) ( ) , , ( ) ( ) , , , (
+ +
+ +
+ =

As mentioned previously, the OptSim convention is to assume that the majority of power is contained in the
transverse spatial fields; thus, the z component above is ignored. This is typically an excellent assumption
as long as the amount of tilt is not too large and the propagation distance is not too great. To ensure this,
the tilt is limited to
o
10 and the propagation distance to 100 m . However, in the event that 10% or
more of the power is lost as a result of ignoring fields in the z direction, a warning will be issued.
The equation above has one major consequence: Each polarization of the output spatial field
contains components of both polarizations of the input field. Because the temporal and spatial fields are
stored as separate entities in OptSim, there is no way to internally store the sum
) , , ( ) ( ) , , ( ) ( z y x t E z y x t E
y y x x
+
as a single entity. Thus, these two components have to be separated: The end result is that a single
incident optical signal will, in general, produce two output optical signals (OpSigs) from
the coupler. Rewriting the previous expression:
[ ] [ ] z f y e x d z y x t E z c y b x a z y x t E t z y x E
y y x x
) , , ( ) ( ) , , ( ) ( ) , , , ( + + + + + =
As before, all z-component data is neglected so:

[ ] [ ]
2 # 1 #
) , , ( ) ( ) , , ( ) ( ) , , , (
OpSig OpSig
y e x d z y x
y
t
y
E y b x a z y x
x
t
x
E t z y x E
+ =
+ + + =

There are a few special cases where a single input OpSig will produce only a single output OpSig; e.g.,
) , , (
z y x
= (0, 0, 0), ) 0 , , 0 (
y
, ) 0 , 0 , (
x
. Additionally, a single output OpSig is produced if either the
E
x
(t) or E
y
(t) fields of the input signal is 0.
The entire preceding discussion assumes that it is important to determine how the power in the incident
spatial field is decomposed into linear x and y components as a result of rotation. In one special situation it
is unnecessary to maintain this information. When all subsequent spatial models in the topology are
circularly symmetric, and when the only rotation occurs about the z-axis ) , 0 , 0 (
z
, this step is not needed.
In this case, the user can choose the parameter setting maintain_polarization=No. This will circumvent
the storage of the second OpSig as described above and should result in a faster, more computationally
efficient simulation.
Note that in the course of the coupling calculation, the model typically enforces that the grid spacing is not
larger than a quarter-wavelength. If the user does not want this rule enforced, the flag grid_correction
should be set to no.
Furthermore, the flag reduce_field allows the user to direct the coupler to make the output field as compact
as possible. Figure 4 shows a representative transverse mode. Notice that the spatial representation used
here pads the field with zeros on all four sides. When reduce_field=yes, OptSim will strip off these zero
values which creates a smaller object and makes the simulation of subsequent spatial components more
efficient.

Figure 4: Original field profile (left), reduced profile (right).
Beware that this operation can be quite time consuming when the object is surrounded by a lot of zeros; it
is for this reason that the user is given the option to deactivate this feature.
Finally, the user may attenuate the signal passing through the coupler via the insertion_loss parameter.
References
[1] M.R. Spiegel, Mathematical Handbook of Formulas and Tables. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1968.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical signal with spatial object
Outputs
Parameter Values
xoffset double 0 [ -100,100 ] Microns
yoffset double 0 [ -100,100 ] Microns
distance double 0 [0,100 ] Microns
phi_x double 0 [ -10,10 ] Degrees
phi_y double 0 [ -10,10 ] Degrees
phi_z double 0 [ -10,10 ] Degrees
insertion_loss double 0 [0,100] dB
maintain_polarization enumerated yes yes, no
reduce_field enumerated yes yes, no

xoffset Amount of translation of the input spatial field in the x-direction
yoffset Amount of translation of the input spatial field in the y-direction
distance Free-space propagation distance
phi_x Amount of rotation of the input spatial field about the x-axis
phi_y Amount of rotation of the input spatial field about the y-axis
phi_z Amount of rotation of the input spatial field about the z-axis
insertion_loss Amount of attenuation suffered as signal passes through coupler
grid_correction Flag to control enforcement of quarter-wavelength grid spacing
maintain_polarization Flag to either maintain or ignore the exact x or y polarization of the coupler output signal
reduce_field Flag that determines whether extraneous zero values should be stripped from field
Spatial BeamPROP Interface

The Spatial BeamPROP Interface provides the user with an interface to BeamPROP, RSoft Design Groups
BPM simulation tool, whereby the spatial fields associated with an optical signal are propagated through an
index structure specified via a BeamPROP index file. Much like the Spatial Coupler, which propagates the
spatial fields through free space, this model propagates the fields through an arbitrary 3D index structure
(2D index structures are incompatible with the spatial fields generated by OptSim). For example, the user
may design a lens assembly in BeamPROP, and then simulate it in the context of a multimode link design.
Most of the BeamPROP simulation parameters should be set in the index file, specified via the parameter
indexFile. However, a number of additional parameters are available within OptSim. First, to enforce that
the grid spacing of the fields sent to BeamPROP are not larger than a quarter wavelength, grid_correction
should be set to yes. Second, the flag reduce_field allows the user to direct the coupler to make the output
field as compact as possible. When reduce_field=yes, OptSim will strip off any extraneous zero values at
the boundaries of the output spatial field from BeamPROP, thereby creating a smaller object that makes the
simulation of subsequent spatial components more efficient. Third, the user may specify the type of BPM
simulation to perform via the parameter vector_mode. If this parameter is set to none, then a scalar BPM
simulation is performed. If it is set to semi, then a semi-vectorial simulation is done. Finally, the parameter
cleanup_files allows the user to control the deletion of the BeamPROP input- and output-field data files
generated by the model. Setting this parameter to no prevents these files from being deleted.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical Signal
Outputs
#1: Optical Signal
Parameter Values
indexFile string none
grid_correction enumerated yes yes, no none
reduce_field enumerated yes yes, no none
vector_mode enumerated none none, semi none
cleanup_files enumerated yes yes, no none
IndexFile BeamPROP index file
grid_correction Flag to control enforcement of quarter-wavelength grid spacing
reduce_field Flag that determines whether extraneous zero values should be stripped from
field
vector_mode Flag that controls BeamPROP simulation method
cleanup_files Flag that controls deletion of BeamPROP input/output files
Multimode Fiber

This is a general-purpose model for circularly symmetric waveguides (e.g., multimode optical fiber) that
can be operated in one of five different configurations. The first four configurations treat the fiber as a
spatially dependent component by modeling the transverse field profiles and propagation constants of each
optical mode that is supported by the fiber. The fifth configuration ignores the fibers spatial attributes and
instead utilizes a high-level transfer-function-based approach.
Library Configuration
The first configuration is library-based and models the fibers modal attributes using a pre-constructed
database of spatial information. Basically, the user employs a device-level simulator to simulate a fiber
with a specific refractive index profile and uses the results to produce a library of spatial mode profiles and
propagation constant data over a specified range of wavelengths. OptSim then uses this library to simulate
the system-level attributes of the multimode fiber. This enables multimode studies without the need to
solve Maxwells equations, resulting in greater computational efficiency and faster execution. RSoft
Design Groups BeamPROP tool is ideally suited for this task, though other simulators can also be used
provided that they produce output in the same format (see the Appendix). Because device simulators
accept arbitrary refractive index profiles, the library-based approach enables the analysis of nonideal
profiles, manufacturing variations, and similar effects. It is also ideal for generating manufacturer libraries
for proprietary fiber structures. The biggest drawback to this approach is the need to generate a separate
library for each fiber configuration anytime any physical attribute of the fiber (e.g., radius, peak index)
changes. However, this is an unfortunate trade-off that must be made between flexibility and speed.
A sample library for a parabolic, graded-index fiber is included with this release as an example (Figure 1)
and is contained in the folder named parabolic_multimode_fiber_library in the
manufacturerlibrary folder in the OptSim installation directory. This library contains one file for each
spatial mode at each wavelength of interest. It also contains a single file effective_indices that
contains all of the information about the modal propagation constants over the wavelength range of interest.
Additionally, it contains some header files that provide information about the library itself. Details of the
library generation are contained in the Appendix to this section.

Figure 1: Ideal, parabolic refractive index profile.
This profile is described analytically as:

[ ]
>

(
(
|
.
|
\
|

=
a r n
a r
a
r
n
r n
2 1
0 2 1
) (
2
1
2
2
1 2

2
1
2
2
2
1
2n
n n
=
Here,
1
n is the peak index at the fiber center,
2
n is the refractive index in the cladding, r is the radial
distance from the fiber axis, a is the radius of the fiber core, and is a parameter quantifying the index
step. For the sample library parabolic_multimode_fiber_library, 414 . 1
1
= n , % 1 = , and
25 = a m ( 414 . 1
1
= n was chosen to correspond to a numerical aperture of 2 . 0 = NA and
2
n can be
calculated from ). As indicated previously, if any of these parameters changes, a new library will have to
be generated.
Once the library has been generated, there is very little work to simulate it in OptSim. There are three
parameters for the library configuration: mode_directory (which is
parabolic_multimode_fiber_library in this case), effective_index_filename (which is
effective_indices here) and delay_method (to be discussed).
Modal spatial properties
As mentioned above, the spatial multimode fiber model supports only circularly symmetric waveguides.
Mathematically, the field is separated into independent radial and azimuthal components with the azimuthal
portion assumed to vary sinusoidally [1] [4]:
( ) ( )
( )
( )
)
`
=
l
l
r E r E
sin
cos
,
The fiber library contains only the radial dependence of the mode E(r) for each spatial profile. It should be
noted that each ( ) , r E profile is normalized so that its total power is 1.0. The angular dependence is
implicit; OptSim multiplies the radial profile by the appropriate sine or cosine terms during the simulation.
Here, l is the azimuthal index number; the OptSim convention is that l denotes the cosine term while l
denotes the sine term.


Figure 2: Radial mode profile E(r) from library (top), cosine dependence (bottom left) sine dependence (bottom right).
In [1]-[4], it is shown that the cosine and the sine field profiles are degenerate modes; that is, ( ) ( ) l r E cos
and ( ) ( ) l r E sin have identical propagation properties. Consequently, the propagation constant that is
stored in the fiber library is the same for both of these degenerate modes. Since each fiber mode can exist
in either the x or y polarization, there is actually a four-fold degeneracy. Note that when the azimuthal
index is 0, the sine form of the fiber mode vanishes; since only the cosine form exists, there is only
polarization degeneracy for l=0.
Consider the simple topology of Figure 3 in which a VCSEL emits an optical field that contains only the x
polarization. The spatial portion of this field is also shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Simple spatial multimode fiber topology (left) VCSEL output beam (right).
For this simulation, a wavelength of 820 nm is chosen. When the collection of spatial fiber modes stored in
the fiber library forms a complete basis, an arbitrary spatial field can be decomposed into a weighted sum
of these modes:
( ) ( )
=
=
n
i
i i in
r E c r E
1
, ,
Here, n denotes the number of modes supported by the fiber and ( ) , r E
i
is the spatial profile (including
either the sine or cosine factor). It is important to note that the above relation is valid only when the fiber
modes ( ) , r E
i
form a complete basis. If the basis is incomplete, then the above relation will only be
approximately true. OptSim models only the guided multimode fiber modes; unguided modes such as
radiation and leaky modes, are neglected. This is true for all operational_mode configurations. When the
multimode fiber input falls well within the fiber core, all of its power is guided; thus, the above relation is
valid. As the input beam moves closer and closer to the core/cladding interface, more of its power gets
coupled into unguided fiber modes. Thus, the relation below is more accurate:
( ) ( ) ( )

= =
+ =
m
j
j unguided j unguided
n
i
i guided i guided in
r E c r E c r E
1
, ,
1
, ,
, , ,
Here, ( ) ( ) = , ,
,
r E r E
i i guided
from above. Since the unguided modes are, by definition, not guided, they
propagate only a minimal distance before being attenuated. Thus, the assumption in OptSim is that by the
time the energy reaches the fiber output, only the guided modes survive. If significant power is coupled
into leaky modes and if the fiber length is very short, this may not be a good assumption. However, it is
usually satisfactory for practical systems.
At 820 nm, there are 100 radial modes in the library; when the sine/cosine terms are both accounted for, a
total of n=190 transverse modes result. The multimode fiber model computes the coupling coefficient
i
c between the input spatial field and each of the spatial fiber modes according to:
( ) ( ) =

rdrd r E r E c
i in i
, ,
*
2
0 0

Based on the above two equations, it is clear that the square of the coupling coefficient determines how
much power gets coupled into each of the fiber modes. As seen from this analysis, it is clear that a single
input field excites every fiber mode to a varying degree. The multimode fiber models this by internally
generating n time-domain optical signals (one for each fiber mode) and attaching a different fiber mode
profile to each. Each of these time-domain optical signals is identical to the time-varying portion of the
input signal except that each of these signals is scaled by its respective coupling coefficient. This can be
represented mathematically as:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) [ ] ( )
=
= =
n
i
i in i in in in
r E t E c t E r E t r E
1
, , , ,
Thus, a single incident field produces n signals just inside the fiber. The effects of dispersion, delay, and
attenuation are then applied to each of these signals individually. The summary produced by the spatial
analyzer at the fiber output is shown in Figure 4 and verifies that the output of the multimode fiber consists
of 190 OpSigs. Following the OptSim convention, the multimode fiber model outputs the 190 optical
signals as a linked list.
At the end of a simulation, the user can view a listing of the coupling coefficients by double clicking on the
multimode fiber icon. The coupling coefficients are indexed by their azimuthal and radial indices and are
outputted in (real, imaginary) form. Since the c
i
terms describe the degree of field coupling, the power
coupling is described by
*
i i
c c . The user can also view a list of the power coupling coefficients indexed
by degenerate mode group number (DMG). The DMG is defined to be the sum of the azimuthal index plus
twice the radial index and is a quantity that will be discussed in subsequent sections.

OpSig Spatial Field Summary
---------------------------
Input is a linked list of 190 OpSigs.
OpSig #1 has an Ex time-domain field and a spatial field in the X direction.
Average power in the x-polarization is 0
wavelength=820 nm
startTime=1.41517838374e-006 s
OpSig #2 has an Ex time-domain field and a spatial field in the X direction.
Average power in the x-polarization is 0
wavelength=820 nm
startTime=1.415180304569e-006 s

Figure 4: Summary of fiber output.
Following the preceding discussion, it is clear that if the VCSEL produced light in both the x and the y
polarizations, the multimode fiber would generate 2n optical signals internally (just inside the fiber):
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) [ ] ( )
=
= =
n
i
i x xi x x in x in
1
, ,
, , , ,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) [ ] ( )
=
= =
n
i
i y yi y y in y in
1
, ,
, , , ,
Extending this to the general case, if the fiber input is a multimode optical signal that consists of q different
modes in p different polarizations, the fiber model will generate q p n signals internally. Going one step
farther, because each fiber mode profile is a function of wavelength, if the multimode input consists of
different modes at r different wavelengths, then the fiber model will produce r q p n signals internally.
Modal delay properties
Each radial mode of a multimode fiber is characterized by its own specific delay time. Because each fiber
mode travels at a different speed, a compact optical beam at the fiber input results in a broadened beam at
the fiber output (Figure 5). This phenomenon is known as modal dispersion [1] [4] and is the main speed
limiter in multimode fibers. Recall that degenerate fiber modes possess the same modal delay; for
example, the four fiber modes corresponding to the x and y polarizations of the sine and cosine fields all
travel down the fiber at the same speed.

Figure 5: Modal dispersion due to varying modal delays.
The library configuration supports modal delay through a database of effective index information that is
generated in a manner similar to the one used to generate the database of radial mode profiles. This is
stored in a file effective_indices in the parabolic_multimode_fiber_library folder in the
manufacturerlibrary folder of the OptSim installation directory. The effective index is proportional to
the propagation constant:

0
,
k
N
i
i eff
=
Here,
0
k is the free-space wave number ( )
0
2 and
i
is the modal propagation constant. The group
velocity
i g
v
,
of each fiber mode is inversely related to the derivative of the propagation constant with
respect to the optical frequency; the delay of the mode
i
is directly proportional to this derivative.

i
i g
d
d
v
=
,

= =
d
d
L
v
L
i
i g
i
,

Here L is the fiber length. In this manner, each fiber mode possesses the same temporal attributes as the
input field that stimulated it (scaled by the coupling coefficient) except that it is delayed by
i
.
Furthermore, the optical carrier for each mode incurs an additional longitudinal phase delay proportional to
the modal propagation constant:
( ) ( ) ( )
,
, , ,
i
j z
out i i in i i
E r t c E t E r e
= (

As before, the total output field is obtained by combining all of the fields generated by each fiber mode:
( ) ( ) ( )
1
, , ,
i
n
j z
out i in i i
i
E r t c E t E r e

=
= (

Thus, Figure 5 schematically represents the temporal output of a fiber that has three modes. The output
pulses arrive at different times (corresponding to
3 1
) and have different heights (corresponding to
3 1
c c ). Note that dispersive effects other than modal have been neglected in order to focus on the delay
aspects of the model; these effects will be discussed in a later section.
To demonstrate the simulation of modal delays, consider the topology of Figure 3. A simulation is run with
the VCSEL beam set to be a zero-order Gaussian beam offset from the fiber axis by 20 m. The resulting
time-domain signals are depicted in Figure 6. The single-pulse input from the VCSEL produces multiple
signals at the fiber output. Although not discernable from Figure 6, there is a total of 190 pulses. Each
output pulse is characterized by an amount of time that is characterized by its group velocity as defined
above. As mentioned previously, degenerate modes share the same group velocity; thus, while there are
190 pulses, there are only 100 distinct delay times.

Figure 6: Multimode fiber time-domain input (left) output (right).
The delays are calculated by differentiating the effective index/propagation constant as described
previously. Another technique is to use the Wentzel-Kramers-Brillouin (WKB) method which assumes
that all of the optical power in the fiber modes is confined to the core [1], [2], [6]-[8]. Strictly speaking,
this is not a valid assumption since a small amount of power tends to extend evanescently into the core for
higher-order modes.
The previous example exhibited 100 different fiber delays, one for each distinct fiber mode ) , ( m l , where
l is the azimuthal index number and m is the radial index number. One of the by-products of the WKB
assumption is that there is a unique modal delay not for each ) , ( m l , but for each degenerate mode group
(DMG), | l | + 2m. Clearly, the degeneracy comes about from the fact that different sets of ) , ( m l can
produce the same value of | l | + 2m; for example, ) 2 , 3 ( and ) 0 , 7 ( both possess the same degenerate mode
group number 7 and thus possess the same modal delay. The running example of this section possesses 19
such degenerate mode groups.
The degenerate mode group concept is often used in system analysis to simplify the treatment of delay.
The user can select which delay method is used in OptSim by setting the delay_method parameter to either
normal or to WKB. The mathematical difference between the two delay methods is shown below. (Note
that while the group velocity was previously defined in terms of optical frequency, the effective index in
the library is actually stored as a function of wavelength).

|
|
.
|
\
|
=
o
o
d
dN
N
c
L eff
eff normal

|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
1
1 1
2 n
N
N
n
c
Ln eff
eff
WKB

Here, c is the speed of light in vacuum and all other quantities are as previously defined. Please note that
the WKB functionality in OptSim as stated above is not general and is valid only for parabolic refractive
index profiles. Applying it to non-parabolic profiles will produce nonphysical results.
At the end of a simulation, the user can view a plot of the modal delays, scaled by the coupled power into
each mode, by double clicking on the multimode fiber icon. The plot that corresponds to the simulation of
Figure 6 is shown on the left of Figure 7. The numerical values of the delays can be discerned by using
multimode fiber test function. The same simulation run with delay_method=WKB is shown on the right of
Figure 7.

Figure 7: Modal delay plot produced by fiber model. Normal method (left), WKB method (right).
The other output plot generated at the end of simulation shows relative delay (in unit of s/m) and coupling
coefficients (aka mode partition distribution - MPD) as a function of DMG. Figure 8 shows this type of plot
corresponding to delay given in Figure 7 with WKB method.

Figure 8: Modal delay and MPD vs. DMG for WKB method.
To use the library configuration, the parameter operational_mode must be set to library and the field
spatial_effects should be set to on.
Parabolic Configuration
When using the library-based configuration, the user must generate a new database of fiber attributes
whenever any physical property of the fiber changes. For example, even minute changes in the fibers
physical properties, such the core radius or peak index, require an entirely new library to be generated. The
fact that a new library is required for each different refractive index profile goes without saying. The main
advantage of this approach is that a very wide range of fiber types can be simulated.
The documentation of the previous section contained a running example of a fiber library that was created
using the parabolically graded refractive index profile. In practice, this is one of the most widely studied
profiles in systems analysis. For this reason, the multimode fiber model also contains an analytical
representation of the modes and propagation constants of this type of fiber. No library is needed and the
fibers physical parameters can be modified arbitrarily. The main advantage of this model is the flexibility
that it provides in changing all parameters except for the shape of the index profile. The main disadvantage
is the inflexibility that it provides in changing the shape of the index profile.
The parabolic profile has been researched extensively and there are numerous analytical approximations to
the field profiles and propagation constants [1] [5], [9], [10]. In OptSim, the analytical field solutions in
the core are described by:

)
`
) cos(
) sin(
) ( ) , (
2 2
,
l
l
e L E r E
m
l
l
core lm o

a
r n k
=
2
2
1 o

while the field solutions in the cladding are given by:

( )
2 2 2
, 2
sin( )
( , ) ( 1)
cos( )
m
lm clad l lm o
l
E r E K r k n
l

=
`
)
o

In these expressions, E
o
is a scaling factor that is used to match boundary conditions at the core/cladding
interface and L() and K() are the associated Laguerre polynomials and the modified Bessel functions,
respectively. As with the library configuration, the parabolic configuration power normalizes the field
profiles to 1.0.
The propagation constant
lm
is approximated as:

lm lm
Q n k = 1
1 o

a n k
m l
Q
lm
1
8 ) 1 2 (
o
+ +
=
The corresponding group velocities are:

1
,
1
2 1
2
lm lm
g lm
lm
Q d c
v
d n Q
| |
(
= = |
(
|

\ .

