CALORIFIC VALUE OF SELECTED MULTIPURPOSE TREE SPECIES USED FOR WOODFUEL IN UGANDAS DRYLAND REGIONS

BY

JAMES WILLIAMS KISEKKA

SUPERVISOR: DR. JUSTINE NAMAALWA JJUMBA

SPECIAL PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF FORESTRY AND NATURE CONSERVATION IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF A BACHELOR OF SCIENCE DEGREE IN FORESTRY, MAKERERE UNIVERSITY.

MAY 2010

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DECLARATION

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DEDICATION
With utmost love, this work is dedicated to my beloved family; The Kisekka family of KKingo and Kasango, Masaka: to The Walugembe family of Kadebede, Kampala: and to my dear friends Peter, Patrick, Michael, Eddie, Musa, Eve and Stella.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The list of people I ought to thank for this work is actually endless!! But the contribution of the following individuals deserves mention. First and foremost, my Parents Mr. Franklin Kisekka Kiswa and Miss Aisha Nyakaishiki Masika: for their love, guidance and sowing the seed of responsibility in me. Mr. Paul Walugembe: for his guidance and unwavering support; both morally and materially.

I am also indebted to Mr. Ndawula J. (of FFNC) for his technical advice especially in developing the concept, to Mr. Katongole and Mr. Ssemwanga (both of Dept. of Animal Science, Faculty of Agriculture) for their guidance throughout the analytical tests, to Mr. Karsten Bechtel (of CREEC) for his guidance and technical support, and to the Chairman and residents of Katugo village, Nakasongola district, for their hospitality and support during my sample collection. Special thanks go my friends particularly Peter SSekiranda, Michael Wamuntu, Patrick Onyanga, Musa Kagimu, Evelyn Namukasa and Stella Muwa Openyto for their invaluable support

especially at times when I desperately needed it most, and for their encouragement even when progress seemed way too distant from me.

My sincere gratitude is extended to my supervisor; Dr. Justine Namaalwa Jjumba for her guidance during the formulation of this manuscript and finally for approving my work. Above all to God the Almighty who grants me the ability and strength to wake up every morning.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ........................................................................................................................... ii DEDICATION .............................................................................................................................. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................... v LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................................... vii LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................... viii ACRONYMS .................................................................................................................................ix ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... x CHAPTER ONE: INTORDUCTION .......................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background ............................................................................................................................ 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem ....................................................................................................... 2 1.3 Objectives and hypothesis ...................................................................................................... 3 1.3.1 General objective............................................................................................................. 3 1.3.2 Specific objectives........................................................................................................... 3 1.3.3 Hypothesis tested............................................................................................................. 3 1.4 Justification ............................................................................................................................ 3 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................. 5 2.1 Defining Drylands .................................................................................................................. 5 2.2 Extent of Ugandas Drylands ................................................................................................. 5 2.3 Forest and Woodland Degradation in the Drylands ............................................................... 7 2.3 Wood Fuel .............................................................................................................................. 8 2.4 Fuelwood Scarcity .................................................................................................................. 9

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2.5 Calorific Value ..................................................................................................................... 10 2.5.1 Higher or Gross Calorific Value ................................................................................... 11 2.5.2 Lower or Net Calorific Value........................................................................................ 11 2.5.3 Determination of Calorific Value .................................................................................. 12 3.1 Description of the Study Area .............................................................................................. 14 3.1.2 Economic activities ....................................................................................................... 14 3.2 Field Procedure .................................................................................................................... 14 3.3 Laboratory Procedure ........................................................................................................... 16 3.4 Data Analysis ....................................................................................................................... 17 CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ................................................................ 18 4.1 Mean NCV for the three Species.......................................................................................... 18 4.3 Comparison between NCV of different Species .................................................................. 19 LIST OF REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 23 LIST OF APPENDICES .............................................................................................................. 28

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: NCV for the three species ................................................................................................ 18 Table 2: Analysis Of Variance (ANOVA) for NCV for the three species ..................................... 18 Table 3: Multiple comparison between the species ....................................................................... 19 Table 4: Comparison between NCV of different Species .............................................................. 20 Table 5: T-test Results for the Comparison between the Mean NCV for the tested species. and Oven dry wood ............................................................................................................................... 21 Table 6: T-test Results for the Comparison between the Mean NCV for the tested species and E. grandis ............................................................................................................................................ 21