Notice that under the assumptions employed in this analytical approach, the Q
lm
factor is not a function of
) , ( m l ; rather, it is a function of | l | + 2m . This is basically the degenerate mode group concept discussed
in the previous section. Thus, the analytical implementation of modal delays that is used in OptSim treats
the delays in mode groups rather than as individual modes.
Note that because of the approximations that are made in the analytical formulation, high-order modes
extremely close to cut-off sometimes go undetected. However, since there is usually minimal-to-negligible
power coupled into these modes, the analytical method is still a very useful configuration. When it is
important to capture each and every transverse mode, either the library or numerical configurations should
be used.
There are three parameters that can be used to tailor the analytical description of the parabolic-index fiber:
core_radius (a), peak_index ( )
1
n , and delta ( ) . These parameters were described in detail in the
previous section.
The analytical formulation can detect a large number of modes depending on the settings of the parameters.
If for the range of inputs (wavelength being considered an input), the number of calculated modes exceeds
available memory, an error is issued and execution is halted. The user can do one of the following to
alleviate the situation: he can decrease the core radius, decrease the index step, increase the wavelength, or
adjust the Spatial parameters accordingly as described below.
To use this analytical configuration, the parameter operational_mode must be set to parabolic and the
field spatial_effects should be set to on.
As a final note, OptSim requires that each spatial field object contain parameters describing the domain
over which the field is defined and the grid spacing between field data points. The reason for this is
intuitive when the spatial field is described numerically as in the case of the library configuration, where
these parameters are automatically defined. Their purpose when using the parabolic configuration is not as
obvious. When OptSim performs numerical calculations such as integrations, plots, and the like, the
analytical field must be numerically sampled over a finite spatial grid. In a few special cases, these
calculations can be performed analytically, obviating the need for numerical sampling. However, in the
vast majority of cases (e.g., calculation of the coupling coefficient between a numerical input field and
analytical fiber modes), sampling is necessary. The mode_default_grid_spacing parameter in the Spatial
menu allows the user to decide whether to let OptSim choose an appropriate grid spacing. If the user
wishes to set the numerical sampling rate higher, he can do so by lowering the mode_dx and mode_dy
parameters in the Spatial menu. For example, if the coupling coefficients do not appear to have been
calculated accurately enough, the user can reduce the spacing between points to force a more accurate
numerical integration. In another case, the contour plot produced by the spatial analyzer may appear
grainy. Reducing the grid spacing in the analytical field will force subsequent models to reduce their
numerical sampling intervals. The user should be aware, however, that reducing the grid spacing will
increase the simulation time and the memory requirements. On the other hand, if simulations are taking too
long to complete, the user may wish to lower the accuracy of the simulation and plots by increasing the grid
spacing. Experimentation is often necessary to determine the optimum settings. Similarly, the domain
over which the fiber modes are defined is set by the mode_default_radius and mode_radius parameters in
the Spatial menu. By default, all analytical fiber modes are defined over a range that is two times the
core_radius.
Numerical Configuration
The library configuration is useful when the user wishes to employ a device simulator to calculate the fiber
modes and propagation constants. The parabolic configuration is useful when the user wishes to study the
popular parabolic graded-index profile. There are occasions when a user would like to study the properties
of a fiber with an arbitrary refractive index profile but either does not own a device simulation tool or does
not wish to construct the required fiber library. For this reason, OptSim also offers a configuration that
determines the fiber mode profiles and propagation constants for an arbitrary refractive index profile. This
configuration employs a numerical simulation algorithm that generates solutions to the scalar radial
Helmholtz equation [4]:
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) 0
1
2
2
2 2 2
2
2
=
(
(
+ + r E
r
l
r n k
dr
r dE
r
dr
r E d

For a given azimuthal index l, the mode solver will generate solutions for each radial index m. As
described in previous sections, the solution E
lm
(r) is then combined with either a sine or cosine term to
incorporate the modes azimuthal dependence.
As with most numerical processes, appropriate bounds and tolerances must be established. A number of
parameters are provided for this purpose. The radial mode solver will increment over successive values of
the azimuthal and radial indices during its attempt to solve for the fields and propagation constants.
Unfortunately, there is no way for the mode solver to know if it has found solutions to all of the possible
guided modes without numerically iterating ad infinitum. To place bounds on this process, OptSim
provides the parameters mode_limiting, l_max, m_max, and dmg_max. When mode_limiting is set to
lm, OptSim only solves for modes with values for l and m no larger than l_max and m_max, respectively.
When mode_limiting is set to dmg, OptSim only solves for modes whose mode group numbers are no
larger than dmg_max. Once OptSim reaches these limits, it will stop the mode solving process. This is
particularly useful in a scenario where hundreds or thousands of modes may exist but perhaps only a
handful of them have meaningful amounts of power coupled into them. As an example, the parabolic
profile described in previous sections had azimuthal numbers ranging from 0 l 18 and radial indices
ranging from 0 m 9. Thus, in this case, mode_limiting should be set to lm, l_max should be set to 18,
and m_max should be set to 9. In general, it is difficult, if not impossible, to know these maximum values
in advance. In this case, the user should choose an initial value and let OptSim search for all of the modes
(for example by running the output_type=report test in the Test menu). For example, if the maximum (l,
m) mode indices for which OptSim finds guided modes are equal to (l_max, m_max), it is likely that more
modes exist beyond (l_max, m_max). The user can then increase (l_max, m_max) until no further values
are found. If (l_max, m_max) are set too high, there is no harm done; however, the larger these values are,
the longer the simulation will take. If the user knows that only the first handful of modes are important, he
can set (l_max, m_max) to low values, thus saving OptSim the time and effort of solving for unnecessary
modes. In general, the maximum values for l and m increase with increasing core radius and with
increasing index contrast between different regions of the fiber (for example, in the parabolic case).
The next numerical parameter is lambda_step. The solver calculates modal delay by differentiating the
effective index over a range of wavelengths. The lambda_step parameter enables the user to select the
range over which the group velocity is computed. If this parameter is too large, OptSim will have difficulty
computing the mode velocities and may produce unexpected or nonphysical results (e.g., negative group
velocity, infinite delay, and the like). Users are advised to maintain the default value of lambda_step = 1e-
6, which should be sufficient for most applications. If specific applications are producing questionable
results, users may choose to reduce lambda_step below 1e-6 to enhance simulation accuracy.
The final numerical parameter is mode_set. The mode solver operates by searching over effective index
intervals spanning a specific range. If the user feels that OptSim is missing some of the modes, mode_set
can be increased. The default value of 1000 is generally adequate for most applications. Increasing
mode_set will reduce the search interval and enhance simulation accuracy. However, this accuracy does
not come without a price as the simulation will take much longer.
File-Based Index Profile
The numerical mode of operation has three different configurations. The first configuration enables the
user to specify the refractive index profile in a text file. This configuration is activated by setting
spatial_effects=on and operational_mode=file. Once this is done, the user must enter the name of the
index file in the index_file field under the Index tab of the parameter dialog box. OptSim will first check
for the data file in the present working directory; if it is not located there, it will look in the directory
C:\RSoft\products\OptSim\manufacturerlibrary. If the specified file is found in neither
directory, an error message will be issued.
The format of the first line of this file is as follows:
<NR> <RMIN> <RMAX> <0> <OUTPUT_REAL>
Here, NR is the number of data points in the file, RMIN is the minimum radial value in microns, RMAX is the
maximum radial value in microns, 0 is simply a placeholder that must be there and OUTPUT_REAL specifies
that the field data that follow will be in real format. Currently OptSim only accepts real values for the
refractive index, though in future releases, complex values will be accommodated. For proper operation,
RMIN should always be 0. As an example, the following are the first few lines of the file dip.ipf which is
supplied in the OptSim multimode examples directory:

501 0 50 0 OUTPUT_REAL
1.4094487400000
1.4096817530000
1.4099147660000
.
.
.

The first line specifies that the file contains data at 501 radial points, that it begins at 0 = r and ends at
50 = r m. Based on this information, it can be deduced that the radial increment is 1 . 0 = r m. Note
that the actual r values are not included in the file since they can always be calculated from the header
information.
Function-Based Index Profile
For simple core-cladding fiber geometries, users can also specify the refractive index profile as an
analytical function. Two fields are provided for this purpose in the Index menu: core_index_profile and
cladding_index_profile. The required syntax for these functions follows the standard OptSim conventions
as described in the Parameter Expressions section of Chapter 3 of the OptSim User Guide (Using the
OptSim GUI). Returning to our running example, the parabolic refractive index can be specified
numerically through the following settings:
core_index_profile = n1*sqrt(1-2*delta*(r/radius)^2)
cladding_index_profile = n1*sqrt(1-2*delta)
Here, n1, delta, and radius represent the peak value of the index in the core, the index step, and the core
radius, respectively. Following standard OptSim syntax conventions, these values must be established and
assigned in the symbol table. The variable r is a special one and is reserved for describing the radial
dependence of the index profile. Users should not define r in the symbol table as it will be automatically
recognized by OptSim. To enable this capability, users should set spatial_effects=on and
operational_mode=function.
Alpha Profile
The parabolic refractive index profile is a special case of the more general alpha profile:
( )
[ ]
>

(
(
|
.
|
\
|

=
a r n
a r
a
r
n
r n
2 1
0 2 1
2
1
2
1 2

When = 2, several analytical approximations exist for the mode profiles and propagation constants as we
described in previous sections. When 2, however, analytical approximations do not exist and the fiber
properties must be solved numerically. We could easily implement the alpha profile using the function-
based index described in the previous section:
core_index_profile = n1*sqrt(1-2*delta*(r/radius)^alpha)
cladding_index_profile = n1*sqrt(1-2*delta)
Clearly, a new variable alpha would have to be established in the symbol table. Because the alpha profile
is studied fairly often, this profile can be simulated in OptSim directly by setting spatial_effects=on and
operational_mode = alpha. The effect is identical to manually setting the core and cladding index profiles
as described above; this feature has been added mainly for the convenience of the end user. Along with
this option the user must set the peak_index, delta, and alpha parameters in the Index menu.
Step-Index Configuration
While communications-grade multimode fiber is typically of the graded-index variety, there may be cases
where a basic step-index fiber is warranted (including large-core fiber applications). For these cases, by
setting spatial_effects=on and operational_mode = step, the user may specify a step-index fiber via the
parameters core_radius, peak_index (corresponding to the core index), and delta (where delta is the
percent difference between the core and cladding indices, relative to the core). LP fiber modes are assumed,
as described in [1], [3], and [9].
Differential Mode Attenuation
Generally speaking, modes in a fiber will experience differential mode attenuation (DMA), wherein each
mode experiences different amounts of loss. The model accounts for DMA by treating it as a function of
wavelength and mode group number, which we earlier defined to be | l | + 2m, where l and m are the
azimuthal and radial mode indices, respectively. Based on work in [15], we provide two approaches.
In the first case, strictly only valid for alpha index profiles, diff_mode_atten is set to alpha_fit, and we
model the attenuation for a given mode as [15]:
2
2
0
1
(| | 2 ) 2
1
2
l m
I
an

+
(
| |
+ +
(
= +
| `
| (
\ .
(
)

where
0
(attenuation) is the basic attenuation seen by all modes, I
is the th-order (dma_bessel_order)

modified Bessel function of the first kind, (dma_scaling_factor) is a scaling factor, n
1
is the core peak
index, a is the core radius, is the profile delta, and is the profile alpha parameter. This function is an
empirical relationship to be used when fitting experimental data.
More generally, the user may set diff_mode_atten to file, and use a data file (dma_filename) to specify
scaling factors by which to scale the basic attenuation
0
for each mode. Typically, measured values for
DMA are determined as a function of some parameter which is directly proportional to either
(| | 2 1) l m + + [16] or (| | 2 ) l m + [17]. The user should specify which approach is used via the
parameter dma_file_xconversion, with type1 used for the (| | 2 1) l m + + case, and type2 used for the
(| | 2 ) l m + case. In either case, the user must also specify a factor (dma_file_xfactor) by which to scale
the x values in the data file in order to obtain corresponding values for (| | 2 1) l m + + or (| | 2 ) l m + .
The y values in the data file are automatically normalized such that the first data point in the file
corresponds to a scaling factor of 1. Thus, the resulting data is treated as measurements of scaling factor
versus (| | 2 1) l m + + or (| | 2 ) l m + . The format for the data file is:

DMAFormat
<num_pts>
<x-value 1> <DMA 1>
<x-value 2> <DMA 2>
<x-value 3> <DMA 3>
<x-value 4> <DMA 4>
...
Example:

DMAFormat
5
1 1.0
2 1.0
3 1.1
4 1.2
5 1.3
Corrections to the Modal Delay Due to Dispersion
In order to properly calculate modal delays, the model should account for the effects of material dispersion
on group velocity. In the case of the Library Configuration, the user may do so by including material
dispersion when calculating the library data. Alternatively, if the index profile is of the alpha variety, the
user may have the model automatically adjust the normally calculated delay values to include the effects of
dispersion. In this case, the group velocity v
g
is adjusted according to the following equations, based on the
analysis in [15]:
2
1
1
2
4
1
2
(4 )
1
2
g go
n
v v
N y
+
+
+
=
+
+

where
2 2
2 2
1
2 ( 2 1)
(2 )
l m
a n

+ + +
=

In the above equations, v
go
is the unadjusted group velocity, n
1
is the core peak index, y
(profile_disp_param) is the profile dispersion parameter, N
1
is a user specified material group index (N1),
a is the core radius, is the profile delta, is the profile alpha parameter, l is the azimuthal mode index,
and m is the radial mode index. To activate the above correction, the parameter dispersion_delay_mode
should be set to alpha.
Alternatively, a Taylor-series-based expansion may be used instead [18]:
2 2
2 2
1
2 2
1
2 2
2 3 2
1
2 2 2
2 3 2 2
1
2 2 2
g go
n
v v
N y y

+ +
+ +

+ +
+ +
=

+ +
+ +

In this case, profile_disp_param should be set to alpha_taylor.
Note that the above expressions are strictly only valid for alpha profiles. For more complicated index
profiles, a custom library should be generated.
Linear Configuration
This fifth configuration analyzes the multimode fiber model from a non-spatial perspective. The linear
model does not treat each fiber mode separately as do the other two modes of operation. Rather, it treats
the individual fiber modes together, as an aggregate.
The linear multimode fiber configuration is implemented as a standard lowpass filter at baseband in input
and output optical power with a Gaussian exponential decay transfer function [11] [13]. This model
assumes the fiber has sufficient mode mixing as described by Personick [11]. In the model, attenuation,
connector efficiency, coupling loss, pulse broadening, and propagation delay are taken into account. For
parallel fiber ribbons, the additional skew in the fiber ribbon due to the different laser wavelengths in each
of the channels is also taken into account.
To represent multimode optical signals, this configuration modifies the interpretation of OptSims standard
optical signal representation. The optical phase and frequency chirp information present in the optical
signal is ignored and not propagated to the output of the model. This because the linear model operates on
the optical power rather than on the field [11], [12] (here, * denotes complex conjugate):
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) [ ] f E f E f H f E
in in out
*
=
In cases where it is important to preserve the phase of the input field, the user can set the flag
ignore_phase to no. In this case, the phase of the input field is stored before the above calculations are
made. At the end of the simulation, this phase is added to the output field.

The power transfer function for the fiber model is given by
( ) ( ) [ ]
d
ft j f f H 2 ) ( 2 ln exp
2
=
where is the rms impulse response width,
d
t is the time delay of the fiber. The scaling factor of ln(2) is
used in the exponential so that the magnitude of the transfer function is 0.5 (-3 dB) when f = 1/. When the
cutback factor = 1.0 and modal dispersion is the dominant dispersion mechanism (which is often the case),
1/ corresponds to the modal bandwidth of the fiber. The total rms impulse response width is
2 2 2
mod
mat
+ = where the pulse broadening
mat
due to material dispersion and the pulse broadening
mod
due to the modal dispersion are given by
LD
src mat
=
cutback
im
mod
L
B
|
.
|
\
|
=
1
1

Here L is the fiber length. The dispersion D and the attenuation are discussed in the next section. The
linewidth
src
is not a model input parameter; rather, it is a property that is added either directly by an
optical source model or by the linewidth adder model.
The parameter
im
B is the intermodal bandwidth of the fiber and
cutback
is the cutback factor that takes
into account the variation of modal bandwidth with length. When the bandwidth of a multimode fiber is
measured, it is clearly done on a piece of fiber that has a given length. Although modal bandwidth is
expressed in units of MHz-km, in reality it is not always valid for all lengths of fiber (i.e., it can be non-
scalable). Sometimes the bandwidth is measured on very short lengths of fiber; in this case, the bandwidth
obtained by dividing
im
B by a large L may be too low. The converse can also be true when the bandwidth
is measured on long lengths of fiber. The physical basis for this has to do with the effects of fiber length on
differential mode attenuation and can be difficult to quantify. When this effect is significant, a fiber
manufacturer should provide a table of bandwidths for several different lengths [14]. In this case, the user
should be able to empirically determine what the cutback factor should be. When this effect is negligible,
the cutback factor can simply be set to 1.0.
The time delay
d
t has two main components: the fixed delay
prop
t as a result of the propagation delay in
the fiber, and the variable delay
skew
t that represents the fiber skew. The variable delay due to the
wavelength is included in the chromatic dispersion. While the fixed delay has a direct correlation with the
fiber length, the variable delay is generally treated as a random variable with mean value of zero and whose
maximum value is determined by the skew in the ribbon. The skew variable delay is specified as either a
fixed value in nonstatistical simulations or as a statistically varied value in the statistical simulation mode.
The expression for the time delay t
d
is given by
( )L t t t
skew prop d
+ =
In addition to modeling the fiber itself, the linear multimode fiber model block also models the connector
and coupling losses at each end of the fiber ribbon in the optical bus. These losses are specified explicitly
as the coupling efficiency and connector loss parameters.
To use the linear configuration, the field spatial_effects should be set to off.
General
There are several parameters that are common to all of the multimode fiber configurations. The first
parameter spatial_effects can be set on or off as described by each configuration above. The second
parameter, operational_mode, determines which spatial configuration is used; the choices are parabolic,
file, function, and library. This option is only active when spatial_effects=on. The third parameter is the
fibers radius, and the fourth parameter is the fiber length, while the fifth parameter specifies the
attenuation. The next parameter, dispersion_mode, specifies how the chromatic dispersion is to be
modeled. When dispersion_mode=specify, the user must enter a value in the dispersion field. When
dispersion_mode=calculate, the model uses the zero-dispersion slope S0 and the zero-dispersion
wavelength lambda0 to calculate the dispersion according to:
( )
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
4
4
0 0
1
4
S
D
Finally, when spatial_effects=on, you may want to ignore modes into which coupling is negligible. In this
case, you should set the parameter mode_drop_threshold to a value between 0 and 1. Any modes with
power coupling coefficients below this value are dropped from the simulation. By default, this value is 0,
ensuring that all modes are accounted for.
Test
The multimode fiber model has several test functions for its various configurations.
Fiber mode plot
When spatial_effects are on, the user can plot one of the fiber modes by specifying values for
plot_azimuthal and plot_radial. Negative values for the azimuthal number are acceptable. Additionally,
the user must specify the test_wavelength at which the plot is to be made. As usual, the user has the
plot_mode choice of displaying the plot in magnitude, magnitude/phase, or real/imaginary format. If the
specified mode does not exist (i.e., is cut-off) at the target wavelength, an error message will be returned.
Radial field plot
This option is similar to the fiber mode plot except that it plots only the radial dependence of the fiber
mode. Recall that the radial dependence is the only aspect of the field that is explicitly stored by OptSim.
The azimuthal dependence is implied rather than stored. Consequently, this test function is useful for
verifying either the contents of individual files in the fiber library or the results of radial mode calculations
performed while using the analytical configuration. Because it is the radial field that is plotted, the same
graph will be displayed regardless of the plot_azimuthal field.
Overfilled field plot
The overfilled launch condition is defined as a spatial field that equally excites all fiber modes. Based on
the definition of the coupling coefficient provided in the library configuration section of this model
documentation, an overfilled launch profile can be constructed by superimposing all n of the fiber modes:
( ) ( )
=
=
n
j
j overfilled
r E E r E
1
, ,
o

The scaling factor
o
E is chosen so that the total power contained in ( ) , r E
overfilled
is 1. Because the fiber
modes are orthogonal, the coupling coefficient
i
c will be zero whenever j i and constant when j i = .
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) = =

=

rdrd r E r E E rdrd r E r E c
i
n
j
j i overfilled i
, , , ,
*
2
0 0
1
*
2
0 0
o

Because of the unity-power normalization of ( ) , r E
overfilled
and of each ( ) , r E
i
, all coupling coefficients
should be identical and equal to

n
n
P
c
total in
i
1 ,
= =
The overfilled launch for the default fiber library included with OptSim is depicted in Figure 9.

Figure 9: Overfilled fiber launch.
All 190 coupling coefficients have a value that is approximately 0.0725. As usual, the user has the
plot_mode choice of displaying the plot in magnitude, magnitude/phase, or real/imaginary format. Also,
the overfilled launch plot function works equally well for all spatial operational_mode settings.
This test function can be used to save the overfilled launch profile to a disk file. This file can then be
loaded into any of the spatial optical source models or the Spatial Adder model and subsequently launched
into the fiber using the x _single_mode_type (y _single_mode_type ) = file option under the X _Spatial
(Y _Spatial) tab. Indeed, this is how Figure 9 was generated. To save the overfilled launch profile to a file,
simply enter the desired filename in the overfilled_filename field in the Test tab.
Delay plot
When spatial_effects are on, the user can plot the power coupled into each spatial mode as a function of
the individual modal delays. The assumption is that all modes are excited equally so that the power
coupled into each mode is 1/n. Also, test plot function works equally well for both spatial
operational_mode settings. When operational_mode=library, the user can select either delay_method.

Figure 10: Plots of delay_plot test function. Analytical configuration (left) library configuration (right).
Index Profile
Since the multimode fiber model has many different ways to specify the refractive index profile, it is often
useful to verify that the profile is correct before embarking on a lengthy simulation. The index_profile test
option was created for this purpose. Regardless of the method of index description (parabolic, alpha,
function, file, library), this test function will plot the refractive index as a function of the radial distance.

Figure 11: Index profile test plot.
Test Report
The report test function produces a text-based summary of various attributes of the fiber. Figure 13 is an
example of a report generated using the library configuration:

Multimode Fiber Test Report
===========================
mmf_1 is described by:
Mode library: C:\usr\jim\dev\src\LinkSIM\distrib\fiber_library
Effective index file:
C:\usr\jim\dev\src\LinkSIM\distrib\effective_indices

Modal delays were calculated using the standard method.

There were a total of 190 modes found at a wavelength of 8.2e-007 m.

(azimuthal #, radial #) delay
----------------------- ---------------------
(0,0) 1.41517838374e-006 s
(0,1) 1.415180304569e-006 s
(0,2) 1.41518413672e-006 s
(0,3) 1.415189867185e-006 s

Figure 12: Report generated by test function.
Linear Test Function
When spatial_effects are off, the linear test mode is the only one that can be activated. In this case, the test
function plots the magnitude and phase of the power transfer function described in the documentation of
the linear configuration. Recall that the linewidth is embedded in the fiber models input signal. Because
there are no input signals when using the test function, the user must specify a test value for the linewidth.
The user can specify the range of frequencies to be plotted through the test_fmax parameter.

Figure 13: Results of linear test function.
References
[1] M. J. Adams, Introduction to Optical Waveguides. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1981.
[2] D. Gloge and E. A. J. Marcatili, Multimode theory of graded-core fibers, Bell System Technical
Journal, vol. 52, no. 9, pp. 1563-1578, 1973.
[3] B. E. A. Saleh and M. C. Teich, Fundamentals of Photonics. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons,
Inc., 1991.
[4] J. Gowar, Optical Communication Systems. New York, NY: Prentice Hall, 1984.
[5] D. G. Cunningham and W. G. Lane, Gigabit Ethernet Networking. Indianapolis, IN: Macmillan
Technical Publishing, 1999.
[6] C. Pask, Exact expressions for scalar modal eigenvalues and group delays in power-law optical
fibers, Journal of the Optical Society of America, vol. 69, no. 11, pp. 1599-1603, 1979.
[7] D. Krumbholz, E. Brinkmeyer, and E. G. Neumann, Core/cladding power distribution, propagation
constant and group delay: Simple relation for power-law graded-index fibers, Journal of the Optical
Society of America, vol. 70, no. 2, pp. 179-183, 1980.
[8] K. Kurokawa, Group delay in multimode optical fiber, IEEE Proceedings, vol. 65, pp. 1217-1218,
1977.
[9] M. S. Sodha and A. K. Ghatak, Inhomogeneous Optical Waveguides. New York, NY: Plenum Press,
1977.
[10] A. R. Michelson, Guided Wave Optics. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1993.
[11] S. D. Personick, Baseband linearity and equalization in fiber optic digital communication systems,
Bell System Technical Journal, vol. 52, pp. 1175-1195, 1973.
[12] D. G. Duff, Computer-aided design of digital lightwave systems, IEEE Journal on Selected Areas
in Communications, vol. SAC-2, no. 1, pp. 171-185, 1984.
[13] B. K. Whitlock, et al., Computer modeling and simulation of the Optoelectronic Technology
Consortium (OETC) optical bus, IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications, vol. 15, no. 4, pp.
717-730, 1997.
[14] H. J. R. Dutton, Understanding Fiber Optics. Upper Saddle River, NY: Prentice Hall, 1998.
[15] G. Yabre, Comprehensive theory of dispersion in graded-index optical fibers, Journal of Lightwave
Technology, vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 166-177, 2000.
[16] M. J. Yadlowsky and A. R. Mickelson, Distributed loss and mode coupling and their effect on time-
dependent propagation in multimode fibers, Applied Optics, vol. 32, no. 33, pp. 6664-6677, 1993.
[17] R. Olshansky and S. M. Oaks, Differential mode attenuation measurements in graded-index fibers,
Applied Optics, vol. 17, no. 11, pp. 1830-1835, 1978.
[18] J. A. Buck, Fundamentals of Optical Fibers. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical Signal with or without spatial object
Outputs
#1: Optical Signal with or without spatial object
Parameter Values
operational_mode enumerated parabolic parabolic, alpha, file, function,
library, step

length double 300 [0, 1e32] m
attenuation double 0 [0, 1e32] dB/km
diff_mode_atten enumerated none none, alpha_fit, file
dma_bessel_order integer 1 [1, 1000]
dma_scaling_factor double 1 [0, 1e32]
dma_filename string
dma_file_xconversion enumerated type1 type1, type2
dma_file_xfactor double 1.0 [0, 1e32]
dispersion_mode enumerated specify specify, calculate
dispersion double 0 [-1e32, 1e32] ps/nm/km
S0 double 0.101 [0, 1] ps/nm/nm
/km
lambda0 double 1.310e-6 [100e-9, 10e-6] m
dispersion_delay_mode enumerated none none, alpha, alpha_taylor
N1 double 1.4142 [0, 100]
profile_disp_param double 0.0 [-1e32, 1e32]
mode_drop_threshold double 0 [0, 1]
mode_directory string parabolic_multimode
_fiber_library

effective_index_filename string effective_indices
delay_method enumerated Normal normal, WKB
core_radius double 25 [1, 50] microns
peak_index double 1.4142 [1, 2]
alpha double 2 [0, 1e32]
delta double 1 [0.1, 3] percent
index_file string
core_index_profile string
cladding_index_profile string
mode_limiting enumerated lm lm, dmg
l_max integer 20 [0, 500]
m_max integer 10 [0, 500]
dmg_max integer 40 [0,3000]
lambda_step double 1e-6 [1e-9, 1e-1] microns
mode_set double 1000 [100, 1000000]
mode_dx double 0.25 [0.01, 10] microns
mode_dx double 0.25 [0.01, 10] microns
mode_default_radius enumerated yes yes, no
mode_radius double 25 [0.01, 250] microns
Bim double 160 [0, 1e32] MHz.km
CE double 64 [0, 100] percent
conn_loss double 2 [0, 1e32] dB
gammacb double 0.75 [0, 1e32]
t_skew double 0 [-1e32, 1e32] ps/m
t_prop double 5e-6 [0, 1e32] s/km
ignore_phase enumerated yes yes, no
output_type enumerated fiber_mode_plot fiber_mode_plot,
radial_field_plot,
overfilled_plot, delay_plot,
index_profile, report

plot_azimuthal integer 0 [-200, 200]
plot_radial integer 0 [0, 200]
plot_mode enumerated magnitude magnitude, mag_phase,
real_imag

test_wavelength double 850e-9 [500e-9, 2e-6] m
test_linewidth double 5e-9 [0, 1e-3] m
test_fmax double 5 [0.1, 25] GHz
overfilled_filename string
General Parameters
spatial_effects Specifies whether to use spatial or nonspatial multimode fiber model
operational_mode If spatial_effects=on, determines whether to use parabolic, alpha, file,
function, library or step configurations
core_radius The radius of the fiber core in microns
length Length of the fiber in meters
attenuation Attenuation in dB/km
diff_mode_atten Specifies whether differential mode attenuation should be included
dma_bessel_order Order of modified Bessel function of the first kind, when numerical DMA model
is used
dma_scaling_factor Scaling factor used by numerical DMA model
dma_filename Name of data file used by file-based DMA model
dma_file_xconversion Specifies type of conversion used on x values in DMA data file
dma_file_xfactor Factor by which to scale x values in DMA data file
dispersion_mode Denotes if the dispersion is to be specified by the user or calculated by the model
dispersion Contains the value of the dispersion in ps/nm/km if dispersion_mode=specify
S0 The zero-dispersion slope, used to determine the dispersion if
dispersion_mode=calculate
lambda0 The zero-dispersion wavelength, used to determine the dispersion if
dispersion_mode=calculate
dispersion_delay_mode Controls whether OptSim should adjust the modal delays to account for material
dispersion (alpha profiles only)
N1 Material group index
profile_disp_param Profile dispersion parameter
mode_drop_threshold Power coupling coefficient threshold for dropping modes
Spatial Parameters
mode_default_grid_spacing Enables the user to specify whether OptSim should decide the grid spacing or
whether the grid spacing should be specified manually.
mode_dx If mode_default_grid_spacing is no, the user must set the grid spacing in the
x direction here.
mode_dy If mode_default_grid_spacing is no, the user must set the grid spacing in the
y direction here.
mode_default_radius Enables the user to specify whether OptSim should decide the fiber simulation
domain or whether the domain should be specified manually.
mode _radius If mode_default_radius is no
Index Parameters

peak_index The value of the refractive index at the center of the fiber
delta The index step between the core and the cladding
alpha The value of the alpha exponent when simulating alpha index profiles
index_file The name of the data file containing the refractive index profile to be simulated
core_index_profile Analytical function describing the refractive index profile in the core
cladding_index_profile Analytical function describing the refractive index profile in the cladding
mode_limiting Controls the method by which the mode solver limits the number of solved modes
l_max Upper limit of the azimuthal index used by the mode solver
m_max Upper limit of the radial index used by the mode solver
dmg_max Upper limit of the mode group number used by the mode solver
lambda_step Wavelength range used to compute group velocities
mode_set Effective index range used to calculate propagation constants
Library Parameters
mode_directory The name of the directory that contains the fiber library database of files. This is
assumed to reside in the OptSim installation directory.
effective_index_filename The name of the effective index library; this is assumed to be placed in
mode_directory
delay_method If normal, the delays are determined by differentiating the effective indices. If
WKB, the delays are calculated using the Wentzel-Kramers-Brillouin method.
Linear Parameters
Bim Intermodal bandwidth of fiber (MHz*km)
CE Connector efficiency (%)
conn_loss Optical loss at connectors (dB)
gammacb Gamma cutback parameter
t_skew Time skew with length (ps/m)
t_prop Optical propagation rate in fiber (s/km)
ignore_phase Flag to instruct model to either ignore or keep the phase of the input field
Test Parameters
output_type Chooses the type of test function to be performed
plot_azimuthal If a mode plot is selected, this specifies the azimuthal number of the mode
plot_radial If a mode plot is selected, this specifies the radial number of the mode
plot_mode The format of the output plot
test_wavelength Wavelength used for the test functions
test_linewidth Linewidth used for the linear test function
test_fmax Highest frequency displayed in linear test function
overfilled_filename Name of file to be used to store the overfilled launch profile
Appendix: Library Generation
To use the library configuration, the user must first generate a library of radial modes for a fiber with a
given refractive index profile and specific physical attributes. The library consists of a collection of data
files representing the spatial and propagation attributes of the fiber over a range of wavelengths. A sample
library parabolic_multimode_fiber_library is included in the manufacturerlibrary folder of
OptSim distribution directory as described in the library configuration section of the documentation for this
model.
Library mode format
Each file that represents a spatial field profile must be named:
azX_lamYY.mZZ
Here, X represents the azimuthal index number of the fiber mode. The single letter X is used to denote that
no leading zeros are necessary for single-digit indices. The code ZZ denotes the radial index of the fiber
mode; the double letter ZZ notation is used to indicate that single-digit indices must be preceded by a zero
(i.e., radial mode 1 is represented as .m01). Because the mode profiles are wavelength dependent, it is
necessary to specify in the filename the wavelength at which the mode was generated. Here we specify a
wavelength index YY to again denote that single-digit indices must be preceded by a leading zero. The
index YY is translated to an actual number in meters based on information in the library header files (to be
discussed shortly). All indices (az, lam, m) start at zero. Thus, a file containing data for the radial field
with azimuthal index #4, radial index #6 and the third wavelength index is named
az4_lam02.m06
The data in each of these files must adhere to a specific format. The first line of the file indicates the field
format and the radial range over which the field is defined. The field data can be specified in different
formats, depending on the desired application:
<NR> <RMIN> <RMAX> <0> <OUTPUT_REAL_IMAG>
or
<NR> <RMIN> <RMAX> <0> <OUTPUT_REAL>
Here, NR is the number of data points in the file, RMIN is the minimum radial value in microns, RMAX is the
maximum radial value in microns, 0 is simply a placeholder that must be there, and OUTPUT_REAL_IMAG
or OUTPUT_REAL specify that the field data that follow will be in either real/imaginary format or real
format, respectively. For the fiber library, RMIN must always be 0; if it is not, an error will be generated.
As an example, the following are the first few lines of the file az4_lam02.m06:

501 0 50 0 OUTPUT_REAL
0
2.82566e-006
4.8975e-005
0.000231438
The first line specifies that the file contains data at 501 radial points, that it begins at 0 = r and ends at
50 = r m. Based on this information, it can be deduced that the radial increment is 1 . 0 = r m. Note
that the actual r values are not included in the file since they can always be calculated from the header
information. Three lines of sample field data are depicted. When the OUTPUT_REAL_IMAG format is used,
clearly two columns of field data will be required.
A note to users of BeamPROP: The OptSim multimode fiber model can also accept files in the format of
BeamPROP output files as seen below. The extra information is simply ignored.

/rn,a,b/nx0/ls1
501 0 50 0 OUTPUT_REAL 1.401604716 -2.312887006e-015
0
2.82566e-006
4.8975e-005
0.000231438
If OptSim needs field information at a wavelength for which a field does not exist in the library, it will
attempt to interpolate between the fields that do exist.
To summarize, the fiber library must contain one file for each radial mode that the fiber can support for
a given wavelength. The filename and format of the data must be as described above.
In addition to the individual radial field data files, a mode header file is required. In the sample fiber
library that is included with OptSim, this file is named libraryHeader.table. The first line of this file
contains the following fields:
<maxAz> <maxRad> <maxLam> <noModes> <lamStart> <lamStep> <coreRadius>
Here, maxAz is the maximum azimuthal index number that exists in the entire fiber library, regardless of
the radial index number or the wavelength. Similarly, maxRad is the maximum radial index number and
maxLam is the maximum wavelength index number. These first three fields must be less than or equal to
500. The field noModes indicates the total number of mode files in the library. If there were no modes
cut-off, noModes would be equal to
(maxAz+1) (maxRad+1) (maxLam+1)
However, since not all modes exist at all wavelengths, noModes will generally be less than this. The field
lamStart is the actual value in meters of the lowest wavelength stored in the table while lamStep is the
value in meters of the wavelength increment. Currently, OptSims library configuration supports
wavelengths in the range of
6
10 1 . 0
m to
6
10 2
m. Finally, coreRadius is the value in microns of

the radius of the fiber core; currently values from 1 m to 75 m are supported.
The sample header file libraryHeader.table has the following as its first line:
18 9 10 1011 8e-007 1e-008 25
The maximum wavelength index number is 10. Recall that all indices start at 0; this means that there are
data for 11 wavelengths in the table. Based on the values of lamStart and lamStep, it becomes apparent
that the wavelength indices correspond to a wavelength range of 800 nm 900 nm in 10 nm increments. In
other words, wavelength index 0 corresponds to 800 nm, wavelength index 1 corresponds to 810 nm, and
so on. Apart from the first line of the file, all other lines follow the same format:
<azNo> <radNo> <lamNo> <flag>
Here, azNo denotes azimuthal index number, radNo denotes radial index number and lamNo denotes
wavelength index number. Basically, there is a line in the file for every combination of these three
parameters. The field flag is either a 1 or a 0. If the mode (azNo, radNo) exists at the wavelength index
lamNo, flag is 1; otherwise (i.e. if it is cut-off) it is 0. Following the example above, the total number of
lines in the header file after the first one is:
(maxAz+1) (maxRad+1) (maxLam+1) = 2090
However, only noModes=1011 of them actually have flag values of 1. The first 5 lines of the header file
are shown below:
18 9 10 1011 8e-007 1e-008 25
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 1
0 0 3 1
0 0 4 1
To summarize, the fiber library must also contain a mode header file that describes the
minimum/maximum ranges for the azimuthal, radial, and wavelength parameters as well as other
pertinent physical information.
Library propagation constant format
While the transverse field profiles need individual files for each mode at each wavelength, information
about the fibers propagation constants are stored in a single file called effective_indices. The first
line of this file contains critical header information that enables OptSim to parse the rest of the file. The
format of this header line is:
<maxLam> <maxModes> <lamStart> <lamStep> <maxAz> <maxRad> <peakIndex>
The definitions of maxAz, maxRad, maxLam, lamStart, and lamStep are the same as before. The
parameter maxModes describes the maximum number of modes that exists at a given wavelength and
peakIndex is simply the refractive index at the center of the fiber
1
n . Below is the first line of the effective
index library included with the OptSim release:
101 100 8.00E-07 1.00E-09 18 9 1.4142
Clearly, the database contains effective index information for 101 wavelengths starting at 800 nm and
extending to 900 nm in 1 nm increments. Notice that the wavelength increment is smaller that it was for
the mode library. This is done for two reasons. The first is that since the effective index is only a single
number, storing its value at a smaller wavelength increment does not affect the size of the effective index
library as much as it would affect the mode library. Second, since the variation of modal delays for a
typical multimode fiber application is in the picosecond range, a higher degree of accuracy is needed in
their determination. Storing the effective indices at a smaller wavelength will result in less interpolation
and thus higher accuracy.
The highest azimuthal and radial numbers are the same as before and the peak index in the core is 1.4142.
The fact that the maximum number of modes is 100 means that for any given wavelengths in the library, no
more than 100 modes exist. Note that this is the maximum number of modes; in general, the actual number
of modes will be less. For example, in the sample library, at 820 nm 100 modes exist while at 850 nm,
only 91 exist (9 modes are cut-off).
Each subsequent line contains a list of the effective indices for a given (azimuthal #, radial #) pair:
<azNo> <radNo> <Eff_Ind#1> <Eff_Ind#2> <Eff_Ind#3> ...
Thus, the first two entries on each line list the azimuthal and radial numbers of the mode. The next entry is
the effective index at the first wavelength (800 nm in this case). The next entry is the effective index at the
second wavelength (801 nm) and so on. When a mode is cut-off, the Eff_Ind field is simply left blank; it is
not set to zero. The first 4 lines of the sample library are shown below:

101 100 800e-9 1e-9 18 9 1.4142
0 0 1.4134787135 1.4134778127 1.4134769119 ...
0 1 1.4120371121 1.4120344070 1.4120317019 ...
0 2 1.4105943795 1.4105898664 1.4105853533 ...
To summarize, the library of effective indices consists only of a single file. The first line contains
pertinent header information. Each subsequent line contains two mode identifiers (azimuthal and radial
numbers) followed the effective index value at each specified wavelength.
Library Radial Field Parameters
NR Number of radial data points
RMIN Minimum value of the radial coordinate in microns Must be 0
RMAX Maximum value of the radial coordinate in microns
data type Two choices: OUTPUT_REAL, OUTPUT_REAL_IMAG
Library Mode Header Parameters
maxAz The largest azimuthal index number in the entire database
maxRad The largest radial index number in the entire database
maxLam The largest wavelength index number in the entire database
noModes The total number of extant (i.e., non-cut-off) modes
lamStart The first wavelength in the database expressed in meters
lamStep The wavelength increment expressed in meters
coreRadius The radius of the fiber core in microns
azNo A specific azimuthal index number
radNo A specific radial index number
lamNo A specific wavelength index number
flag Parameter in header file that indicates the presence/absence of a given mode
Library Effective Index Parameters
maxAz The largest azimuthal index number in the entire database
maxRad The largest radial index number in the entire database
maxLam The largest wavelength index number in the entire database
maxModes The maximum number of modes that exists for any given wavelength
lamStart The first wavelength in the database expressed in meters
lamStep The wavelength increment expressed in meters
peakIndex The refractive index at the center of the fiber

Spatial Aperture

The spatial aperture model provides a means for the user to pass a spatial field object through a circular,
square, or ring-shaped window. The topology of Figure 1 depicts a typical situation.