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Map of Uganda Showing Extent of Drylands................................................................... 6 Figure 2: Woodland Cleared for Farming and Woodfuel in Katugo ............................................... 7 Figure 3: Simplified Diagram Showing Components of a Bomb Calorimeter .............................. 12 Figure 4: Samples from A. heterophyllus (A), M. indica (B) and S. spectabilis (C). .................... 16

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ACRONYMS
CREEC: Dept.: DF: ESD: FAO: FFNC: Fig.: GCV: Kcal: Lab.: MAAIF: MEMD: MJ: MWLE: NCV: NEMA: Sig.: Std.: Temp.: Wt.: Centre for Research in Energy and Energy Conservation Department Degrees of Freedom Energy for Sustainable Development Food and Agricultural Organisation Faculty of Forestry and Nature Conservation Figure Gross Calorific Value Kilo calories Laboratory Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development Mega Joule Ministry of Water Lands and Environment Net Calorific Value National Environment Management Authority Significance Standard Temperature Weight

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ABSTRACT
Wood quality (dependent on its energy content) plays a crucial role in selecting a species for use as fuelwood, and fuelwood users prefer long-burning woods with a high calorific output. In this study, the calorific values of Artocarpus heterophyllus, Senna spectabilis, and Mangifera indica; multipurpose tree species reported to be used for woodfuel in Ugandas Dryland regions was assessed, with an aim of determining which of them is a better energy source, and ascertaining whether it is worth using those species as energy sources. The mean Net Calorific Values (NCV) of the 3 species were found to be 6939, 5444 and 4742 Kcal/kg respectively. The result of a One-way Analysis of Variance revealed a significant difference (P = 0.000) in mean NCV for the 3 species, and a One sample T-test indicated that the NCV for A. heterophyllus (p = 0.000) and S. spectabilis (p = 0.005) but not Mangifera indica (p= 0.197) is significantly higher than the NCV for Eucalyptus grandis. The T- test also revealed a significant difference between the Average NCV previously reported for oven-dry wood by other researchers and the values obtained for A. heterophyllus (p = 0.000) and S. spectabilis (p = 0.009) but not for Mangifera indica (p= 0.713). Basing on the outcome of this study, it is therefore recommended that the three species be promoted for cultivation in both home-gardens and energy plantations, that factors which may affect their quality as energy sources be studied, and that research be done about other candidate species for energy production.

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CHAPTER ONE: INTORDUCTION

1.1 Background Wood is the main source of energy for over two billion people, particularly for households in developing countries, and it provides more than 14% of the worlds total primary energy (FAO, 2007). The energy derived from wood fuel is called wood energy; which corresponds to the calorific value of the wood species (FAO, 2007) and is also dependant on the genetic character and biochemical composition of that particular species (Kataki and Konwer, 2002). MEMD (2007) reported that Ugandas current energy demand is largely met by biomass accounting for about 93% of the total energy supplied, and this is expected to continue in the foreseeable future. McKendry (2002) reports that Biomass is a term for all organic material that stems from plants (including algae, trees and crops). It is produced by green plants converting sunlight into plant material through photosynthesis and includes all land- and water-based vegetation, as well as all organic wastes. In Uganda, about 18 million and 500,000 tonnes of firewood and charcoal respectively are consumed annually, and this has caused degradation of forests as wood reserves are depleted at a rapid rate in many regions (MEMD, 2001). MEMD (2004) revealed that about 45% of the charcoal into Kampala (the major urban centre in Uganda) came from the dry land districts of Nakasongola, Masindi and Luwero, while 6% was from Kamuli district. This is in line with previous studies, for example ESD (1995); Kalumiana and Kisakye, (2001); MWLE (2002a), that rank Nakasongola, Masindi and Luwero districts among the main charcoal sources in Uganda, the other districts being Hoima, Kayunga, Kibaale, Kiboga and Apac; all of which are in the dryland region.

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1.2 Statement of the Problem Wood quality is ideally expected to play a crucial role in selecting a species for use as fuelwood, and, high density and high heat of combustion are among the desirable characteristics of quality fuelwood (Goel and Behl, 1996). Marcelo et al. (2008) reported that durability and high heat of combustion is related to high density, and that fuelwood users prefer long-burning woods with a high calorific output. In the past, fuelwood producers and specifically charcoal producers would selectively select tree species with high density. These species included Combretum spp, and Acacia spp, among others. Given the increased demand for forest products as a result of population increase, the preferred tree species are continuously becoming scarce. A study done in Nakasongola and Kamuli by Bagabo et al. ( 2008 ) revealed that there is a tremendous decrease in tree cover, as well as an increased scarcity of the preferred species for charcoal, this leading to an indiscriminate harvesting of tree species including fruit trees such as Artocarpus heterophyllus and Mangifera indica. Also, Senna spectabilis is one of the other tree species that are now used for fuelwood in the dry lands. This stimulates a research gap on the energy efficiency of such species as they may continuously be exploited for fuelwood. This research, therefore, is aimed at determining the calorific value of each of the three tree species.

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1.3 Objectives and hypothesis 1.3.1 General objective The main objective of this research is to investigate and document the calorific values of A. heterophyllus, M. indica and S.spectabilis.

1.3.2 Specific objectives Specifically, the study aimed at; 1. Determining the Net Calorific Values of the three species 2. Assessing the differences in the net calorific values of the three species 3. Comparing the net calorific values of the three species with known preferred fuelwood species

1.3.3 Hypothesis tested Ho: There is no difference in the Net Calorific Values of the selected species

1.4 Justification This study will culminate in documentation of the calorific values of the three species; which will be used for academic purposes, and also to stimulate research about other multipurpose tree species that are used as wood fuel. The results of the study will be used by both political and social initiatives to inform the local communities about whether or not it is worth using the three species as wood fuel sources, and also to advise them (local community) about which of those species is the best source of wood fuel.

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Basing on the calorific values of each species, recommendations will be made about whether or not to promote them for cultivation in fuelwood plantations and/or home-gardens, as a step towards ensuring sustainable production of fuelwood, and hence prevent further degradation of forests.

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CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Defining Drylands Jama and Zeila (2005) define drylands as arid, semiarid and hyper-arid areas in which annual evapo-transpiration exceeds rainfall and in which agricultural productivity is limited by poor availability of moisture. For this study, the definition of drylands by Okullo et al. (2005) which refers to a dryland as anywhere in Uganda that rainfall is a problem because of amount, distribution and unreliability, will be adopted. Drylands occupy 41% of the earths land surface, are home to 35% of its population (Mortimore et al., 2009), and are characterized by low (100600 mm annually), erratic and highly inconsistent rainfall levels (IFAD, 2000). More than 30% of the worlds drylands are found in Africa where they cover 65% of the continental landmass (1.96 billion ha), in 25 countries. In eastern and central Africa, the Arid and Semiarid Lands (ASALs) occupy significant areas; 75% of Kenya, 50% of Ethiopia and Tanzania, 30% of Uganda and 20% of Rwanda (Jama and Zeila, 2005).

2.2 Extent of Ugandas Drylands Ugandas drylands occupy what is commonly referred to as the cattle corridor, an area stretching from the North-East (the rangelands from Moroto and Kotido), through Luwero and South to Masaka and Mbarara (through Central to South-East of the country). It covers many districts stretching from Kotido, Moroto and Katakwi in the North-East through Nakasongola and parts of Luwero in the Central to Rakai, Mbarara and Ntugamo (Fig.1). These areas are mainly rangelands and they cover approximately 84,000 sq. km. (about 40%) of the total land area. In these areas, semi-arid and dry sub-humid conditions prevail. They receive low and unreliable

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rainfall (450 - 800 mm) and drought is a common recurrent phenomenon, thus the vegetation is sparse (Okullo et al., 2005). The drylands are considered to be the second most fragile ecosystem in Uganda, after the highlands.