Figure 1: Use of spatial aperture model.
The spatial coupler model in Figure 1 is used to offset the VCSEL spatial field by 10 m in both the x and
y directions. In this simulation, the spatial aperture is set to be a 30-m-wide square opening. The field
both before and after the aperture are shown in Figure 2. Also depicted in Figure 2 is same simulation
except with a 50-m-diameter circular aperture.

Figure 2: Spatial field before (top) and after square aperture (bottom left) and circular aperture (bottom right).
The aperture model performs a simple truncation of the incident spatial field; inside the aperture, the light
is allowed to pass through ideally while outside the aperture the field is reduced to zero. Note that despite
the fact that the aperture can be made arbitrarily small, diffractive effects are not modeled.
In addition to truncating the optical field, the spatial aperture model attenuates the time-domain portion of
the signal ( ) (t E
x
, ) (t E
y
) to reflect the amount of power lost in the aperturing process. The model then
power-normalizes the truncated spatial field to 1.0.
Properties
Inputs
Outputs
Parameter Values

aperture_type enumerated round round, square
dimension double 10 [ 0, 1000 ] microns
inner_dimension double 5 [ 0, 1000 ] microns

aperture_type Allows the user to choose either a square or round aperture
dimension Specifies the aperture width. In the case of a circular aperture, this parameter denotes the
diameter. For ring apertures, it denotes the outer diameter.
inner_dimension For ring apertures only. Specifies the inner diameter of the ring.
Spatial Compound Optical Receiver

This is the spatially enabled version of the compound optical receiver model. The main difference between this model
and its nonspatial counterpart is that spatial effects have been included in the photodetector element. In all other
respects, the two models are identical.
This models a spatial optical receiver and all its standard parts. The OptSim photoreceiver model is composed of several
individual building blocks: the photodetector, the preamplifier, and the postamplifier/filter complex:

Figure 1: Basic components of an optical receiver
Each block is a separate entity complete with its own input parameters and options. The spatial photodetector model
converts an optical input signal to an electrical current. The documentation for the spatial photodetector explains the
spatial behavior of this element in detail. This photocurrent is then passed to the preamplifier model which converts it to
a voltage. Finally, the postamplifier model contains a set of baseband filters that shape the output waveforms. The
model also computes the photoreceiver noise components.
In fact the receiver model is implemented directly in terms of the three stand-alone models the PIN/APD Photodetector,
Electrical Amplifier and Electrical Filter model described elsewhere in this manual and all the parameters of each of
those models are also parameters of the monolithic receiver model. In other words the two configurations shown in the
topology in Figure 2 serve equivalent functions.
There are two motivations for providing this additional receiver model. As a matter of convenience and topology
compactness, some users may find it useful to represent the receiver configuration with a single block. However, this
function could also have been achieved by creating a super-block containing the three individual models. Rather, the
principal reason for providing a combined model is to allow a Quasi-Analytic (QA) treatment of the receiver noise.
Both the photodetector and electrical amplifier model a number of noise sources shot noise, dark current noise, signal-
spontaneous emission beta noise, thermal noise in the pre-amp transistor etc. In these two models, the noise is added
directly as a stochastic contribution to the electrical signal the so-called Monte-Carlo (MC) picture.

Figure 2: Two configurations for modeling an optical receiver.
However, as explained in the chapter on signal representations, electrical noise in OptSim may also be represented as a
time-dependent vector of the standard deviation of a Gaussian white noise source. This representation is especially
useful in bit error rate calculations, since it allows the contribution of each bit to the BER to be evaluated separately and
trivially accounts correctly for intersymbol interference (pattern-dependent) effects. This is referred to as the QA
method for BER calculation. As discussed in the BERTester documentation, extracting the BER from a signal with
Monte-Carlo noise is considerably more involved, particularly if the signal exhibits strong pattern dependence. Thus,
provided the receiver components are the dominant source of noise in the system, the QA approach is preferred due to
increased accuracy and speed. On the other hand, if ASE is the dominant source of noise, and the propagation through
the fiber is strongly nonlinear, then the noise properties are non-Gaussian and the MC approach is unavoidable. Which
of these two cases is true is determined by experimentation with simulations.
So the representation of noise as a separate standard deviation is necessary to allow BER calculations with the QA
method, but as we explore below in the section QA noise expressions, this is only possible if all stages of the receiver
from photodetection from filtering can be considered together because the variances for each noise source depend on
parameters from at least two of the sub-models.
Model Parameters
Since the receiver is constructed from the photodetector, electrical amplifier and electrical filter models, it includes all
the physics and essentially all the parameters of those three models. For the sake of space and clarity, we will not repeat
the explanations of the deterministic parts of the models definition of photodetector quantum efficiency, amplifier
spectral response, filter bandwidth, etc which are identical for this model. Moreover, we will not repeat the discussions
of these many parameters here and the reader should consult the specific documentation for each of the other models.
The parameters have the same names in the monolithic receiver as in the individual models with the addition of prefixes
denoting which part of the system the parameter belongs to. The prefixes are pd_ for the photodetector parameters, fe_
(front end) for the amplifier parameters and flt_ for the filter parameters. So for example, the dark current in the
photodetector is set by pd_darkCurrent, the transimpedance of the amplifier by fe_tZ and the filter bandwidth by
flt_bandwidth. While not discussed in detail, all the parameters are listed in the tables at the conclusion of the receiver
documentation.
Since the calculation of noise effects involves several models, some of the noise parameters do not have any prefixes. So
the spectrum of thermal noise is specified by n_a0, n_a2, n_a4, n_a6 exactly as in the electrical amplifier model.
Noise Representation and Effects
The choice between the quasi-analytic and Monte-Carlo treatments of noise is set with the parameter n_representation.
With n_representation=MC, the Monte-Carlo approach is used, and the model is exactly equivalent to the
concatentation of the three component models.
The quasi-analytic treatment (n_representation=QA) is identical with respect to the deterministic parts of the
component models. That is, the generated electrical signal is identical to the signal that would be generated by
concatenating the three models and disabling all noise terms. The noise terms are calculated quite differently as we see
shortly. It is important to note that the QA representation of noise incurs approximations in the spectral features of the
noise. Any noise source which has a non-flat spectrum such as the thermal noise or the spontaneous-spontaneous beat
noise which typically has a triangular shape is replaced by a flat spectrum of an equivalent noise density. This is an
unavoidable consequence of treating the noise strictly as variances in the time domain.
We now discuss the expressions for the various noise sources and how they are combined. Each noise source may be
separately disabled using the parameters beginning include_. Note that when the Monte-Carlo noise treatment is used,
the spontaneous emission noise is controlled via the parameter include_SE_noise, whereas when the quasi-analytic
treatment is used, the signal-spontaneous and spontaneous-spontaneous ASE beat noise are included separately via the
parameters include_sigspon and include_sponspon, respectively.
Preamplifier Noise Parameters
OptSim accounts for the following types of noise in the receiver model: circuit or thermal noise, shot noise due to both
the detector dark current and the received signal, signal-spontaneous beat noise (when ASE noise is present in the
received signal), spontaneous-spontaneous beat noise, APD excess noise (for APD receivers), and relative intensity noise
(when RIN is specified in the transmitter). In the literature, noise is described mathematically as the variance (
2
n
or
> <
2
n
i ) of the photogenerated current. In the receiver, the noise is amplified along with the signal; therefore, the noise
contained in the electrical signal output from OptSims receiver model is represented as the standard deviation of the
amplified voltage signal coming out of the receiver. The standard deviation is simply:

> <
2
n n
i or

The spectral density is also a commonly used noise representation. This quantity describes the amount of noise power
per unit frequency Hz A
2
and is related to the noise variance by:

df f S i
i n
) (
0
2
=

Many noise sources are described in the literature in terms of their spectral density. It is common practice to denote the
effective bandwidth of the photoreceiver by B
eff
(as computed from the receiver front end amplifier and filter response)

=
0
2
) ( df f H B
eff

where the combined filter response ) ( f H is assumed to vanish at sufficiently high frequencies. In numerical modeling,
there is a necessary cutoff to the response at the sampling frequency, so for a flat response t B
eff
= 2 1 .
The current variance is then

eff i i n
B f S f f S i ) ( ) (
2
= =

The photocurrent in the detector is described by:

P
hc
P q
I =
=
0

where q is the charge of an electron, is the quantum efficiency of the photodetector, is the wavelength of the
received optical signal, P is the optical power of the received optical signal, h is Plancks constant, c is the speed of light,
and is the responsivity. The following noise expressions are relative to the photocurrent, so they are called input-
referred noise expressions. For APD photodetectors, the noise expressions are relative to the photogenerated current after
multiplication in the avalanche region, or MI .
OptSim represents the circuit or thermal noise as a power series expansion of frequency. The total noise power per Hz
bandwidth at the input can be expressed as:

6
6
4
4
2
2 0 ,
) ( f a f a f a a f S
circuit i
+ + + =

This is a more general form of the commonly accepted expression:

2
2
,
) 2 (
4
4
) ( f
g
C
kT
R
kT
f S
m
T
f
circuit i
+ =

channel noise in the preamplifier input transistor. In this expression, k is Boltzmanns constant, T is the temperature,
f
R is the amplifier feedback resistance,
m
g is the transconductance of the preamplifier input transistor, is the excess
channel noise factor, and
T
C is the total input capacitance. The generalized polynomial representation is chosen to
allow the user to tailor the noise spectral density as he sees fit. It is also useful when actual noise spectra are available
since it allows the noise to be represented by simply fitting the polynomial coefficients to measured data. To model
white noise, simply set the coefficients
2
a ,
4
a and
6
a to zero.
The photoreceiver is characterized by a transimpedance response; in other words, the transfer function of the
preamplifier converts an input current to an output voltage. The relationship between the output noise voltage and the
input noise current (or equivalently the input spectral density) is:

=
0
2
2
) ( ) ( df f S f H v
i out

Random fluctuations in current are characterized by shot noise which is described in general by:

qI f S qIB i
i eff shot
2 ) ( 2
2
= =

Here q is the electronic charge and I is the current under consideration. In the OptSim photoreceiver model, shot noise
due to the photoreceiver dark current and the photogenerated signal current are considered. Consequently, the shot noise
due to the dark current is represented by:

eff dark dark shot
B FI qM i
2 2
,
2 =

where M is the gain of the APD (1 for PIN devices),
dark
I is the dark current,
eff
B is the effective receiver bandwidth),
and F is defined as follows:

) 1 2 )( 1 ( M k kM F + =

where k is the APD ionization coefficient, and the other terms are as previously defined. Similarly, the shot noise due to
the photogenerated signal itself is represented by:

eff signal shot
FIB qM i
2 2
,
2 =

The signal-spontaneous and spontaneous-spontaneous beat noise sources are derived from standard approaches in the
literature and describe the effects of amplified spontaneous emission (ASE) on the noise performance of the
photoreceiver. These analyses have their roots in the fact that the optical field can be analytically decomposed into two
parts, the signal
s
E and the noise
n
E :

( ) ( ) ( ) t E t E t E
n s
+ =

Since the optical power is defined to be the intensity of the electric field, when light hits a detector, the resulting
photocurrent can be described loosely by:

(
+ + = + = =
2 2 2 2
) ( ) ( ) ( 2 ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( t E t E t E t E t E t E t E t I
n n s s n s ph

As seen by the last term on the right, the square-law detection process performed by the detector causes the various
components of the optical field to multiply, or beat, with each other. The first term on the right represents the
photocurrent signal itself
s
P . The second term models the effect of the signal field beating with the noise field while
the third term represents the beating of the noise with itself.
The variance due to signal-spontaneous ASE beat noise is modeled in the literature essentially by multiplying the
spontaneous emission at every frequency by the optical signal:

( ) ) ( 4
2
2 2 2
f P P B F M i
n
end
f
start
f f
s eff sp s

=
=

Here,
start
f and
end
f represent the beginning and end frequencies of the ASE noise spectrum. In general, the frequency
range
start end
f f will be much larger than the photoreceiver bandwidth; thus, the signal-spontaneous beat noise is
effectively truncated when it is passed through the receiver transfer function.
Similarly, the variance due to spontaneous-spontaneous ASE beat noise is:

( ) ) ( ) ( 4
2
1 2
1
2
2 2 2
f P f P B F M i
n
end
f
start
f f
end
f
start
f f
n eff sp sp

= =
=

Here, a double summation is required because the ASE noise at each frequency beats with the ASE noise that exists at
every other frequency in the noise bandwidth. Again, the ASE spectral density is captured from the power spectrum
portion of the spectrum analyzer measurement tool and will generally be truncated by the finite receiver bandwidth.
The RIN noise is represented by the following expression:

eff RIN RIN
B N FI M i
2 2 2
) ( =

where
RIN
N is the RIN noise parameter defined in the transmitter and the other terms are as previously defined.
The total input-referred noise expression in the receiver is then:

2 2 2 2 2 2
RIN sp sp sp s shot circuit n
i i i i i i + + + + =

Calibrating receiver sensitivity
The bit error rate for Gaussian systems can be roughly described by:

|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
2
1
BER
Q
erfc
2
0
2
1
0 1
n n
i i
I I
Q
+
=
where
1
I and
0
I are the photocurrents in the one and zero states and the standard deviation terms represent the noise in the
respective states. The complementary error function is represented by erfc. Thus, for a desired BER, the Q factor can be
calculated by inverting the complementary error function; although this cannot be performed analytically, it is a simple
matter to either perform it numerically or look it up in tables.
Using the equations given in this documentation, it is thus possible to set the receiver parameters to model a specific
device. It is important to model the receivers frequency response as accurately as possible using the photodetector, front
end amplifier, and filter parameters; then using the receivers sensitivity based on a given BER with a given average
input optical power and difference between a 1 level and a 0 level, set the noise parameters so that the models sensitivity
matches the device being modeled. Note that it is very important that the noise parameters be set properly to represent
the receiver you are using if you wish the simulation results to correlate with a particular device. Also, note that simply
changing the default parameters for the APD multiplier and ionization coefficient will not convert an optimal PIN
receiver into an optimal APD receiver, as there are other parameters that will vary between PIN receivers and APD
receivers since their designs generally differ from one another.
The documentation for the amplifier describes how to set the frequency response of the preamplifier to match a 3-dB
frequency that is either measured or found on a data sheet. As a further example, suppose the desired BER for a
particular receiver is
12
10
; the corresponding value of Q can be easily determined from tables to be approximately 7.

Once the value of Q is known, some further design guidelines can be established. One parameter that is often found on
photoreceiver data sheets is the sensitivity or, more accurately, the minimum average received power. If we neglect
noise terms that depend explicitly on the signal level (usually a good assumption), this quantity can be approximated as:

2
1
1
n
i
r
r Q
P |
.
|
\
|
=

Here, r is the extinction ratio of the signal, namely
1 0
I I . Thus, if the BER (and hence Q), the detector responsivity,
the signal extinction ratio, and the receiver sensitivity are known, it is possible to estimate the standard deviation of the
noise that is needed to model such a device.
Test display
A number of spectral responses are available as test functions, selected with test_output. The exact format for the
display of the response functions is controlled with test_display. The available settings for test_output and their
meanings are elec_filter_spectrum (electrical filter response function), photodetector_resp (photodetector response
function), front_end_resp (amplifier response function), cumulative_resp (combined response of the detector, amplifier
and filter) and noise_spectrum (thermal noise spectrum of the amplifier).
References
[1] B. E. A. Saleh and M. C. Teich, Fundamentals of Photonics. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1991.
[3] M. Jeruchim, P. Balaban, and K. Shanmugan, Simulation of Communication Systems. New York, NY: Plenum
Press, 1994.
[4] Optical Fiber Telecommunications II., ed. S. E. Miller and I. P. Kaminow, chapters 14 and 18. Academic Press,
1988.
[5] N. A. Olsson, Lightwave systems with optical amplifiers, IEEE Journal of Lightwave Technology, vol. 7, no. 7,
pp. 1071-1082, 1989.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical signal
Outputs
Parameter Values
n_representation
enumerated QA QA, MC
pd_APD_Multiplier
double 1.0 [1, 1e32]
pd_ionizationCoef
double 1.0 [0, 1]
pd_QEmethod
enumerated Defined Defined, Computed
pd_quantumEff
double 0.8 [0, 1]
pd_layerThickness
double 0.5e-6 [0, 1e32] m
pd_absorptionCoeff
double 0.68e6 [0, 1e32] 1/m
pd_reflectivity
double 0.04 [0, 1]
pd_detect
enumerated false false, true
pd_modeltype
enumerated empirical empirical, intrinsic
pd_loadResistance
double 50.0 [0, 1e32] Ohm
pd_seriesResistance
pd_deviceCapacitance
double 50e-15 [0, 1e32] F
pd_electronVelocity
double 6.5e6 [0, 1e32] m/s
pd_holeVelocity
double 4.8e6 [0, 1e32] m/s
pd_lossGain
double 0.0 < 0 for loss,
> 0 for gain
dB
pd_respfp
double 52.259e9 [0, 1e32] Hz
pd_respfo
double 25.679e9 [0, 1e32] Hz
pd_respg
double 0.5874 [0, 1e32]
pd_darkCurrent double 1e-6 [0, 1e32] A
pd_spatial_effects enumerated on on, off
pd_aperture_type enumerated round round, square
pd_aperture_dimension double 10 [0, 1000] microns
pd_aperture_inner_
dimension
double 5 [0, 1000 ] microns
fe_modeltype
enumerated defined defined
fe_filename
string
fe_tZ
fe_zero
double 0.00 [0, 1e18] Hz
fe_pole
double 1e18 [0, 1e18] Hz
fe_lo_trunc
enumerated extend extend, zero
fe_hi_trunc
enumerated extend extend, zero
n_a0
double 5.4617e-23 [0, 1e32]
Hz A
2

n_a2
double 2.924e-43 [0, 1e32] 3
2
Hz A

n_a4
double 1.1118e-63 [0, 1e32] 5
2
Hz A

n_a6
double 0 [0, 1e32] 7
2
Hz A

flt_type
enumerated LPbessel LPbutterworth, LPchebyshev,
LPbessel,
LPideal,
HPbutterworth,
HPchebyshev, HPbessel,
HPideal,
BPbutterworth,
BPchebyshev, BPbessel,
BPideal

flt_preserve_alignment
enumerated YES NO, YES
flt_bandwidth
double 10e9 [0, 1e18] Hz
flt_order
integer 4 [0, 128]
flt_lossGain
double 0.0 [-1e32, 1e32] dB
flt_passbandRipple
double 0.0 [0, 1e32] dB
flt_geometricCenter
double 0.0 [0, 1e32] Hz
include_thermal
include_sigshot
include_darkshot
include_sigspon
include_sponspon
include_SE_noise
include_rin
monte_seed
integer 0 [-1e8, 1]
test_display
enumerated norm_phase norm_phase,
norm_phase_wrap,
dB_phase, dB_phase_wrap,
real_imag

test_output
enumerated elec_filter_spectrum, elec_filter_spectrum,
photodetector_resp,
front_end_resp,
cumulative_resp,
noise_spectrum

General Receiver Parameters
n_representation:
Select quasi-analytic or Monte-Carlo treatment of noise
include_thermal:
Toggle inclusion of thermal noise
include_sigshot:
Toggle incluson of signal shot noise
include_darkshot:
Toggle inclusion of dark current shot noise
include_sigspon:
Toggle inclusion of signal-spontaneous beat noise in quasi-analytic treatment of
noise
include_sponspon:
Toggle inclusion of spontaneous-spontaneous beat noise in quasi-analytic
treatment of noise
include_SE_noise
Toggle inclusion of ASE beat noise in Monte-Carlo treatment of noise
include_rin:
Toggle inclusion of relative intensity noise
monte_seed:
Random number seed for Monte-Carlo noise
test_display:
Format for display of response functions
test_output:
Select response function for display
Photodetector Parameters
pd_APD_Multiplier:
APD multiplier value (1.0 for PIN detector)
pd_ionizationCoef:
APD ionization coefficient (1.0 for PIN detector)
pd_QEmethod:
If Computed, the quantum efficiency is computed by the model. If Defined, the
entered value is used.
pd_quantumEff:
Quantum efficiency.
pd_layerThickness:
Thickness of the active region
pd_absorptionCoeff:
Absorption coefficient
pd_reflectivity:
Reflectivity at the photodiode
pd_detect:
If true then use a PD frequency response model, else assume it is included in
front end response
pd_modeltype:
intrinsic or empirical models for frequency response
pd_loadResistance:
Load resistance
pd_seriesResistance:
Series resistance
pd_deviceCapacitance:
Device capacitance
pd_electronVelocity:
Electron saturated velocity
pd_holeVelocity:
Hole saturated velocity
pd_lossGain:
Gain or loss of the photodetector response (only used if pd_detect is set true)
pd_respfp:
Parasitic frequency of the empirical frequency response
pd_respfo:
Resonance frequency of the empirical frequency response
pd_respg:
Gamma of the empirical frequency response fit
pd_darkCurrent:
Dark current for dark current noise computation
pd_spatial_effects:
Turns spatial effects on or off
pd_aperture_type:
If pd_spatial_effects=on, this specifies the shape of the detector
pd_aperture_dimension:
If pd_spatial_effects=on, this specifies the size of the detector
pd_aperture_inner_dimension:
If pd_spatial_effects=on, this specifies the inner diameter of a ring-shaped
detector.
Preamplifier Parameters
fe_modeltype:
Select parameterized or user-defined transfer function
fe_filename:
Filename for user-defined transfer function
fe_tZ:
Transimpedance coefficient
fe_zero:
Frequency of transfer function zero
fe_pole:
Frequency of transfer function pole
fe_lo_trunc:
Low frequency truncation behavior for user-defined transfer function
fe_hi_trunc:
High frequency truncation behavior for user-defined transfer function
n_a0:
Thermal noise coefficient
n_a2:
n_a4:
n_a6:
Filter Parameters
flt_type:
Filter type
flt_preserve_alignment:
Preserve alignment of incoming bits
flt_bandwidth:
Filter 3dB bandwidth
flt_order:
Geometric center frequency for bandpass filters
flt_lossGain:
Order of the filter
flt_passbandRipple:
Filter gain or loss
flt_geometricCenter:
Passband ripple for Chebyshev filter