Figure 1: Map of Uganda Showing Extent of Drylands (Okullo et al., 2005)

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2.3 Forest and Woodland Degradation in the Drylands As in many other parts of the developing world, deforestation in Uganda has reached an advanced cumulative stage (Bashaasha et al., 2001). The extraction of fuelwood is the major driver of forests and woodland degradation in the drylands (Okullo et al., 2005). Figure 2 shows a woodland area that has been cleared of almost all the trees. Wood energy has been used for thousands of years for cooking and heating. In many of the worlds developing countries, it remains the primary source of energy for the rural poor and in much of Africa total consumption of woodfuel is still increasing, largely as a result of population growth (FAO 2008). Jama and Zeila (2005) also recognised the phenomenal growth in the number of people living in East African drylands, and that this occurs within the context of static or even contracting natural resource base.

Figure 2: Woodland Cleared for Farming and Woodfuel in Katugo Village, Nakasongola District

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The decline in indigenous and preferred tree species for fuelwood has led to an indiscriminate harvesting of trees, including fruit trees (Bagabo et al., 2008). However, Buyinza and Teera (2008); Buyinza et al. (2008) pointed out tree-farming as one of the possible approaches to increase the supply of fuel wood. Also, MAAIF (2000), MWLE (2001), and MWLE (2002b) all are supportive of the promotion and adoption of agroforestry (managing trees together with agronomic crops and /or animals) as a strategy for eradicating poverty and combating the degradation of natural resources (like forests and woodlands) in dry lands. In this regard, Multipurpose trees; defined by Huxley and Van Houten (1997) as woody perennials that are purposely grown to provide more than one significant contribution to the production or service function of the land-use system that they occupy, are promoted.

2.3 Wood Fuel Fuel is a combustible substance containing carbon as the main constituent which on proper burning (combustion) gives large amounts of heat that can be used economically for domestic and industrial purposes. In other words, any source of heat is termed as fuel (Senapati, 2006). Combustion is used over a wide range of outputs to convert the chemical energy stored in biomass into heat, mechanical power, or electricity using various items of process equipment, e.g. stoves, furnaces, boilers, steam turbines, turbo-generators, etc. (McKendry, 2002). A high calorific value is one of the desirable characteristics of a good fuel (Pahari and Chauhan, 2006 and Sivasankar, 2008). Wood fuel refers to all types of lignocellulosic material derived directly and indirectly from plants, trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants grown in forest as well as non-forest lands and used for fuel purpose. The main components of wood fuels are firewood, charcoal and wood derived
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fuels like black liquor, methanol and ethanol (Lefevre et al., 1997). According to Lefevre et al. (1997), fuelwood is the wood in rough produced from forests as well as non-forests and used solely for fuel purposes. It includes twigs, branches, wood chips, pellets and power derived from natural or other forest or even non forests area (e.g. home garden), industrial wood residues and recovered wood. Charcoal is a solid residue derived from carbonization, distillation, pyrolysis and torrefaction of wood (from trunks and branches of trees) and wood by-products using pit, brick and metal kilns. It also includes charcoal briquettes made from wood-based charcoal.

Fuelwood and charcoal are, according to MEMD (2001), the main sources of energy for the domestic use in Uganda. Fuelwood is mainly used by people in rural areas while charcoal is more popular among urban dwellers.

2.4 Fuelwood Scarcity Fuelwood occupies an enviable place for providing many people especially the poor and rural households with a primary source of energy (Shackleton, 1998). Wood consumed annually for energy in sub-Saharan Africa increased from 1500 mill. m3 to 3500 mill. m3 between 1950 and 2002 (Moyini and Muramira, 2002), and many regions are presently facing severe shortages of fuel wood, fodder and food primarily due to increasing human and livestock populations and crop production using little or no external inputs (FAO 2003). Teplitz-Sembitzky (2006) reported that while massive unsustainable fuelwood harvesting has contributed to the decimation of natural woodlands, large-scale clearing of forests and woodlands is in most part done for agricultural purposes (cattle grazing, planting of crops) or on account of commercial logging. Bagabo et al. (2008) reported that in the past fuelwood producers and
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charcoal producers in the dry land region would selectively select tree species with high density because these burn for a longer time. But due to the increasing demand for woodfuel as a result of population increase, the preferred tree species are continuously becoming scarce thereby leading to an indiscriminate harvesting of tree species including fruit trees, that has resulted into a tremendous decrease in tree cover. This situation warrants the need for corrective efforts like tree planting, as recommended by previous researches.

2.5 Calorific Value Calorific value is defined as the quantity of heat liberated by the complete combustion of one unit of a fuel in oxygen (Pahari and Chauhan, 2006, Sivasankar, 2008, and Senapati, 2006). Calorific value is the most important property of a fuel which determines its energy value (Erol et al., 2010). It is a characteristic for each substance, and is measured in units of energy per unit of the substance, usually mass. According to Kataki and Konwer (2002), the calorific value of wood varies between 17 and 20 MJ/kg (about 4000 and 4700 Kcal/kg) for oven-dried wood, and depends on the elemental composition and genetic make-up of a given species. According to Jacovelli (2009), the calorific value of wood, on an oven-dry mass basis varies surprisingly little at 4700Kcal/kg, while Bekele and Mulugeta (2004) reported an average NCV of 4577 Kcal/kg for Eucalyptus grandis; which is, according to Jacovelli (2009), the tree species that is most preferred for cultivation for fuelwood production in Uganda. Calorific values are of two types; Higher Calorific value and Lower Calorific Value.

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2.5.1 Higher or Gross Calorific Value Hydrogen is found to be present in almost all fuels and when the calorific value of a fuel is determined experimentally, hydrogen is converted into steam. If the products of combustion are condensed to room temperature (25oC), the latent heat of condensation of steam is also included in the measured heat. The total value calculated is known as Higher or Gross Calorific Value (HCV/GCV)and may be defined as the total amount of heat liberated when one unit of the fuel is burnt completely and the combustion products are cooled to room temperature (Senapati, 2006).

2.5.2 Lower or Net Calorific Value In actual practice, during combustion of a fuel the water vapors escape as such along with hot combustion gases and thus are not condensed. Hence a lesser amount of heat liberated. This is called Lower or Net Calorific Value (LCV/NCV) and may be defined as the amount of heat liberated when one unit of fuel is burnt completely and the combustion products are allowed to escape. Thus, LCV = HCV Latent heat of water vapor formed.

Fuels should be compared based on NCV because GCV includes the heat content of the water vapor, yet many appliances cannot use that heat. The NCV therefore allows for comparison to be made about fuels, especially when gaseous fuels are used. However, for liquid and solid fuels this is less an issue so these are often compared on GCV (Senapati, 2006). Calorific values of solid and liquid fuels are usually expressed in Calories per gram (Cal/g) or Kilocalories per kilogram (Kcal/Kg) or British thermal Units per pound (B.Th.U/lb) (Pahari and Chauhan, 2006). But the S1 units are kcal/kg.

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2.5.3 Determination of Calorific Value Calorific value of fuels is determined by use of a bomb calorimeter. A known mass of the fuel is burnt and the quantity of heat produced is absorbed in water and measured. Then the quantity of heat produced by burning that mass of the fuel is calculated (Pahari and Chauhan, 2006). A simple sketch of the bomb calorimeter is shown in Figure 3. It consists of a strong cylindrical stainless steel bomb in which the combustion of the fuel is carried out. The bomb has a lid, which can be screwed to the body of the bomb as to make a perfect gas tight seal. The lid is provided with two stainless steel electrodes and an oxygen inlet valve. To one of the electrodes, a small ring is attached. In this ring, a nickel or stainless steel crucible can be supported. The bomb is placed in a copper calorimeter which is surrounded by an air jacket and a water jacket to prevent heat loss by radiation. The calorimeter is provided with an electrically operated stirrer and a Beckmanns thermometer; sensitive enough to read up to 0.01oC (Senapati, 2006).

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Figure 3: Simplified Diagram Showing Components of a Bomb Calorimeter (Easto and Mcconkey, 1985)

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CHAPTER THREE: METHODS AND TOOLS

3.1 Description of the Study Area The study was carried out in Nakasongola district, which is one of the major sources of charcoal used in the Kampala (MEMD, 2004). Nakasongola district is located at the centre of Uganda at latitudes 055oN and 140oN, and longitudes 31o55E and 32o50E, covering an area of 3510 sq. Kms (about 1.46 % of the countrys total surface area), and is one of the cattle corridor districts characterized by drought. Topographically, the district is generally flat with minimal altitudinal differences. 6.8 % of the district is open waters while 4.5 % is covered by wetlands (NEMA, 2004).