Spatial Photodetector

This component models spatial photodetectors either a PIN photodiode or an avalanche photodiode
converting an optical signal into an electrical current. Noise in this model is treated stochastically. For an
analytic treatment of the noise effects, refer to the spatial compound optical receiver model. The main
difference between this model and its nonspatial counterpart is that the spatial effects of the detector
geometry are accounted for. In all other respects, the two models are identical.
Spatial Effects
The spatial version of the photodetector model allows the user to specify the geometry of the detectors
active region and apertures the incident optical fields accordingly. This enables the user to model the
effects of misalignment between the photodetector and its preceding element. Currently, round, square,
and ring photodetectors are supported. The model performs a simple windowing of the incident spatial
field; thus, if the incident field falls entirely within the active area, it is ideally detected. Any portion of the
field that falls outside the active area is truncated. Diffractive effects are not modeled.
In accordance with the OptSim spatial field convention, it is assumed that if multiple optical fields impinge
upon the receiver simultaneously, their spatial fields are mutually orthogonal. In other words, the spatial
receiver assumes that coherence effects between multiple optical signals are negligible, an assumption that
is only valid if these signals are orthogonal.
Detection Process
This model acts as the first stage of an optical receiver assembly to convert optical signals to an electrical
current. Both PIN and avalanche photodiode (APD) type detectors can be modeled. Typically the output of
the photodiode would be connected to an electrical amplifier and then to a filter. If a BER analysis is to be
performed, at the very least an amplifier must be placed somewhere between the photodetector and BER
Tester to convert the current output of the photodetector to the voltage source expected by the BER Tester.
The quantum efficiency is a measure of the percentage of incident photons that are successfully converted
to electrons. This quantity may be input directly by the user as a parameter quantumEff; alternatively, the
user can allow OptSim to calculate the quantum efficiency internally from the user-specified absorption
layer thickness L (layerThickness), absorption coefficient (absorptionCoeff), and reflectivity of the
photosensitive area of the detector R
f
(reflectivity) according to:

( )( )
L
f q
e R

= 1 1

To input the quantum efficiency directly, set the QEmethod parameter to Defined and enter the desired
value in the quantumEff field. To have the model compute it for you, set the QEmethod parameter to
Computed and assign values to layerThickness, absorptionCoeff, and reflectivity.
Regardless of the method chosen to specify the quantum efficiency
Q
, the responsivity is computed as:

hc
e
Q
=

where e is the electron charge, is the wavelength of the input optical signal, h is Plancks constant, and c
is the speed of light. The responsivity has units of A/W and gives the quantity of electrical current
generated for each watt of incident optical power P. That is, the generated photocurrent obeys the square-
law relation

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) t N t E t E
t N t P
t N t I t I
j
yj xj
+
(
+ =
+ =
+ =
2 2
o

where the sum is over all optical channels in the incoming signal. (Recall that in OptSim, the square of the
electric field for an optical signal has units of Watts). The term N(t) includes all noise effects and is
discussed below.
In an avalanche photodiode, the photocurrent is multiplied by successive ionization and the final current is
modified to
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) t N t P M t N t MI t I + = + =
o

where the avalanche factor M is specified with the parameter APD_Multiplier. The behavior of APD
detectors also differs in the noise response (see below).
There is no specific switch to convert from a PIN model to an APD model. Simply setting
APD_Multiplier>1, and the noise-related parameter ionizationCoefficient (see below), produces APD
behavior. Note however, that simply changing the default parameters for the APD multiplier and ionization
coefficient will not convert an optimal PIN receiver into an optimal APD receiver, as there are other
parameters which will vary between PIN receivers and APD receivers since their designs generally differ
from one another.
Frequency Response
If desired, the photodetector may be given a frequency response that acts by filtering the photocurrent I(t).
In most cases it may be more convenient to model the total electrical response of the receiver assembly
together in the subsequent electrical amplifier or electrical filter models. For that approach, set the
parameter detect=false.
To control the photodetector response directly, set detect=true, and configure the modeltype parameter to
use one of the following frequency responses. This may be useful, for example, if the photodetector is
simply connected to a 50 amplifier.
Intrinsic Response (modeltype=intrinsic)
The frequency response is described by:

( )
( ) ( )
|
|
.
|
\
|

+
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
=

h
L
h
j
L
h
h
j
e
e
j
L
e
L
e
j
L
p s d
G
j L
e e
e
j
e
j
e
e
L j
e e
e
C R R j i
i
1 1 1 1
1
1
1
1
10
0
20

In this formulation, the electron and hole transit times are given by
e e
v L = and
h h
v L = ,
p
C is the parasitic capacitance of the photodetector,
d
R is the load resistance,
s
R is the series resistance, and the other symbols are as previously defined. The user should
enter values for seriesResistance, loadResistance, deviceCapacitance, electronVelocity,
holeVelocity, layerThickness and absorptionCoeff and lossGain (G).
Empirical Response (modeltype=empirical)
The response is described by:

( )
( )
( )
20
2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2
0 0
10 1
0
1
1 4 /
G
p
i
i
f f
f f f f
(
(
=
(
+
+
(

where
0
, , f f G
p
and are empirically determined by the user and supplied to the model in the form of the
parameters lossGain, respfp, respfo and respg, respectively. The response can be multiplied by a gain or
loss constant by setting the lossGain parameter to a nonzero value. This representation is particularly
useful when the inductance of the bond wire dominates the photodetector response. In this situation, the
frequency response is often modeled as the second order response depicted above.
Noise Response
The photodetector model allows modeling of the following noise effects: shot noise of the signal, shot noise
associated with the dark current of the device, RIN noise and both signal-spontaneous and spontaneous-
spontaneous beat noises. Each of these effects may be separately disabled or enabled with the parameters
include_sigshot, include_darkshot, include_rin and include_SE_noise respectively.
In this model, all these noise sources appear as stochastic terms added directly to the sampled electrical
signal. The monolithic receiver model should be used if an analytic treatment of noise is desired, (typically
to use the Quasi-Analytic approach to bit error estimation).
Spontaneous Emission Noises
The two spontaneous emission noise effects signal-spontaneous (sig-spon) and spontaneous-spontaneous
(spon-spon) beat noise arise from the action of the square law detection mixing the deterministic signal and
random noise. When include_SE_noise=YES, before applying the square-law detection to generate the
photocurrent, the model first converts any power in ASE noise bins in the optical signal into a stochastic
time series which is added to the sampled optical signal. (See the NoiseAdder documentation for details on
this procedure). The spontaneous emission noises thus arise naturally in the detection calculation. Note that
any ASE power outside the simulation bandwidth of the sampled signal is dropped. Since an electrical filter
with a bandwidth narrower than the simulation bandwidth will normally be included later in the topology,
this is not a significant restriction.
Due to the direct inclusion of ASE as stochastic noise, it is not possible to separately control the inclusion
of sig-spon and spon-spon noise.
Other Noise Sources
The remaining noise sources (shot noise, dark current shot noise and RIN), are treated by calculating noise
variances for each effect and then adding a Gaussian random variable to each sample of the photocurrent:

( )
2 2 2
RIN
dark shot
i i
i i i t N + + =

where
i
is a Gaussian random variable of zero mean and unit variance. The seed for the random variable
is set with random_seed. This variable obeys the standard OptSim convention for the meanings of
negative, zero and unity seeds. Since the spectrum of each noise source is assumed to be white (a
reasonable approximation for electrical bandwidths), it is necessary to choose an effective bandwidth for
the noises. In each case the effective bandwidth is taken to be the numerical one-sided
bandwidth ( ) t B
eff
= 2 1 , where t is the sampling rate. Below we give the expressions for each noise
variance and the associated spectral density functions ( ) f S . The two are related through the expression

( )
=
eff
B
n n
df f S i
0
2

Shot noise
The shot noise derives from the random distribution in arrival times of photons at the photodetector. The
expressions are

( ) ( ) ( ) t qI f S B t qI i
eff
shot
2 2
2
= =

where q is the charge on the electron. Note that the noise variance depends on the photocurrent, but that for
electrical frequencies the noise can be considered locally white.
Dark current noise
The dark current noise is shot noise associated with leakage currents in the active region of the
photodetector which flow even in the absence of incident optical poser, and is described by

( ) F M qI f S FB M qI i
dark eff dark
dark
2 2 2
2 2 = =

Here the (time-independent) dark current
dark
I is entered as the parameter dark_current. For PIN diodes,
both M and F are unity. For an APD, M is again the multiplier factor, while

) 1 2 )( 1 ( M k kM F + =

is an excess noise factor associated with the ratio = k of the electron and hole ionization coefficients.
The ratio k is determined by ionizationCoef.
RIN
The RIN variance is given by
( ) ( ) ( )
RIN eff RIN RIN
N FI M f S B N FI M i
2
2
2
2 2
= =
where
RIN
N is the RIN parameter specified in the source models.
Test display
The model's test functions displays the current frequency response of the detector if detect=true. The
format for display of the complex response can be controlled through test_display.
References
[1] B. E. A. Saleh and M. C. Teich, Fundamentals of Photonics. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons,
Inc., 1991.
[3] M. Jeruchim, P. Balaban, and K. Shanmugan, Simulation of Communication Systems. New York, NY:
Plenum Press, 1994.
[4] Optical Fiber Telecommunications II., ed. S. E. Miller and I. P. Kaminow, chapters 14 and 18.
Academic Press, 1988.
[5] N. A. Olsson, Lightwave systems with optical amplifiers IEEE Journal of Lightwave Technology,
vol. 7, no. 7, pp. 1071-1082, 1989.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical signal
Outputs
Parameter Values
APD_Multiplier
double 1.0 [1, 1e32]
ionizationCoef
double 1.0 [0, 1]
QEmethod
enumerated Defined Defined, Computed
quantumEff
double 0.8 [0, 1]
absorptionCoeff
double 0.68e6 [0, 1e32] 1/m
layerThickness
double 0.5e-6 [0, 1e32] m
reflectivity
double 0.04 [0, 1]
detect
enumerated false false, true
modeltype
enumerated empirical empirical, intrinsic
loadResistance
seriesResistance
deviceCapacitance
double 50e-15 [0, 1e32] F
electronVelocity
double 6.5e6 [0, 1e32] m/s
holeVelocity
double 4.8e6 [0, 1e32] m/s
lossGain
double 0.0 < 0 for loss,
> 0 for gain
dB
respfp
double 52.259e9 [0, 1e32] Hz
respfo
double 25.679e9 [0, 1e32] Hz
respg
double 0.5874 [0, 1e32]
darkCurrent
double 1e-6 [0, 1e32] A
include_sigshot
include_darkshot
include_SE_noise
include_rin
random_seed
double 1.0 [-1e8, 1]
aperture_type enumerated round round, square
aperture_dimension double 10 [0, 1000] microns
aperture_inner_dimension
double 5 [0, 1000 ] microns
test_display:
enumerated norm_phase norm_phase,
h

norm_phase_wrap,
dB_phase,
dB_phase_wrap,
real_imag
APD_Multiplier:
APD multiplier value (1.0 for PIN detector)
ionizationCoef:
APD ionization coefficient (1.0 for PIN detector)
QEmethod:
If Computed, the quantum efficiency is computed by the model. If Defined, the quantum
efficiency defined above is used instead.
quantumEff:
Quantum efficiency.
layerThickness:
Thickness of the active region
absorptionCoeff:
Absorption coefficient
reflectivity:
Reflectivity at the photodiode
detect:
If true then use a PD frequency response model, else assume it is included in front end
response
modeltype:
intrinsic or empirical models for frequency response
loadResistance:
Load resistance
seriesResistance:
Series resistance
deviceCapacitance:
Device capacitance
electronVelocity:
Electron saturated velocity
holeVelocity:
Hole saturated velocity
lossGain:
Gain or loss of the photodetector response (only used if pd_detect is set true)
respfp:
Parasitic frequency of the empirical frequency response
respfo:
Resonance frequency of the empirical frequency response
respg:
Gamma of the empirical frequency response fit
darkCurrent:
Dark current for dark current noise computation
include_sigshot:
Enable/disable optical shot noise
include_darkshot:
Enable/disable dark current shot noise
include_SE_noise:
Enable/disable spontaneous emission noise from ASE spectrum
include_rin:
Enable/disable RIN noise
random_seed:
Seed for random number generation for noise sources
spatial_effects:
Turns spatial effects on or off
aperture_type:
Specifies the shape of the detector
aperture_dimension:
Specifies the size of the detector
aperture_inner_dimension:
Specifies the inner diameter of a ring-shaped detector.
test_display:
Display format for test function of photodetector response
Spatial Analyzer

The Spatial Analyzer is a general-purpose measurement tool that produces plots and reports about optical
signals with attached spatial fields. It can be thought of as the spatial-domain analog of the Signal
Analyzer (time domain) or the Spectrum Analyzer (frequency domain). Consider the topology of Figure 1
in which a spatial analyzer has been placed at the multimode fiber output:

Figure 1: Spatial analyzer sample topology.
The Spatial VCSEL has been configured to add spatial fields in both the x and y polarizations at a
wavelength of 820 nm and the multimode fiber has 190 spatial modes in this example. The analyzer allows
the user to display information about the input signals x polarized fields, its y polarized fields, or both.
This is achieved by setting the polarization parameter to Ex, Ey, or Both.
The analyzer basically produces two types of outputs: a summary report of spatial information or plots of
the spatial fields. These are chosen by setting the parameter output_type to Summary, Plots, or Both. The
summary report produced for the above example is depicted below:

OpSig Spatial Field Summary
---------------------------
Input is a linked list of 190 OpSigs.

OpSig #1 has both Ex and Ey time-domain fields and both X and Y spatial fields.
Average power in the x-polarization is 6.4542e-010
Average power in the y-polarization is 0
wavelength=820 nm
startTime=1.415179223321e-006 s
OpSig #2 has both Ex and Ey time-domain fields and both X and Y spatial fields.
Average power in the x-polarization is 6.44688e-010
Average power in the y-polarization is 0
wavelength=820 nm
startTime=1.415180771222e-006 s

Figure 2: Summary output option of spatial analyzer.
In addition to the summary report, the spatial analyzer offers the user a range of plotting options. The first
choice, plot_type=Individual, simply generates a contour plot for each spatial field that the analyzer
detects. Continuing the example of Figure 1, the first three of the 190 fiber modes are depicted in Figure 3.
The second choice, plot_type=Total, creates a superposition of all of the detected spatial fields. Spectral
coherence is accounted for when necessary. While the plot_type=Total option creates a simple
superposition, the third choice, plot_type=Weighted, creates a superposition of all the detected spatial
fields weighted by their time-domain values. To better understand this option, recall that the spatial optical
signal is defined to be
( ) ) , ( ) ( , , y x
i
t
i
E t y x
i
E =
The plot_type=Total option simply plots the superposition of ) , ( y x
i
for all fields i. The
plot_type=Weighted option plots the superposition of ( ) ) , ( ) ( , , y x
i
t
i
E t y x
i
E = for all i.

Figure 3: Contour plots of first three spatial modes of the fiber.
Since it would be computationally prohibitive to plot the weighted quantity for all time t, the user must set
the parameter plot_time to a time value at which to plot the weighted profile. This time should be specified
relative to the start time of the first signal at the analyzer input. Note that if the user sets plot_time to be
negative, then the analyzer automatically uses the first time point from each signal. In this case, the
analyzer requires that the time-varying input be a continuous-wave quantity; thus, when using the
plot_type=Weighted option with a negative plot_time, the user should run the simulation in CW-mode
(Figure 4). This can be achieved by using the Spatial CW Laser model, which is the preferred method, or
by using a time-varying optical source whose output signal is not modulated.

Figure 4: Spatial analyzer run with continuous-wave input.
As an example of the application of the plot_type=Weighted option, consider either topology of Figure 4.
The VCSEL output, and the analyzer output using both the plot_type=Total and plot_type=Weighted
options are depicted in Figure 5. The difference between the two analyzer outputs basically amounts to the
difference between:
) , ( ) , (
1
y x y x E
n
i
i total

=
= (plot_type=Total) and ) , ( ) , (
1
y x E y x E
n
i
i i total

=
= (plot_type=Weighted)
Here, E
i
is the CW value of the time-domain portion of each optical signal i and n denotes the number of
spatial fields input to the analyzer. In the context of Figure 4, the plot_type=Total plot basically
corresponds to a nonweighted superposition of all of the normalized fiber modes (i.e., an overfilled launch).

Figure 5: VCSEL output (left), plot_type=Total (center), plot_type=Weighted (right).
When plot_method=coherent, both the plot_type=Total and plot_type=Weighted functions add the fields
as if they were perfectly coherent. This means that for fields at the same wavelength, the composite field is
determined by adding individual fields, thus preserving the optical phase. Fields occurring at different
wavelengths, however, are added incoherently; in other words, the relative optical phase between fields is
neglected. This is accomplished by adding powers rather than fields as shown below. When
plot_method=incoherent, all signals are added incoherently (i.e., square root of the sum of the powers
rather than the sum of the fields).
( ) ( )
=
=
n
i
i coherent
y , x y , x E
1
( ) ( ) ( )
=
=
n
i
*
i i incoherent
y , x y , x y , x E
1

The radial_plot parameter enables the user to plot the normalized optical power along a ray that starts at
the origin and that lies at an angle plot_angle degrees with respect to the x-axis. For example, Figure 6
shows a contour plot on the left and the radial plot that results from setting plot_angle to 45 degrees.

Figure 6: Demonstration of the radial_plot feature.
The spatial analyzer creates its plots by sampling the spatial field data. If the sampling is performed over a
very fine grid, the resulting plots will appear smooth, but the simulation will take a long time. Conversely,
if the sampling is performed over a coarse grid, the plots will appear jagged, but the simulation will execute
quickly. OptSim allows the user to make his own trade-off between speed and accuracy through the
accuracy parameter, which can be set to low, medium, or high. The final field to be discussed is
plot_mode. This flag enables the user to display either the magnitude of the spatial field, the magnitude
and phase (mag_phase) of the fields, or the real and imaginary parts (real_imag).

Properties
Inputs
Outputs
None
Parameter Values
polarization enumerated Ex Ex, Ey, Both None
output_type enumerated Summary Summary, Plots, Both None
plot_type enumerated Individual Individual, Total,
Weighted
None
plot_mode enumerated magnitude magnitude,
mag_phase,
real_imag
None
accuracy enumerated medium low, medium, high
plot_method enumerated coherent coherent, incoherent
radial_plot enumerated No Yes, No
plot_angle double 0 0-360 degrees
plot_time double -1 [-1, 1e32] s

polarization Determines which polarization(s) the tool will analyze
output_type Designates whether to prepare a report, plots, or both
plot_type Allows the user to choose whether individual mode plots, total field plots, or weighted
fields should be displayed
plot_mode

Toggles plots between the three supported formats: magnitude, magnitude/phase, and
real/imaginary
plot_method Allows the user to choose whether to add fields coherently or incoherently
radial_plot Determines whether the analyzer will produce a radial plot
plot_angle Angle at which the radial plot is created
accuracy Determines the precision of the sampling used to produce contour plots
plot_time Time at which to calculate the weighted field plot

Encircled Flux Analysis Tool

It has been well documented that the position of the laser relative to the fiber has a significant impact on multimode
system bandwidth [1]-[5]. The fiber modal delays can typically span a range of several nanoseconds; clearly, if all of
these modes are excited equally, the system will not function at high speeds. The relative position of the optical source
causes different multimode fiber modes to be excited preferentially. Thus, in order for a multimode system to meet a
given bandwidth requirement, the attributes of the optical source must be restricted. This can be achieved by imposing a
requirement on the number, size, and type of spatial modes emitted by the source and by establishing rigid transceiver
packaging tolerances. While this is certainly the most intuitive type of specification, it creates a manufacturing
nightmare for the transceiver vendor. Different vendors use different types of lasers that produce different mode
profiles. Different connector and packaging technologies have different positional tolerances.
To address this issue, the multimode community has established a new specification called encircled flux [6]. Encircled
flux is a measurement that quantifies the percentage of optical power, for a given transceiver/fiber pair, that falls within a
given radial distance from the center of the fiber (Figure 1). When combined with a detailed knowledge of the
dependence of the fibers modal delays on the source position (see Differential Mode Delay model), the encircled flux
measurement enables a prediction of the overall multimode system bandwidth [7].