3.1.2 Economic activities According to NEMA (2004), about 70 % of the district population derives their livelihood through direct exploitation of Natural resources. This includes fishing, charcoal production and agriculture. Such a large percentage puts a lot of stress on the quality and quantity of the environment and Natural resources moreover with no rejuvenation strategies. The district was reported to contribute about 30% of the charcoal consumed in Kampala (MEMD, 2004). Further, increased indiscriminative harvesting of tree species for fuelwood has also been reported in the district (Bagabo et al., 2008).

3.2 Field Procedure The landscapes for consideration included home gardens for A. heterophyllus and M. indica; and woodlands and/or bush-lands for S. spectabilis. Five standing trees per species were randomly selected regardless of their age since age has been reported to have no effect on the calorific value of most trees (Puri et al.,1994; Bekele and Mulugeta ,2004)
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For each selected tree, the first branch of 6 10 cm diameter was cut- a method used by Kataki and Konwer (2002), using a panga. From each branch, a disc of about 5cm thickness was cut. The discs from the same tree species were packed in a polythene bag, and then taken to a local carpentry workshop from where a cuboid was cut from the centre of each disc. The cuboids were cut in such a way that they contained both the heartwood and sapwood - as in Kumar et al. (2009), and Munalula and Meincken (2009), and were not of the same dimensions because the reason for their cutting was to facilitate their transportation to the laboratory where the analytical tests were carried out. Each disc was packed in a polythene bag that was then coded for easy identification. Coding was done in such a way that each code was a combination of the tree number and first letter of the species name from which the sample was taken. For example, A1, M1, and S1 were the codes for a sample taken from the first tree of Artocarpus heterophyllus, Mangifera indica and Senna spectabilis respectively, as in Fig.4. The samples were then transported to the Animal Sciences Laboratory at the Faculty of Agriculture, Makerere University, where the analytical tests were carried out.

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Figure 4: Samples from A. heterophyllus (A), M. indica (B) and S. spectabilis (C).

3.3 Laboratory Procedure The laboratory procedure followed was as described by Easto and Mcconkey (1985).The samples were dried in an oven for 48 hours at 110 oC, and then pulverized using a crusher. Powder from each sample was then pressed to form a briquette using a briquetting press. A small pellet was obtained from each briquette, weighed using an electric digital weighing balance and then placed in a crucible. The crucible carrying the pellet was placed in the bomb, and the electrodes were connected using a fuse wire of a known calorific value. A piece of cotton thread was then used to connect the fuse wire to the pellet. A small quantity of distilled water was put into the bomb to absorb the vapors formed by the combustion and to ensure that the vapor
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produced is condensed. The top of the bomb was then screwed down, and compressed oxygen slowly administered to the bomb until the pressure was 30 atmospheres. The bomb was then placed in the calorimeter of a known energy equivalent, and then two litres of water poured into the calorimeter such that the bomb was submerged but its terminals remaining above the water level. The energy equivalent for the Gallen Kamp Autobomb (model CAB001.ABI.C) used for the Calorific Value determination in this study was 2418. The calorimeter was then closed, the external connections to the circuit made, and a high precision thermometer immersed in the water. The water was then stirred by a motor-driven stirrer, and its stable temperature taken after five minutes. The charge was then fired at the end of the fifth minute. The maximum temperature attained by the water was recorded, and the calorific value of the pellet then calculated from the formula; Mass of the pellet * NCV of the pellet = (energy equivalent of the bomb* corrected temperature rise*specific heat of water)-calories of the fuse wire. The lab procedure and the results obtained are summarized in appendix 1. 3.4 Data Analysis A One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to determine if there was significant variation in the NCV of the three species. One sample T-tests were used to determine if there was a significant variation between the mean values described for oven-dry wood and other species in the literature and those obtained for the three species.

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CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Mean NCV for the three Species The results for mean NCV obtained for the three species are shown in Table 1. Table 1: NCV for the three species
Species Artocarpus heterophyllus Mangifera indica Senna spectabilis Mean NCV Mean NCV (Kcal/ kg) 6939 4742 5444 5708

The NCV obtained for the three species revealed that Mangifera indica had the lowest mean NCV while Artocarpus heterophyllus had the highest mean. The One-way ANOVA revealed that there was a significant difference (p= 0.000) in the mean NCV at 95% confidence interval (Tables 2 and 3).

Table 2: Analysis Of Variance (ANOVA) for NCV for the three species
Source of variation Between species Within species Total Sum of Squares 12591592.133 1079893.600 13671485.733 DF 2 12 14 Mean Square 6295796.067 89991.133 F 69.960 Sig. .000

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Table 3: Multiple comparison between the species

(I) species (J) species Mean Difference (I-J) 2197.000 1495.200 Std. Error Sig.

A.heterophyllus

M. indica S. spectabilis

189.727 189.727

0.000 0.000

M. indica

A.heterophyllus S. spectabilis

2197.000 -701.800

189.727 189.727

0.000 0.003

S. spectabilis

A.heterophyllus M. indica

1495.200 701.800

189.727 189.727

0.000 0.003

The differences could be attributed to the differences in the genetic makeup of the species as also earlier suggested by Kataki and Konwer (2002). The high NCV for Artocarpus heterophyllus implies that the species would be a more preferred choice for Fuelwood as compared to Mangifera indica and Senna spectabilis. Also, Senna spectabilis is better than Mangifera indica. However, A. heterophyllus being a fruit tree, its cultivation for fuelwood may not be a priority among people in the dryland areas. This leaves S.specatabilis as the next best alternative for cultivation as an energy crop, because its NCV fairly high, and it has less competing uses as compared to A. heterophyllus. 4.3 Comparison between NCV of different Species A comparison was made between the NCV for the target species and the values prior recorded for either individual species or a group of species (Table 4)

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Table 4: Comparison between NCV of different Species

Species Tested Values Artocarpus heterophyllus Mangifera indica Senna spectabilis Aggregated study spp E. grandis (Bekele and Mulugeta,2004) Aggregated species (Jacovelli, 2009) Aggregated species.(Harker et al.,1984) Acacia Cyclops, Acacia erioloba, Eucalyptus cladocalyx, Pinus patula, Vitis vinifer (Munalula and Meincken ,2009) 6939 4742 5444 5708 4577 4700 4300 - 6210 4462 4546 Mean NCV (Kcal/ kg) Reviewed Values

The NCV for Artocarpus heterophyllus and Senna spectabilis were relatively higher than the values reported for E. grandis and the aggregated species. Mangifera indica was on the other hand in range of the reported values. The one sample T-test revealed that there was a significant difference between the NCV for the aggregated species and those for Artocarpus heterophyllus and Senna spectabilis. There was however no significant difference with Mangifera indica. A similar trend was observed for E. grandis (Tables 5 and 6).

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Table 5: T-test Results for the Comparison between the Mean NCV for the tested species. and Oven dry wood
Species t DF Test Value = 4700 Sig. (2-tailed) Mean Difference 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower A. heterophyllus M.indica S.spectabilis 16.738 0.395 4.734 4 4 4 0.000 0.713 0.009 2239.200 42.200 744.000 1867.78 -254.19 307.62 Upper 2610.62 338.59 1180.38

Table 6: T-test Results for the Comparison between the Mean NCV for the tested species and E. grandis
Test Value = 4577 Species t DF Sig. (2tailed) Mean Difference 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower A. heterophyllus 17.658 4 0.000 2362.200 1990.78 Upper 2733.62

S. spectabilis M. indica

5.516 1.548

4 4

0.005 0.197

867.000 165.200

430.62 -131.19

1303.38 461.59

A. heterophyllus has a higher NCV compared to the other species, implying that is the best option for fuelwood on the basis of calorific value. However, its use as a fruit tree may outweigh its use as a fuelwood source. This puts S. spectabilis at a better competitive advantage than other species if comparison is to be made with E.grandis; the tree species most cultivated for fuelwood in Uganda today, but research has to be done about its growth characteristics in relation to E.grandis.

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CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Renewable energy will continue to play a central role in energy supplies especially in the developing countries, particularly in Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa, in the future given the high population growth rates. The demand for fuelwood is, therefore, expected to continuously

increase. Hence, it is imperative to continuously devise and sustain natural resource production methods that will sustainably produce wood for energy generation.