Figure 1: Sample encircled flux boundary.
Figure 1 depicts the two-dimensional intensity profile of a beam launched by an optical transceiver just inside a 25-m
core radius multimode fiber. Also shown is a circular boundary of radius r. In this case, r is about 15 m. The encircled
flux calculation determines the fraction of optical power that is contained within a given radial distance r relative to the
guided power contained in the entire fiber. Mathematically this is expressed as [6]:

=
max max max max
r
r d r I r
r
r d r I r
r
d r d r r I
r
d r d r r I
r
dA r I
r
dA r I
r
r dP
r
r dP
r EF
0
) ( 2
0
) ( 2
2
0 0
) , (
2
0 0
) , (
2
0 0
) , (
2
0 0
) , (
2
0 0
) , (
2
0 0
) , (
) (
Here, r is the distance from the fiber center and r
max
is nominally defined to be the radius of the fiber core. In practice,
r
max
is usually set to a number slightly higher than the core radius (such as 1.15 times the core radius in [1]) for
measurement reasons. In the above equation, the denominator represents the total guided power in the fiber. If the total
power (denominator) is defined to be EF
max
, then:

=
r
r d r I r
EF
r EF
max
0
) ( 2
1
) (
Notice that the encircled flux is a one-dimensional quantity because the angular dependence of the intensity is integrated
out in the form of a 2 scaling factor. Because the integrations above are performed numerically, the grid spacing dr
will greatly affect the accuracy of the result. This can be controlled through parameter accuracy which can be set to
low, medium, or high to allow the user to make his own trade-off between simulation speed and numerical accuracy.
As an example, consider a small, tightly focused optical beam that strikes the fiber at its center. The top half of Figure 2
depicts this optical input along with the resulting encircled flux. Because the majority of the power is near the fiber
center, the encircled flux increases rapidly near r = 0. Consider the same simulation with the input shifted 10 m (Figure
2, bottom). In this case, the encircled flux increase shifts towards the vicinity of the 10 m point and reaches only about
82% at 10 m.

Figure 2: Fiber input (left), resulting encircled flux (right).
Another quantity of interest in multimode system design is the average radial intensity. This is defined as the scaled
derivative of the encircled flux:
) ( ) ( 2 r EF
dr
d
EF r rI
max
=
The average radial intensity is also plotted by the encircled flux analysis tool. Examples for the two previous test cases
(no offset and 10 m offset) are depicted in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Average radial intensity for no offset (left) and 10 m offset (right).
Note that there is no time dependence in the encircled flux definition; the dependent variable is radial position. In view
of this fact, it is most appropriate for the user to drive the fiber with a continuous wave source (Figure 4). This can be
achieved by using the Spatial CW Laser model, which is the preferred method. Alternatively, a time-varying optical
source can be used provided that in the Electrical Signal Generator, the parameter Vmin is set to the same value as
Vmax. If the encircled flux analyzer detects a non-CW signal, it will still attempt to perform the calculation; however,
the results may not be what the user expects. In addition, OptSim will issue a simulation warning.

Figure 4: Encircled flux simulation with spatial CW laser source (left), with spatial DM laser source (right).
It is important to note that the encircled flux analyzer requires the radius of the fiber that it is analyzing as one of its
input parameters. The reason for this is clear from the mathematical definitions presented previously; this quantity is
needed to determine r
max
. The other two parameters, plot_EF and plot_radial_intensity, basically allow the user to
choose which plots the analyzer displays. Because the analyzers main function is to calculate the encircled flux
integrations defined previously, it will accept any optical input signal that has an attached spatial field. In this case, the
radius parameter simply defines an arbitrary r
max
. However, this tool is clearly intended to be connected directly to the
output of a multimode fiber.
The model also allows adding a mask on encircled flux plot to see if computed encircled flux satisfies design
requirements. For example, IEEE 802.3ae Standard for 10 Gigabit Ethernet sets following requirements for transmitter
encircled flux: The encircled flux at 19 m shall be greater than or equal to 86% and the encircled flux at 4.5 m shall
be less than or equal to 30%. Figure 4 shows an example of plot of encircled flux with mask with requirement
mentioned above. In this case one can see that encircled flux data satisfy the mask requirements.
In order to activate mask feature one has to set parameter add_EF_Mask to Yes and then specify the values for lower
limit radius and encircled flux value at this radius (lower_limit_radius, lower_limit_EF) and the same for upper limit
radius and encircled flux (upper_limit_radius, upper_limit_EF).
Encircled Flux vs. r
EF mask: EF<30% at 4.5 um and EF>86% at 19 um
r (microns)
0 10 20 30
E
n
c
i
r
c
l
e
d

F
l
u
x
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0

Figure 4: Encircled flux with a mask.
References
[1] D. G. Cunningham and W. G. Lane, Gigabit Ethernet Networking. Indianapolis, IN: Macmillan Technical
Publishing, 1999.
[2] J. Gowar, Optical Communication Systems. Hertfordshire, UK: Prentice Hall International, 1993.
[3] D. Marcuse, Theory of Dielectric Optical Waveguides. New York, NY: Academic Press, 1974.
[4] S. E. Golowich, P. F. Kolesar, A. J. Ritger, and P. Pepeljugoski Modeling and Simulations for 10 Gb
Multimode Optical Fiber Link Component Specifications, Optical Fiber Communications Conference
Technical Digest, Paper #WDD57, 2001.
[5] Enhanced bandwidth performance over laser-based multimode fiber local area networks. TIA/EIA
Telecommunications Systems Bulletin, TSB 62-20, February 2001.
[6] FOTP-203, Launched Power Distribution Measurement Procedure for Graded-Index Multimode Fiber
Transmitters, TIA Standard #TIA/EIA-455-203, March 2000.
[7] FOTP-220, Differential Mode Delay Measurement of Multimode Fiber in the Time Domain, TIA Standard
#TIA/EIA-455-220, 2002.
[8] IEEE Std 802.3ae-2002 (Amendment to IEEE Std 802.3, 2002 Edition).

Properties
Inputs
Outputs
None
Parameter Values
radius double 25 [1, 500] microns
plot_EF enumerated Yes Yes, No
plot_radial_intensity enumerated Yes Yes, No
accuracy enumerated medium low, medium, high
add_EF_Mask enumerated No Yes, No
lower_limit_radius double 4.5 [1, 500] microns
lower_limit_EF double 0.3 [0, 1]
upper_limit_radius double 19 [1, 500] microns
upper_limit_EF double 0.86 [0, 1]
radius Radius of the fiber being analyzed
plot_EF Allows user to choose whether to plot the encircled flux
plot_radial_intensity Allows user to choose whether to plot the average radial intensity
accuracy Determines the numerical precision of the encircled flux and the radial intensity calculations
add_EF_Mask Allows user to choose whether to plot the encircled flux mask
lower_limit_radius Lower limit radius for encircled flux mask
lower_limit_EF Encircled flux reqirement ar lower limit radius
upper_limit_ radius Upper limit radius for encircled flux mask
upper_limit_EF Encircled flux reqirement ar upper limit radius

Differential Mode Delay Analysis Tool

This analysis tool is used to plot and measure the differential mode delay (DMD) of a multimode fiber. DMD has been
adopted by the multimode fiber community as a means to characterize the transient performance of a multimode fiber.
The DMD measurement procedure is described in great detail in [1] [5] and can be represented schematically by
Figure 1.

Figure 1: DMD measurement procedure.
In Figure 1 a narrow-beam optical point source is coupled into the multimode fiber. Although schematically illustrated
as a laser, the point source is often generated by connecting a single-mode fiber between the laser and the multimode
fiber as a convenient means of forcing the laser field to conform to a predetermined spatial shape required by standards
[1], [2]. The DMD measurement procedure involves mounting the input source on an assembly that enables it to be
shifted radially in tiny increments (usually 1 m) across the face of the multimode fiber, with the first position at the
center of the fiber. At each position, a short temporal pulse [1] is launched into the multimode fiber and the resulting
temporal waveform at the output is measured. Because the extent of the optical input is very small in both space and
time, the output waveforms can be used to determine the spatio-temporal impulse response at each position through
Fourier or convolution methods. Because the same optical input at different radial offsets will excite the fiber modes
differently, each spatio-temporal impulse response will possess a unique modal delay characteristic. The DMD is a
means to characterize this delay. A typical delay plot is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: DMD plot.
This figure shows that as the fiber excitation moves away from the axis, the resulting output waveforms are delayed by
varying degrees. The fiber used to produce the results of Figure 2 was 300 m long and had a core radius of 25 m. These
data are critical to the delay calculations and are specified by the parameters length and core_radius, respectively. Note
that the y-axis units are the offset distance from the fiber axis. Although the individual waveforms have units of watts,
the actual power levels are not of interest; rather, the important quantity is the relative delay between these fields.
The DMD plotting tool uses the peak power of the zero-offset field as the delay baseline. The powers in fields at all of
the other offset points are plotted relative to this. The delay is expressed in units of time/distance as is conventional in
the multimode community.
To produce the results of Figure 2, the topology of Figure 3 was simulated in parameter-scan mode. A mode-locked
laser was used to generate the optical temporal pulse and a spatial adder was used to generate the optical spatial pulse. A
spatial coupler was used to provide the radial offset of the input beam from the fiber axis; the radial offset was the
parameter that was scanned.

Figure 3: Sample DMD measurement topology.
The DMD analysis tool is somewhat unique in that unlike many other OptSim analysis tools, it depends on a certain
topology to produce the intended results (i.e., those that are described in the standard [1]). For example, the DMD
analyzer is intended to be connected to the output of the multimode fiber model. In this configuration, it would not make
sense if the input signal to the multimode fiber model were not a spatio-temporal point source nor would the analyzer
produce the predicted results if the simulation were not run in scan mode. However, since the DMD tool is at its core a
field-delay analyzer, strictly speaking, it is not incorrect to use it in configurations other than the intended one. Thus,
there is nothing that prevents the user from attaching the tool to any model that he wishes; however, the results may be
unpredictable. Only when using a topology such as the one depicted in Figure 3 will the user generate results similar to
those described in the standard [1].
The DMD analyzer produced the plot of Figure 2 by intelligently searching for ranges of the output field power profiles
that had nonnegligible magnitudes. This adaptive algorithm can be circumvented by setting the parameter scale_plot to
no. In that case, the plotter will display the raw data as computed by the analyzer (Figure 4).

Figure 4: Unscaled DMD delay plot.
Of course, the user can always manually zoom in on the unscaled WinPlot graph himself for a better view. When
scale_plot is set to yes, the user has the option of specifying a power_tolerance, below which the power in the field is
considered to be (for the purposes of plotting) zero.
If the user runs the DMD analyzer in a non-parameter-scan mode, the analyzer simply plots the temporal field profile of
the one signal that is present at its input. In this mode of operation, the DMD analyzer behaves in a manner similar to
that of the signal analyzer model.
DMD is defined to be the total spread in time between the earliest rising edge and the latest falling edge of all waveforms
in the profile. Here, edge is defined to be the time at which the waveform achieves a value that is 25% of its maximum
value (Figure 5).

Figure 5: Definition of differential mode delay.
Using the criteria of Figure 5, the DMD analyzer also provides a plot of delay spread values and pulse widths as a
function of radial offset (Figure 6). To calculate the delay spread, the analyzer examines all of the waveforms, starting
with the one at the fiber axis and ending at the one at the specified offset. For example, the delay spread at an offset of
10 microns is calculated by comparing the temporal attributes of the eleven waveforms that exist over the offset range of
0 m -10 m.

Figure 6: DMD and pulse width plots.
References
[1] FOTP-220, Differential Mode Delay Measurement of Multimode Fiber in the Time Domain, TIA Standard
#TIA/EIA-455-220, 2002.
[2] FOTP-191, Measurement of Mode-Field Diameter of Single-Mode Optical Fiber, TIA Document #TIA/EIA-455-
191. September 1998.
[3] J. B. Schlager and D. L. Franzen, Differential mode delay measurements on multimode fibers in the time and
frequency domains, NIST Symposium on Optical Fiber Measurements Technical Digest, pp. 127-130, September 1998.
[4] M. J. Hackert, Characterizing multimode fiber bandwidth for Gigabit Ethernet applications, NIST Symposium on
Optical Fiber Measurements Technical Digest, pp. 113-118, September 1998.
[5] K. Petermann, Simple relationship between differential mode delay in optical fibres and the deviation from
optimum profile, Electronics Letters, vol. 14, no. 24, pp. 793-794, 1978.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical signal
Outputs
None
Parameter Values
length double 300 defined, custom Microns
core_radius double 25 [1, 75] Microns
scale_plot enumerated yes yes, no
power_tolerance double 100e-6 [1e-15, 1 ] Watts
length Length of fiber whose differential mode delay is being analyzed
core_radius Radius of the core of the fiber whose differential mode delay is being analyzed
scale_plot Flag to either scale the delay plots to a reasonable time scale or to simply plot the raw data
power_tolerance If plot scaling is chosen, the level below which the fields optical power is considered to be zero

Signal Band Converter

This model collapses a linked-list of optical signals into a single OpSig. In the analysis of multimode systems, there are
often occasions when large linked lists of spatio-temporal OpSigs are used. When analyzing these signals, it is often
much more convenient to treat them as an aggregate group rather than as individual entities. As an example, consider the
OptSim multimode fiber model. When passed a single spatio-temporal OpSig as its input, the model produces a linked-
list of spatio-temporal OpSigs as its output; the linked list consists of one OpSig for each mode that exists in the fiber. It
is often desirable to view the fiber output in the time domain (Figure 1):

Figure 1: Topology demonstrating usage of signal band converter.
The outputs of the signal analyzer with and without the signal band converter are shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Signal analyzer without (left) and with (right) signal band converter.
The converter does not include any spatial information at its output, so it should only be used before time-domain
analyzers, such as in the example above. Also, the converter makes the standard OptSim assumption that the spatial
fields in the linked list are orthogonal. Thus, there is no phase information in the resulting output signal. This enables
the conversion to take place without the need to consider coherence effects. If this condition is not met, the converter
will produce inaccurate results.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical signal
Outputs
#1: Optical signal
Parameter Values
None
None
Spatial Gridded Field Converter

The Spatial Gridded Field Converter takes as input an optical signal, and converts its spatial mode profiles (if any exist)
into two-dimensional gridded representations. This capability can be useful when you want to represent an analytical
mode profile such as a Laguerre-Gaussian mode as a set of numerical values on a two-dimensional grid.
By default, this model automatically determines the grid spacing to use when converting a spatial mode profile into a
gridded mode. However, by setting default_grid_spacing to no, a user may specify the grid spacing on both the X and
Y axes via dx and dy, respectively.
The model also does not convert an input mode profile if it is already a gridded mode. However, by setting
default_grid_spacing to no and override_if_gridded to yes, a user may force these gridded modes to be resampled over
a new grid spacing, as specified by dx and dy.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical Signal
Outputs
#1: Optical Signal
Parameter Values
default_grid_spacing enumerated yes yes, no none
dx double 0.1 [ 0, 1e32 ] m
dy double 0.1 [ 0, 1e32 ] m
override_if_gridded enumerated no yes, no none
default_grid_spacing Switch to override default grid spacing.
dx X grid spacing override.
dy Y grid spacing override.
override_if_gridded Switch to override even if input profile is already gridded.
OptSim Models Reference: Block Mode Chapter 14: Predefined Compound Components 611
Chapter 14: Predefined
Compound Components
This chapter describes predefined compound components (superblocks):

This chapter describes predefined superblocks:

A. Optical Components:
Dual-Arm Mach-Zehnder Modulator
model dual-arm MZ interferometer
Mach-Zehnder Delay Interferometer
model ideal dual-arm Mach-Zehnder interferometer
Tunable Mach-Zehnder Delay Interferometer
model tunable dual-arm Mach-Zehnder interferometer
B. Transmitters:
Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ) Transmitter
model an NRZ transmitter
Return-to-Zero (RZ) Transmitter
model an RZ transmitter
Chirped Returm-to-Zero (CRZ) Transmitter
model a CRZ transmitter
Carrier Suppressed Return-to-Zero (CSRZ)Transmitter
model a CSRZ transmitter
Soliton Transmitter
model a soliton transmitter
Duobinary Transmitter
model a duobinary transmitter
Differential Phase-Shift-Keying (DPSK) Transmitter
612 Chapter 14: Predefined Compound Components OptSim Models Reference: Block Mode
model a DPSK transmitter
Return-to-Zero DPSK Transmitter
model an RZ DPSK Transmitter
WDM Transmitter
model 8- and 16-channel WDM transmitters
C. Transmission Channels
Fiber Link 1
model an amplified fiber link
Fiber Link 2
model a dispersion compensated fiber link
Fiber Link 3
model a dispersion slope matched fiber link
Free-Space Optical (FSO) Channel
model a weak-turbulence free-space optical channel
D. Receivers:
DPSK Receiver
model a DPSK balanced receiver
WDM Receiver
model 8- and 16- channel WDM receivers

Dual-Arm Mach-Zehnder Modulator

This superblock models dual-arm Mach-Zehnder interferometer. The inside topology is the following:

i.e. has three inputs two electrical and one optical. The difference from regular MZ modulator is that two
electrical signals, V
A
and V
B
, drive the modulator. The response function of the dual-arm MZ modulator is:

(
+
=

V
V
j
V
V V V
E
E
offset bias s
in
out
2
exp
2
sin
where

2
and ,
2
B A B A
s
V V
V
V V
V
+
=

The 2x1 Expression Operators generate driving signals V
S
and
V from input signals V

A
and V
B
. The first
Modulator in MZ regime driven by V
S
provides intensity modulation. The second Modulator in phase
modulation regime driven by
V provides phase shift.

Properties
Inputs
#2: Optical signal
Outputs
#1: Optical signal
Parameter Values
Chirp double 0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ]
ExtRatio double 0 [ 0, 1e6 ] dB
vBias double 0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] Volts
vOffset double 0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] Volts
vPi double 1 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] Volts

Chirp Chirp parameter for modulator
ExtRatio Extinction or on-off ratio
insertionLoss Insertion loss
vBias Bias voltage of the modulator
vOffset Offset voltage of the modulator
vPi vPi of the modulator

Mach-Zehnder Delay Interferometer (MZDI)

This superblock models ideal dual-arm Mach-Zehnder interferometer. The inside topology is the following:

i.e. includes Splitter, Fiber Delay, and Coupler models. Time delay and Insertion Loss are external
parameters of MZDI Superblock. Coupling coefficients in Coupler model are hard-coded so that upper
output node is Constructive port and lower node is Destructive port.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical signal
Outputs
#1: Optical signal
#2: Optical Signal
Parameter Values
timeDelay double 0 [ 0, 1e32 ] seconds

loss Insertion loss
timeDelay Time delay

Tunable Mach-Zehnder Interferometer
(Tunable_MZI)

This superblock models tunable dual-arm Mach-Zehnder interferometer. The inside topology is the
following:

i.e. it is similar to ideal MachZehnder Interferometer except that here we add a Phase Shift block. This
block applied additional phase difference between two arms of interferometer and that difference depends
on the tuning frequency of the device and incoming signal frequency. One can derive the transfer functions
for both output ports of the interferometer as:
[ ]
[ ] ) ( cos ) (
) ( sin ) (
2
2
2
2
2
1
tune
tune
f f f H
f f f H
=
=

where is time delay (parameter timeDelay), f is signal frequency, and f
tune
is tuning frequency (defined
by parameter tuning_wvl). From here we can derive the phase difference for the Phase Block as:
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
tune
c

1 1
2

Parameter loss specifies the Insertion Loss of the device. Coupling coefficients in Coupler model are hard-
coded so that upper output node is Constructive port and lower node is Destructive port.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical signal
Outputs
#1: Optical signal
#2: Optical Signal
Parameter Values
timeDelay double 1e-10 [ 0, 1e32 ] Seconds
tuning_wvl double 1.55e-6 [ 0, 1e32 ] m
signal_wvl double 1.55e-6 [ 0, 1e32 ] m

timeDelay Time delay
tuning_wvl Tuning wavelength
signal_wvl Wavelength of input signal
loss Insertion loss

Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ) Transmitter (NRZ_TX)

It models non-return-to-zero (NRZ) modulated signal. The inside topology is the following:

i.e. includes CW Laser, Electrical Signal Generator, External Modulator, and Optical Normalizer.
Superblocks parameters are wavelength and RIN (defined in CW Laser), power (defined by Normalizer),
raise/fall time for NRZ signal and sampling rate (pointsPerBit defined in Electrical Signal Generator), chirp
and extinction ratio (defined in Modulator). The input to the superblock should be a Bit Pattern Generator,
and output is the optical signal to be launched to fiber or other optical component.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Binary signal
Outputs
#1: Optical signal
Parameter Values
RIN double -150 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] dBm/Hz
pointsPerBit double 5 [ 1, 27 ]
power double -3 [ -1e3, 1e3 ] dBm
risefallTime double 1e-011 [ 0, 100 ] seconds
wavelength double 1.55e-006 [ 0, 1e18 ] meters
RIN Relative intensity noise of laser
power Average output optical power
risefallTime Rise and Fall time of electrical signal
Return-to-Zero (RZ) Transmitter (RZ_TX)

It models return-to-zero (RZ) modulated signal. The inside topology is the same as for NRZ signal. The
difference in setting is that Electrical Signal Generator is set to RZ RaisedCosine format and pulse width is
defined by parameter dutyCycle instead of raisefallTime. All other parameters are the same as for
NRZ_TX.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Binary signal
Outputs
#1: Optical signal
Parameter Values
dutyCycle double 0.5 [ 1e-32, 0.5 ]

dutyCycle Duty cycle of the RZ signal
Chirped Return-to-Zero (CRZ) Transmitter
(CRZ_TX)

It models chirped return-to-zero (CRZ) modulated signal. The inside topology is the following:

i.e., CW signal passes though 2 Modulators. First Modulator is set to Amplitude Modulation (rather than
Mach-Zehnder like in case of NRZ and RZ) with driving Electrical Signal set to RZ RaisedCosine
modulated signal (with dutyCycle parameter defining pulse width). The second Modulator is set to PM
(Phase Modulation) and applies chirp to the signal. Parameter PMcoef defines the amplitude (zero-to-peak)
of PM in radians.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Binary signal
Outputs
#1: Optical signal
Parameter Values
PMcoef double 1 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] radians
PMcoef Amplitude of phase modulation

Carrier-Suppressed Return-to-Zero (CSRZ)
Transmitter (CSRZ_TX)

It models carrier-suppressed return-to-zero (CSRZ) modulated signal. The inside topology is the following:

Here in order to create carrier-suppressed RZ signal, first the NRZ signal is generated by Mach-Zehnder
modulator and the output is sent to the other MZ Modulator block which is driven by sinusoidal signal. The
drive frequency is a half of the bitrate and the amplitude is
V 2 .
Properties
Inputs
#1: Binary signal
Outputs
#1: Optical signal
Parameter Values
bitrate double 1e+010 [ 1, 1e15 ] bps
patternLength double 7 [ 1, 27 ]
power double -3 [ -1e3, 1e3 ] dB
bitrate The bit rate of the binary sequence generated
x
Soliton Transmitter (Soliton_TX)

It models soliton-shape modulated signal. The inside topology is the following:

Here the difference with RZ transmitter is that instead of CW Laser, the Mode-Locked Laser is used as
optical source for with the pulse shape selected as type sech to provide a hyperbolic secant shape typical for
optical solitons.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Binary signal
Outputs
#1: Optical signal
Parameter Values
Bitrate double 1e+010 [ 1, 1e15 ] bps
pulsewidth double 2e-011 [ 0, 1e32 ] seconds
Bitrate The bit rate of the binary sequence generated
Chirp Chirp factor
x
pulsewidth Pulse width

Duobinary Transmitter (Doubi_TX)

It models duobinary modulated signal. The inside topology is the following:

To generate duobinary signals an ideal NRZ electrical signal is passed through a delay-and-add circuit
followed by an bandlimiting filter of bandwidth (bitrate)/2. Delay is equal to bit duration and electrical
filters shape is low-pass 4
th
order Bessel.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Binary signal
Outputs
#1: Optical signal
Parameter Values
bitrate double 1e+010 [ 0, 1e15 ] bps
bitrate The bit rate of the binary sequence generated
Differential Phase-Shift-Keying Transmitter
(DPSK_TX)

It models differential phase-shift-key (DPSK) modulated signal. The inside topology looks the same as for
NRZ signal with the only difference that the Modulator is set to Phase Modulation with phase shift of 180
degrees.

Properties
Inputs
#1: Binary signal
Outputs
#1: Optical signal
Parameter Values
Chirp Chirp factor

Return-to-Zero DPSK Transmitter (RZ-DPSK_TX)

It models return-to-zero differential phase-shift-key (RZ-DPSK) modulated signal. The inside topology is
the following:

Here the difference from DPSK transmitter is that instead of CW Laser, the Mode-Locked Laser is used as
optical source for RZ signal. RaisedCosine shape of the signal is used with parameter dutyCycle defining
its width.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Binary signal
Outputs
#1: Optical signal
Parameter Values
Chirp Chirp factor
x
Advanced (DPSK_TX_adv)

This compound component model implements a detailed Differential Phase-Shift-Keying (DPSK)
transmitter which takes as input a differentially encoded binary signal and produces a DPSK optical output
signal. Figure 1 depicts the models schematic.

Figure 1: DPSK_TX_adv compound component schematic.

The model is composed of the following components:
NRZ_driver
This component converts the input binary signal into an electrical waveform. It is configured via
the parameters Vdrive_lo the signal value for binary zeroes; Vdrive_hi the signal value for
binary ones; and pointsPerBit the number of samples per bit.
LPF_TX
This component implements a low-pass Bessel filter for modeling the non-ideal characteristics of
the binary-to-electrical conversion. It is configured via the parameters filter_poles the order of
the Bessel filter; and filter_BW_GHz the filter bandwidth.
Laser_source
This component models the transmitters cw laser source. It is configured via the parameters
wavelength_nm the lasers center wavelength; power_dBm the cw laser power; and RIN the
lasers relative intensity noise.
MZM_phase
This component models a Mach-Zehnder modulator used to create the transmitters phase-
modulated output signal. It is configured via the parameters MZM_Vpi V
of the modulator;
MZM_Von the modulators offset voltage; MZM_Vbias the modulators bias voltage;
MZM_excess_loss_dB the modulators insertion loss; MZM_extinction_ratio_dB the
modulators extinction ratio; and MZM_chirp_factor the modulators chirp factor.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Binary Signal
Outputs
#1: Optical Signal
Parameter Values
Vdrive_lo double 5.0 [ -1000, 1000 ] Volts
Vdrive_hi double -5.0 [ -1000, 1000 ] Volts
pointsPerBit integer 5 [ 1, 27 ]
filter_poles integer 1 [ 0, 128 ]
filter_BW_GHz double 10.0 [ 0, 1e9 ] GHz
wavelength_nm double 1550.0 [ 0, 1e27 ] nm
power_dBm double 0.0 [ -1e32, 210 ] dBm
MZM_Vpi double 5.0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] Volts
MZM_Von double 5.0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] Volts
MZM_Vbias double 5.0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] Volts
MZM_excess_loss_dB double 0.0 [ 0, 1e6 ] dB
MZM_extinction_ratio_dB double 1000.0 [ 0, 1e6 ] dB
MZM_chirp_factor double 0.0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ]
Vdrive_lo Minimum value of the driver electrical signal (binary zero value)
Vdrive_hi Maximum value of the driver electrical signal (binary one value)
pointsPerBit Number of sampling points per bit in driver electrical signal
filter_poles Order of the low-pass Bessel filter
filter_BW_GHz Bandwidth of the low-pass Bessel filter
wavelength_nm Wavelength of the cw optical source
power_dBm Output power of the cw optical source
RIN RIN of the cw optical source
MZM_Vpi V
of the Mach-Zehnder Modulator

MZM_Von Offset voltage of the Mach-Zehnder Modulator
MZM_Vbias Bias voltage of the Mach-Zehnder Modulator
MZM_excess_loss_dB Insertion loss of the Mach-Zehnder Modulator
MZM_extinction_ratio_dB Extinction ratio of the Mach-Zehnder Modulator
MZM_chirp_factor Chirp factor of the Mach-Zehnder Modulator

Return-to-Zero Differential Phase-Shift-Keying
Transmitter Advanced (RZ_DPSK_TX_adv)

This compound component model implements a detailed Return-to-Zero (RZ) Differential Phase-Shift-
Keying (DPSK) transmitter which takes as input a differentially encoded binary signal and produces an RZ-
DPSK optical output signal. The RZ carving signal should be provided via the models electrical input.
Figure 1 depicts the models schematic.

Figure 1: RZ_DPSK_TX_adv compound component schematic.

NRZ_driver
This component converts the input binary signal into an electrical waveform. It is configured via
the parameters Vdrive_lo the signal value for binary zeroes; Vdrive_hi the signal value for
LPF_TX
This component implements a low-pass Bessel filter for modeling the non-ideal characteristics of
the binary-to-electrical conversion. It is configured via the parameters filter_poles the order of
the Bessel filter; and filter_BW_GHz the filter bandwidth.
Laser_source
lasers relative intensity noise.
MZM_phase
This component models a Mach-Zehnder modulator used to create the transmitters phase-
modulated output. It is configured via the parameters MZM_Vpi V
of the modulator; MZM_Von

the modulators offset voltage; MZM_Vbias the modulators bias voltage;
MZM_excess_loss_dB the modulators insertion loss; MZM_extinction_ratio_dB the
modulators extinction ratio; and MZM_chirp_factor the modulators chirp factor.
MZM_carver
This component models a Mach-Zehnder modulator used to create the transmitters pulsed output
(i.e., it generates the RZ output pulses). It is configured via the parameters MZMcarver_Vpi V

of the modulator; MZMcarver_Von the modulators offset voltage; MZMcarver_Vbias the
modulators bias voltage; MZMcarver_excess_loss_dB the modulators insertion loss;
MZMcarver_extinction_ratio_dB the modulators extinction ratio; and
MZMcarver_chirp_factor the modulators chirp factor.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Binary Signal
Outputs
#1: Optical Signal
Parameter Values
MZMcarver_Vpi double 5.0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] Volts
MZMcarver_Von double 5.0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] Volts
MZMcarver_Vbias double 5.0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] Volts
MZMcarver_excess_loss_dB double 0.0 [ 0, 1e6 ] dB
MZMcarver_extinction_ratio_dB double 1000.0 [ 0, 1e6 ] dB
MZMcarver_chirp_factor double 0.0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ]
MZM_Vpi V

MZMcarver_Vpi V
of the carving Mach-Zehnder Modulator

MZMcarver_Von Offset voltage of the carving Mach-Zehnder Modulator
MZMcarver_Vbias Bias voltage of the carving Mach-Zehnder Modulator
MZMcarver_excess_loss_dB Insertion loss of the carving Mach-Zehnder Modulator
MZMcarver_extinction_ratio_dB Extinction ratio of the carving Mach-Zehnder Modulator
MZMcarver_chirp_factor Chirp factor of the carving Mach-Zehnder Modulator

Differential Quadrature Phase-Shift-Keying
Transmitter (DQPSK_TX)

This compound component model implements a detailed Differential Quadrature Phase-Shift-Keying
(DQPSK) transmitter which takes as input encoded in-phase (P) and quadrature (Q) binary signals and
produces a DQPSK optical output signal. Figure 1 depicts the models schematic.

Figure 1: DQPSK_TX compound component schematic.

The model is primarily composed of the following components:
NRZ_driver_P and NRZ_driver_Q
These components convert the input binary signals into electrical waveforms. They are configured
via the parameters Vdrive_lo the signal value for binary zeroes; Vdrive_hi the signal value for
LPF_TX_P and LPF_TX_Q
These components implement low-pass Bessel filters for modeling the non-ideal characteristics of
the binary-to-electrical conversion. They are configured via the parameters filter_poles the order
of the Bessel filters; and filter_BW_GHz the filter bandwidths.
Laser_source
lasers relative intensity noise. The component OpSplit divides the output of the laser source
between the P and Q modulators.
MZM_P and MZM_Q
These components model Mach-Zehnder modulators used to create the transmitters phase-
modulated output signal. They are configured via the parameters MZM_Vpi V
of the
modulators; MZM_Von the modulators offset voltages; MZM_Vbias the modulators bias
voltages; MZM_excess_loss_dB the modulators insertion losses; MZM_extinction_ratio_dB
the modulators extinction ratios; and MZM_chirp_factor the modulators chirp factors. The
component Phase_modulator provides the additional phase shift required for the quadrature
signal, while the component OpComb combines the two modulator outputs into a final DQPSK
output signal.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Binary Signal
#2: Binary Signal
Outputs
#1: Optical Signal
Parameter Values
PointsPerBit integer 5 [ 1, 27 ]
PointsPerBit Number of sampling points per bit in driver electrical signal
MZM_Vpi V


Return-to-Zero Differential Quadrature Phase-
Shift-Keying Transmitter (RZ_DQPSK_TX)

This compound component model implements a detailed Return-to-Zero (RZ) Differential Quadrature
Phase-Shift-Keying (DQPSK) transmitter which takes as input encoded in-phase (P) and quadrature (Q)
binary signals and produces an RZ-DQPSK optical output signal. The RZ carving signal should be
provided via the models electrical input. Figure 1 depicts the models schematic.

Figure 1: RZ_DQPSK_TX compound component schematic.

The model is primarily composed of the following components:
NRZ_driver_P and NRZ_driver_Q
These components convert the input binary signals into electrical waveforms. They are configured
via the parameters Vdrive_lo the signal value for binary zeroes; Vdrive_hi the signal value for
LPF_TX_P and LPF_TX_Q
These components implement low-pass Bessel filters for modeling the non-ideal characteristics of
the binary-to-electrical conversion. They are configured via the parameters filter_poles the order
of the Bessel filters; and filter_BW_GHz the filter bandwidths.
Laser_source
lasers relative intensity noise. The component OpSplit divides the output of the laser source
between the P and Q modulators.
MZM_P and MZM_Q
These components model Mach-Zehnder modulators used to create the transmitters phase-
modulated output. They are configured via the parameters MZM_Vpi V
of the modulators;
MZM_Von the modulators offset voltages; MZM_Vbias the modulators bias voltages;
MZM_excess_loss_dB the modulators insertion losses; MZM_extinction_ratio_dB the
modulators extinction ratios; and MZM_chirp_factor the modulators chirp factors. The
component Phase_modulator provides the additional phase shift required for the quadrature
signal, while the component OpComb combines the two modulator outputs.
MZM_carver
This component models a Mach-Zehnder modulator used to create the transmitters pulsed output
(i.e., it generates the RZ output pulses). It is configured via the parameters MZMcarver_Vpi V

of the modulator; MZMcarver_Von the modulators offset voltage; MZMcarver_Vbias the
modulators bias voltage; MZMcarver_excess_loss_dB the modulators insertion loss;
MZMcarver_extinction_ratio_dB the modulators extinction ratio; and
MZMcarver_chirp_factor the modulators chirp factor.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Binary Signal
#2: Binary Signal
Outputs
#1: Optical Signal
Parameter Values
MZMcarver_Vpi double 5.0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] Volts
MZMcarver_Von double 5.0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] Volts
MZMcarver_Vbias double 5.0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ] Volts
MZMcarver_excess_loss_dB double 0.0 [ 0, 1e6 ] dB
MZMcarver_extinction_ratio_dB double 1000.0 [ 0, 1e6 ] dB
MZMcarver_chirp_factor double 0.0 [ -1e32, 1e32 ]
MZM_Vpi V

MZMcarver_Vpi V

MZMcarver_Von Offset voltage of the carving Mach-Zehnder Modulator
MZMcarver_Vbias Bias voltage of the carving Mach-Zehnder Modulator
MZMcarver_excess_loss_dB Insertion loss of the carving Mach-Zehnder Modulator
MZMcarver_extinction_ratio_dB Extinction ratio of the carving Mach-Zehnder Modulator
MZMcarver_chirp_factor Chirp factor of the carving Mach-Zehnder Modulator

WDM Transmitters

The four superblocks for multichannel transmitters included are the 8-channel and 16-channel transmitters
with NRZ and RZ modulated signals.
This superblock uses inside superblocks for RZ and NRZ modulated signals. For example, 8-channel NRZ
transmitter has following inside topology:

User specifies bitrate, first channel wavelength, channel spacing, power per channel, extinction ratio, chirp,
pre- and post-bits, and bits shift. In the case of RZ signals user also specifies dutyCycle parameter that
controls the pulse width. Multiplexer is set to MultiBand representation by default but can changed by user
to SingleBand.

Properties
Inputs
None
Outputs
#1-8 or #1-16: Optical signal
Parameter Values (NRZ Transmitter)
BitsShift double 0 [ 0, 1e3 ] bits
ch_spacing_Hz double 1e+011 [ 0, 1e15 ] Hz
lambda_first double 1.55e-006 [ 0, 1e18 ] meters
postBits double 0 [ 0, 1e3 ] bits
powerPerCh_dBm double -3 [ -1e3, 1e3 ] dBm
preBits double 0 [ 0, 1e3 ] bits
Parameter Descriptions (NRZ Transmitter)
Bitrate The bit rate of the binary sequence
BitsShift The number of bits to shift each successive outputs binary sequence relative to previous
output. This applies to second and subsequent outputs.
Chirp Chrip factor
ExtRatio Extinction ratio of the modulator
ch_spacing_Hz Inter-channel spacing in Hz
lambda_first Wavelength of the first channel
x
powerPerCh_dBm Per channel power (dBm)
preBits The number of zero bits at the start of the sequence

Parameter Values (RZ Transmitter)
BitsShift double 0 [ 0, 1e3 ] bits
postBits double 0 [ 0, 1e3 ] bits
powerPerCh_dBm double -3 [ -1e3, 1e3 ] dBm
preBits double 0 [ 0, 1e3 ] bits
Parameter Descriptions (RZ Transmitter)
BitsShift The number of bits to shift each successive outputs binary sequence relative to
previous output. This applies to second and subsequent outputs.
Chirp Chrip factor
ExtRatio Extinction ratio of the modulator
duty_cycle Duty cycle of RZ signal
x
powerPerCh_dBm Per channel power (dBm)
preBits The number of zero bits at the start of the sequence

Fiber Link 1

It models regular amplified fiber link. The inside topology is the following:

Here the fiber link is defined as a number of fiber spans followed by optical amplifier. User can decide on
the total length of the link by changing the number of spans and fiber span length (default SpanLength=50
km). EDFA Black Box model is used for amplifier with Gain calculated from a fiber length and attenuation
to compensate fiber loss. User can modify amplifiers noise figure (AmpNF), saturation power
(AmpSaturPower), noise bandwidth (AmpBW) and center (noiseCenter). For fiber model the parameters
from ManufacturerLibrary for Corning Submarine LEAF fiber are used.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical signal
Outputs
#1: Optical signal
Parameter Values
AmpBW double 3e-008 [ 0, 1e6 ] meters
AmpNF double 5 [ 3, 1e32 ] dB
AmpSaturPower double 18 [ 0, 1e32 ] dBm
NumberOfSpans double 1 [ 0, 1e18 ]
SpanLength double 50000 [ 0, 1e32 ] meters
noiseCenter double 1.55e-006 [ 1e-32, 1e32 ] meters
AmpBW Noise bandwidth of the amplifier
AmpNF Noise figure of the amplifier
AmpSaturPower Saturation power of the amplifier
NumberOfSpans Number of fspans
SpanLength Length of each span
noiseCenter Noise center of the amplifier
Fiber Link 2

It models dispersion-compensated fiber link. The inside topology is the following:

Here one loop consists of six regular fiber spans and one dispersion compensation fiber span. Number of
loops is defined by parameter NumperOfSpans. Hence, in this case the total length will be (7 x
NumperOfSpans x SpanLength). For regular transmission fiber spans the fiber model for Corning
Submarine LEAF from Manufacturer Library is used. For dispersion compensating fiber span the fiber
model for Corning Submarine SMF28+ is used. To get symmetric dispersion map and to minimize
dispersion spread the compensating span is positioned in the middle of a loop. The accumulated negative
dispersion from regular spans will be fully compensated by dispersion compensated fiber at wavelength
1550 nm. The amplifier setting is the same as for Fiber Link 1.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical signal
Outputs
#1: Optical signal
Parameter Values
Fiber Link 3

It models dispersion-slope-matched (or dispersion-flattened) fiber link. The inside topology is the
following:

Here the difference with Fiber Link 1 is that fiber section of the span consists of 2 fiber spans where fiber
parameters are selected such that both dispersion and dispersion slope are fully compensated. For fiber
models the fiber parameters form Manufacturer Library are used - first fiber is Corning Vascade L1000
with positive dispersion parameter and the second one - Corning Vascade S1000 with negative dispersion
parameter. User can decide on the total length of the link by changing the number of spans and fiber span
length (combined for two fiber sections). The amplifier setting is the same as for FL 1.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical signal
Outputs
#1: Optical signal
Parameter Values
Free-Space Optical Channel (Weak Turbulence)

This simple free-space optical-channel model takes into account the effects of weak turbulence and
background radiation on the free-space transmission of an optical signal. The model is based on the work
presented in [1].
The model treats attenuation (specified as a negative number) as a combination of geometric and
environmental contributions, the latter of which is expected to vary statistically due to weak turbulence.
For a beam divergence angle (beam_divergence in degrees), a propagation distance L (prop_distance
in meters), and a receiver area A (area in cm
2
), the geometric attenuation in dB is:
3 2 2
10log
12.96
geom
L
A
| |
=
|
\ .