The large (and continuously increasing) quantity of fuelwood required for energy production can only be sustained if farmers produce their own fuelwood rather than rely on the continuously diminishing natural vegetation. In fact, as population increases and the supply of fuelwood from natural forests declines, on farm fuelwood production is the best way out. Thus, since all wood can burn, it is important that only those trees/woody species that will give substantially high energy out puts should be recommended for incorporation into the agroforestry systems.

Tree species that are suitable for charcoal and fire wood production should be identified, and land owners/farmers should be trained on how to plant and manage those tree. On that regard, therefore, the three species studied under this research can be used for energy production since their calorific value (energy content) was found to be significantly high even higher than that for the preferred species like Eucalyptus grandis. Such species can be promoted for growing in energy plantations and home-gardens. However, factors such as their growth rates and effect on the environment, which may affect their quality as energy sources ought to be studied. Also, research has to be done about other candidate species for energy production in a bid to create a sound and concrete ground for comparison.

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KALUMIANA, O.S. and KISAKYE, R. (2001) Study on the Establishment of a Sustainable Charcoal Production and Licensing System in Masindi and Nakasongola Districts. ACDI/VOCA EPED Project, 60 pp KATAKI, R., and KONWER, D. (2002) Fuelwood characteristics of indigenous tree species of north-east India, Biomass and Bioenergy 22: 433 437 KUMAR J.I.N., PATEL,K., KUMAR, R.N. and KUMAR, B.R. (2009) An Assessment of Indian Fuelwood With Regards to Properties and Environmental Impact Asian Journal on Energy and Environment 10(2):99-107. KUMAR J.I.N., PATEL,K., KUMAR, R.N. and KUMAR, B.R. (2009) An Assessment of Indian Fuelwood With Regards to Properties and Environmental Impact Asian Journal on Energy and Environment 10(2):99-107. LEFEVRE, T., TODOC, L.J, AND TIMILSINA, G. R. (1997) The Role Of Wood Energy In Asia, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

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PANSHIN, A.J., HARRAR, E.S., BETHEL, J.S., and BAKER, W.J. (1962) Forest products. 2nd edition, McGraw Hill Books Co. Inc., New York, 538 pp. PURI, S., SINGH, S., AND KUMAR, A. (1994) Growth and Productivity of Crops in Association with an Acacia Nilotica Tree Belt. Journal of Arid Environments; 27:3748. SENAPATI, M., R. (2006) Advanced Engineering Chemistry, 2nd edition, Laxmi Publications, New Delhi, India. SHACKLETON, C.M. (1998) Annual Production of Harvestable Dead wood in Semi-arid savanna, South Africa. Forest Ecology and Management, 112: 139-144. SIVASANKAR, B. (2008) Engineering chemistry. The Mac Graw publishing companies, New Delhi, India TEPLITZ-SEMBITZKY, W. (2006) The Significance of Biomass Energy Strategies (BEST)

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LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix I: Data Sheet for the Lab. Results
Lab Code 8614 8615 8616 8617 8618 8619 8620 8621 8622 8623 8624 8625 8626 8627 8628 Sample Description A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 Wt (kg) 0.000536 0.000562 0.000582 0.000543 0.00056 0.000576 0.000543 0.000501 0.000557 0.000603 0.00056 0.000503 0.000522 0.000505 0.000553 Initial Temp 27.44 27.79 26.95 26.26 28.22 25.02 28.03 28.15 26.42 25.58 26.95 26.92 27.67 28.05 28.44 Final Temp 28.67 28.99 28.14 27.43 29.4 26.13 29.16 29.2 27.57 26.83 28.06 28 28.79 29.14 29.6 Temp Rise 1.23 1.2 1.19 1.17 1.18 1.11 1.13 1.05 1.15 1.25 1.11 1.08 1.12 1.09 1.16 Calories of Wire 9 8.1 8 8.2 8 8.4 8.8 8.4 9 10 8.3 8 8.4 8.4 9 Kcal/kg 6509 7274 7020 6782 7111 4990 4928 4514 4811 4468 5306 5907 5695 5282 5030

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