If we represent the additional attenuation in dB as
add
(atten_add), then for an input signal power P
i
, the
output power P
o
is:
10
10
geom add
o i
P P
+ | |
|
|
\ .
=
Weak turbulence is expected to lead to a stochastic variation in
add
. Because of the long-time scales
involved in this variation, the model treats
add
as a statistical parameter with a normal distribution. The
user specifies the standard deviation (in dB) via the parameter sigma_add.
Finally, background radiation can be added to the signal via the specification of the total background
radiation power (p_back), its center wavelength (p_back_center), its bandwidth (p_back_bw), and the
desired numerical resolution (p_back_res).
References
[1] G. Hansel, E. Kube, J. Becker, J. Haase, P. Schwarz, Simulation in the design process of free space
optical transmission systems, Proc. 6
th
Workshop, Optics in Computing Technology, 2001.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical Signal
Outputs
#1: Optical Signal
Parameter Values
beam_divergence double 1 [ 0, 90 ]
prop_distance double 100 [ 0, 1e32 ] m
atten_add double 0 [ -1e16, 0 ] dB

sigma_add double 0 [ 0, 1e16 ] dB
area double 100 [ 1e-32, 1e32 ] cm
2
p_back double 1e-9 [ 0, 1e32 ] W
p_back_center double 1.55e-6 [ 1e-32, 1e6 ] m
p_back_bw double 1e-8 [ 0, 1e6 ] m
p_back_res double 1e-11 [ 1e-32, 1e6 ] m
beam_divergence divergence angle of optical beam during free-space propagation
prop_distance free-space propagation distance
atten_add additional attenuation
sigma_add standard deviation of the additional attenuation
area area of the receiver
p_back total power of the background radiation
p_back_center center wavelength of the background radiation
p_back_bw bandwidth of the background radiation
p_back_res resolution of the background radiation spectrum during simulation
Differential Phase-Shift-Keying Receiver
(DPSK_RX)

It models balanced Receiver with DPSK decoding. The inside topology is the following:

Here the DPSK signal is first decoded by delay interferometer. Time delay is set to the bit duration. Then
outputs from Coupler for constructive and destructive ports are sent to balanced receiver built by two
Compound Receiver models. The sign of electrical signal from destructive port generated by lower-arm
Receiver is inverted and then signals from both Receivers are added up by Electrical Adder.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical signal
Outputs
Parameter Values
ElecFilterBitrate
Ratio
double 0.7 [ 0, 1e32 ]
ElecFilterBitrateRatio Ratio of filter bandwidth to the bit rate

Differential Phase-Shift-Keying Receiver Gaussian,
Advanced (DPSK_RX_gauss_adv)

This compound component model implements a detailed Differential Phase-Shift-Keying (DPSK) receiver which takes
as input a DPSK or RZ-DPSK optical signal and produces an electrical output signal. A Gaussian optical filter is used in
the receiver. Figure 1 depicts the models schematic.

Figure 1: DPSK_RX_gauss_adv compound component schematic.

OpFilt_gauss
This component implements a Gaussian optical filter. It is configured via the parameters ofilter_order the
order of the filter; ofilter_wavelength_nm the filters center wavelength; and ofilter_BW_GHz the filters
bandwidth.
MZI_RX
This component implements a Mach-Zehnder Interferometer. It is configured via the parameters
MZI_bitrate_Gbps the bit-rate of the optical channel being detected; and MZI_signal_wavelength_nm the
wavelength of the optical channel being detected.
PIN1 and PIN2
These components implement the receivers photodetectors. They are configured via the parameters PIN_qe
the detectors quantum efficiencies; and PIN_Id_nA the detectors dark currents.
SUB
This component calculates the difference between the two photodetector output signals, and produces the
receivers final electrical output signal.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical Signal
Outputs
Parameter Values
ofilter_order integer 1 [ 1, 128 ]
ofilter_wavelength_nm double 1550.0 [ 1e-32, 1e32 ] nm
ofilter_BW_GHz double 50.0 [ 1e-32, 1e32 ] GHz
MZI_bitrate_Gbps double 10.0 [ 1e-32, 1e32 ] Gbps
MZI_signal_wavelength_nm double 1550.0 [ 0, 1e32 ] nm
PIN_qe double 0.7 [ 0, 1 ]
PIN_Id_nA double 0.1 [ 0, 1e32 ] nA
ofilter_order Order of the Gaussian optical filter
ofilter_wavelength_nm Center wavelength of the Gaussian optical filter
ofilter_BW_GHz Bandwidth of the Gaussian optical filter
MZI_bitrate_Gbps Bit-rate of the optical channel to detect
MZI_signal_wavelength_nm Wavelength of the optical channel to detect
PIN_qe Quantum efficiency of the PIN detector
PIN_Id_nA Dark current of the PIN detector
Differential Phase-Shift-Keying Receiver Raised
Cosine, Advanced (DPSK_RX_rcos_adv)

This compound component model implements a detailed Differential Phase-Shift-Keying (DPSK) receiver which takes
as input a DPSK or RZ-DPSK optical signal and produces an electrical output signal. A Raised-Cosine optical filter is
used in the receiver. Figure 1 depicts the models schematic.

Figure 1: DPSK_RX_rcos_adv compound component schematic.

OpFilt_rcos
This component implements a Raised-Cosine optical filter. It is configured via the parameters ofilter_rolloff
the rolloff parameter of the filter; ofilter_alpha the alpha parameter of the filter; ofilter_wavelength_nm
the filters center wavelength; and ofilter_BW_GHz the filters bandwidth.
MZI_RX
This component implements a Mach-Zehnder Interferometer. It is configured via the parameters
PIN1 and PIN2
SUB
This component calculates the difference between the two photodetector output signals, and produces the
receivers final electrical output signal.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical Signal
Outputs
Parameter Values
ofilter_rolloff double 0.5 [ 0, 1 ]
ofilter_alpha double 1.0 [ 0, 1e32 ]
ofilter_rolloff Rolloff parameter of the Raised-Cosine optical filter
ofilter_alpha Alpha parameter of the Raised-Cosine optical filter
ofilter_wavelength_nm Center wavelength of the Raised-Cosine optical filter
ofilter_BW_GHz Bandwidth of the Raised-Cosine optical filter
Differential Quadrature Phase-Shift-Keying Receiver
Gaussian (DQPSK_RX_gauss)

This compound component model implements a detailed Differential Quadrature Phase-Shift-Keying (DQPSK) receiver
which takes as input a DQPSK or RZ-DQPSK optical signal and produces decoded in-phase (P) and quadrature (Q)
electrical output signals. A Gaussian optical filter is used in the receiver. Figure 1 depicts the models schematic.

Figure 1: DQPSK_RX_gauss compound component schematic.

The model is composed primarily of the following components:
OpFilt_gauss
This component implements a Gaussian optical filter. It is configured via the parameters ofilter_order the
order of the filter; ofilter_wavelength_nm the filters center wavelength; and ofilter_BW_GHz the filters
bandwidth. The output of the filter is split via the component OpSplit.
MZI_RX_P and MZI_RX_Q
These components implement Mach-Zehnder Interferometers. They are configured via the parameters
PIN_P_1, PIN_P_2, PIN_Q_1, and PIN_Q_2
SUB_P and SUB_Q
These components calculate the output signal differences for each photodetector pair, thereby producing the
receivers final decoded in-phase and quadrature electrical output signals.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical Signal
Outputs
Parameter Values
ofilter_order integer 1 [ 1, 128 ]
ofilter_order Order of the Gaussian optical filter
ofilter_wavelength_nm Center wavelength of the Gaussian optical filter
ofilter_BW_GHz Bandwidth of the Gaussian optical filter

Raised Cosine (DQPSK_RX_rcos)

This compound component model implements a detailed Differential Quadrature Phase-Shift-Keying (DQPSK) receiver
which takes as input a DQPSK or RZ-DQPSK optical signal and produces decoded in-phase (P) and quadrature (Q)
electrical output signals. A Raised-Cosine optical filter is used in the receiver. Figure 1 depicts the models schematic.

Figure 1: DQPSK_RX_rcos compound component schematic.

The model is composed primarily of the following components:
OpFilt_rcos
This component implements a Raised-Cosine optical filter. It is configured via the parameters ofilter_rolloff
the rolloff parameter of the filter; ofilter_alpha the alpha parameter of the filter; ofilter_wavelength_nm
the filters center wavelength; and ofilter_BW_GHz the filters bandwidth. The output of the filter is split via
the component OpSplit.
MZI_RX_P and MZI_RX_Q
These components implement tunable Mach-Zehnder Interferometers. They are configured via the parameters
PIN_P_1, PIN_P_2, PIN_Q_1, and PIN_Q_2
SUB_P and SUB_Q
These components calculate the output signal differences for each photodetector pair, thereby producing the
receivers final decoded in-phase and quadrature electrical output signals.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical Signal
Outputs
Parameter Values
ofilter_rolloff double 0.5 [ 0, 1 ]
ofilter_alpha double 1.0 [ 0, 1e32 ]
ofilter_rolloff Rolloff parameter of the Raised-Cosine optical filter
ofilter_alpha Alpha parameter of the Raised-Cosine optical filter
ofilter_wavelength_nm Center wavelength of the Raised-Cosine optical filter
ofilter_BW_GHz Bandwidth of the Raised-Cosine optical filter
WDM Receivers

The four superblocks for multichannel receivers included are the 8-channel and 16-channel receivers with MC and QA
methods of noise treatment in receiver model. For example, 8-channel receiver has following inside topology:

User specifies bitrate, first channel wavelength, channel spacing, and the bandwidth of optical filter in demultiplexer. For
filter shape at demultiplexer the 4
th
order Gaussian is used. For electrical filter at receiver the 4
th
order low pass Bessel
filter is used with 3dB-bandwidth set to 0.64 x Bitrate.
Properties
Inputs
#1: Optical Signal
Outputs
#1-8 or #1-16: Electrical signal

Parameter Values (Receiver with MC noise treatment)
OptFilterBW double 6e-010 [ 0, 1e32 ] meters
Parameter Descriptions (Receiver with MC noise treatment)
OptFilterBW Bandwidth of the optical filter

Parameter Values (Receiver with QA noise treatment)
OptFilterBW double 6e-010 [ 0, 1e32 ] meters
Parameter Descriptions (Receiver with QA noise treatment)
OptFilterBW Bandwidth of the optical filter

OptSim Models Reference: Block Mode Index 665
Index
1
1x1 Expression Signal Operator 38
2
2x1 Expression Signal Operator 39
A
Amplitude Modulator 116
Analog Sine Generator 27
Analytical Configuration of Multimode Fiber 557
Analyzers 309
Appendix: File formats 457
Asymmetric Mach-Zehnder Filter (AMZ) 364
B
BeamPROP Interface 549
BER Calculation 344
BER Estimation Algorithm 342
BER Estimation Techniques 335
Bi-directional Nonlinear Fiber (Raman Amplifier) 149
Binary Differential Receiver 366
Bit Error Rate Tester 335
Bit Shift Function 66
Black Box Optical Amplifier 170
Boolean Operator 69
C
Calibrating Receiver Sensitivity 296
Carrier-Suppressed Return-to-Zero (CSRZ) Transmitter
(CSRZ_TX) 623
Chirped Return-to-Zero (CRZ) Transmitter (CRZ_TX)
621
Coherent Solution Calculation 157
Compact Transient EDFA 425
Compatibility with LinkSIM version 2.1 VCSEL Model
83
Compound Optical Receiver 292
Confidence Limits for the BER and Q 341
Constellation Diagram Analyzer 386
Construction of Eye Diagram and Eyelids 343
Controlled Optical Coupler (2x2) 263
Controlled SOA 224
Corrections to the Modal Delay Due to Dispersion 562
Crosstalk Block 61
Custom ASE Noise Model 171
Custom Gain Model 170
Custom Signal Generator 24
CW Laser 91
D
D Flip-Flop 70
Data Storage and Meta Blocks 407
Decision-Feedback Equalizer (DFE) 48
Defined ASE Noise Models 170
Defined Gain Model 170
Definitions of Filter Types 42
Delay Block 415
Detection Process 302, 588
Differential Mode Attenuation 561
Differential Mode Delay Analysis Tool 603
Differential Phase-Shift Keying (DPSK) 364
Differential Phase-Shift-Keying Receiver Gaussian,
Advanced 655
Differential Phase-Shift-Keying Receiver Raised
Cosine, Advanced 657
Differential Phase-Shift-Keying Receiver (DPSK_RX)
653
Advanced 631
(DPSK_TX) 628
Differential Polarization-Shift Keying (DPolSK) 364
Differential Quadrature Phase-Shift Keying (DQPSK)
364
Gaussian 659
Raised Cosine 661
Differential Quadrature Phase-Shift-Keying Transmitter
636
Direct Addition of Noise 238
Direct Modulated Laser 76
DQPSK Precoder 72
DQPSK Receiver 367
Driving Source 76, 99, 110
Dual-Arm Mach-Zehnder Modulator 613
Duobinary 364
Duobinary Transmitter (Doubi_TX) 627
Dynamic Optical Switch (2x2) 464
666 Index OptSim Models Reference: Block Mode
E
EDFA 173
Electrical Amplifier 55
Electrical Eye Diagram 343
Electrical Filter 42
Electrical Gain 54
Electrical Integrate And Dump 62
Electrical Modules 37
Electrical Monitor 318
Electrical Noise Adder 58
Electrical Power 318
Electrical Signal Generator 18
Electrical Signal Resampler 73
Electroabsorption Modulator 119
Electronic Dispersion Compensation (EDC) 48
Encircled Flux Analysis Tool 598
Expression Signal Generator 34
EYCDFA 194
Eye Diagram 343, 387
Eye Diagram Analyzer 387
Eye Mask 349
Eyelids 343
F
Fabry Perot CW Laser 95
Feed-Forward Equalization 47
Fiber Bragg Grating Filter 268
Fiber Delay 167
Fiber Link 1 645
Fiber Link 2 647
Fiber Link 3 649
Fork 416
Forward Error Correction 345
Free-Space Optical Channel 651
Frequency Comb Generator 27
Frequency Sweep Generator 32
G
Gain/NF Analyzer 325
General Multiport Optical Device (NxM and WDM)
283
H
Hierarchical Input Signal Port Block 418
Hierarchical Output Signal Port Block 419
I
Ideal Frequency Converter 255
Intensity-Modulation Direct-Detection (IMDD) 364
Interferometric Fiber Optic Gyroscope (I-FOG) 257
Interior Property Map 139, 311
J
Jones Matrix Transfer Function 286
K
Karhunen-Loeve BER Estimation 364
Karhunen-Loeve Technique (KLT) 368
L
Laser Cavity 77, 479
LED Electrical Model 110, 531
LED Optical Response 109, 530
Library Configuration of Multimode Fiber 550
Library Generation for Multimode Fiber Model 573
Liekki LAD Interface 245
Light Emitting Diode (LED) 109
Linear Configuration of Multimode Fiber 563
Linewidth 91, 110, 505, 531
Linewidth Adder 243
Logical Models 65
M
Mach-Zehnder 115
Mach-Zehnder Delay Interferometer 615
Minimum Mean Square Error (MMSE) 48
Mixer 41
Mode Types 472
Mode-Attachment Styles 471
Mode-Locked Laser 87
Modulator 115
Modulator-Driving S Block 52
Monte Carlo DPSK BER Estimation Technique 376
Monte Carlo DPSK BER Estimator 376
Monte-Carlo BER Estimation 339
Multi-Line Output 22, 81, 88, 91, 104, 111
Multimode Fiber 550
Multimode File Format 473
Multimode Modules 469
Multiplot 397
N
Noise 138
Noise Filtering 44
Noise Representation and Effects 293, 580
Nonlinear Fiber 124
Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ) Transmitter (NRZ_TX) 618
Null Signal Block 421
Numerical Configuration of Multimode Fiber 559
O
Optical Add Multiplexer 276
Optical Add/Drop Multiplexer 280
OptSim Models Reference: Block Mode Index 667
Optical Amplifiers 169
Optical Attenuator 248
Optical Autocorrelator Analyzer 395
Optical Binary Differential Receiver 366
Optical Components 247
Optical Coupler (2x2) 261
Optical DeMultiplexer (1xN DEMUX) 274
Optical Drop Multiplexer 278
Optical Eye Analyzer 332
Optical Fibers 123
Optical Filter 251, 264
Optical Frequency/Wavelength Chirp Analyzer 392
Optical Monitor 320
Optical Multiplexer (Nx1 MUX) 272
Optical Noise Adder 238
Optical Parameters 22
Optical Phase Shift 250
Optical Power Normalizer 249
Optical Receivers 291
Optical Signal Generator 21
Optical Signal Resampler 74
Optical Sources and Modulators 75
Optical Splitter (1xN) 260
P
Parasitics 77, 100, 479, 515
Performance Budget 347
Phase Modulator 116
Photodetector 302
Physical EDFA 173
Physical EYCDFA 194
Poincar Sphere Plot 329
Polarization 22, 80, 88, 91, 104, 111, 483, 496, 505,
519, 532
Polarization Transformer 252
PRBS Pattern Generator 16
PreBits and PostBits 16
Property Map 315
Q
Quasi-Analytical BER Estimation 336
R
Relative Intensity Noise (RIN) 100
Repeat Loop 413
Return-to-Zero (RZ) Transmitter (RZ_TX) 620
Return-to-Zero Differential Phase-Shift-Keying
Transmitter Advanced 633
Return-to-Zero Differential Quadrature Phase-Shift-
Keying Transmitter 639
Return-to-Zero DPSK Transmitter (RZ-DPSK_TX) 629
S
Sagnac Effect Model 257
Save and Load Signal To/From File 408
Sawtooth Generator 31
Semi-Analytical Technique 367
Semiconductor Optical Amplifier (SOA) 218, 226
Shift Function 66
Shift Signal 66
Signal Analyzer 384
Signal Band Converter 607
Signal Generators 15
Signal Spectrum Analyzer 389
Sine Wave Generator 27
Skew 139
Soliton Transmitter (Soliton_TX) 625
Spatial Adder 471
Spatial Analyzer 594
Spatial Aperture 577
Spatial BeamPROP Interface 549
Spatial Compound Optical Receiver 579
Spatial Coupler 545
Spatial CW Laser 505
Spatial Direct Modulated Laser 478
Spatial Effects 483, 496, 506, 519, 532, 588
Spatial Gridded Field Converter 609
Spatial Light Emitting Diode (LED) 530
Spatial Mode-Locked Laser 495
Spatial Photodetector 588
Spatial VCSEL 514
Special Functions 65
Standard S-Parameter Block 50
Static Optical Switch (2x2) 460
Step-Index Multimode Fiber 561
Stochastic Representation of Noise 239
Summer 40
T
T Flip-Flop 71
Test Curves for Multimode Fiber Model 564
Thin Lens 541
Time Delay Function 66
Time Shift Function 66
Transfer Function Analysis Tool 403
Transient EDFA 442
Transient Modules 423
Transient Optical Switch (2x2) 462
Transient Plotter 466
Transient Pulse Generator 424
Tunable Mach-Zehnder Interferometer 616
Typed Fork 417
Typed Repeat Loop 413
668 Index OptSim Models Reference: Block Mode
U
User-Specified Profiles 153
V
VCSEL 99
VCSEL Cavity 100, 515
Vortex Lens 543
W
WDM Components 259
WDM Receivers 663
WDM Transmitters 642
Word Error Rates 345
Write Once Read Many (WORM) Block 420
X
XY-Plotter 381

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= . The passband ripple is

was set as zero and b

exp exp exp .

N j = . This has the elementary exact solution

= , (set by the parameters raman_analytic_sig1

set by nonlinearity_filename is displayed. There

denotes a parameter discussed in detail in the Nonlinear Fiber Model documentation

Length of the fiber

Scaling factor for propagation step-size

Specify user-defined step size or automatic calculation

Toggle use of monotonically decreasing step-size

Effective mode area normalized by core area

Select constant or file-based loss

Constant fiber attenuation parameter

Data file for attenuation profile

Select dispersion model

Second-order group velocity dispersion

Third-order group velocity dispersion

Dispersion reference wavelength

Dispersion slope at DispersionLambda0

Dispersion offset at DispersionLambda0

Select nonlinearity model

Constant nonlinear refractive index value

Data file for nonlinearity coefficient profile

Select PMD model if any

Select randomization mode of PMD

Toggle all Raman effects

Select Raman strength model

Select Raman response or gain profile model

Data file for Raman gain profile

Peak Raman gain at reference pump wavelength

Fraction of nonlinearity that is non-instantaneous

Reference pump wavelength for Raman gain

Coefficient for analytic Raman response function

Coefficient for analytic Raman response function

Toggle additional scaling of Raman gain

Toggle intra-pulse Raman scattering

Select mode for inter-channel Raman interactions

Toggle stimulated Brillouin scattering

Nominal Brillouin gain value

Random polarization factor

Reference frequency for g_B

Brillouin gain peak frequency

Toggle manual setting of channel linewidths for SBS model

Manual channel linewidth for SBS model

Toggle inclusion of SPM

Toggle inclusion of electronic (normal) XPM

Toggle inclusion of molecular (Raman) XPM

Toggle inclusion of dispersion

Time skew added to the output optical signal

Simulation optimization level

Toggle display of propagation progress

Frequency units for display of test and internal plots

Pump wavelength for Raman gain profile test function

Selection of test function display

, and ASE powers by

, 980-band signal powers by

, and 980-band ASE powers by

(Gain_Bandwidth_Slope) is the gain-bandwidth slope.

(OSNR_f0) is the center frequency of the signal,

of mistakenly measuring a space as a mark is given by

= . The integration interval [-f

the probability of mistakenly