Chapter 7

Microbial Physiology
and Genetics
PART 1
Microbial Physiology

Physiology – is the study of the vital

life processes of organisms, especially
how these processes normally function
in living organisms
Microbial Physiology – concerns the
vital life processes of microorganisms
Advantages of Using Bacteria

Inexpensive to maintain in the

laboratory.
Take up little space and reproduce
quickly.
Morphology, nutritional needs and
metabolic reactions are easily
observable.
Nutrients
Refers to various chemical compounds that
organisms use to sustain life.
Many nutrients are energy sources.
Organisms will obtain energy from these
nutrients by breaking chemical bonds.
When chemical bond is broken, energy is
released.
Nutrients are broken down by enzymatic
actions.
Nutritional Requirements
Six major chemical elements: carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus and
sulfur
Lesser amounts: sodium, potassium,
chlorine, magnesium, calcium, iron, iodine,
and some trace elements
Essential nutrients – materials that
organisms are unable to synthesize, but are
required for the building of macromolecules
and sustaining life.
Categorizing Microorganisms According
to Their Energy and Carbon Sources

Terms Relating to Energy Source

Phototrophs- use light
Chemotrophs- use either inorganic
or organic chemicals
Chemolithotrophs- use inorganic
chemicals
Chemoorganotrophs- use organic
chemicals
Terms Relating to Organism’s Carbon Source
Autotrophs- use CO2 as their energy source
Heterotrophs- use organic compounds as
their carbon source other than CO2
Photoautotrophs- use light energy and CO2
Photoheterotrophs- use light and organic
compounds other than CO2
Chemoautotrophs- use chemicals are energy
source and CO2 as carbon source
Chemoheterotrophs- use chemicals as
energy source and organic compound other
than CO2 as energy source
 Metabolic Diversity Among Organisms

Nutritional type Energy source Carbon source Example

Photoautotroph Light CO2 Oxygenic:

Cyanobacteria plants.
Anoxygenic: Green,
purple bacteria.
Photoheterotroph Light Organic Green, purple
compounds nonsulfur bacteria.

Chemoautotroph Chemical CO Iron-oxidizing

bacteria.

Chemoheterotroph Chemical Organic Fermentative bacteria.

compounds Animals, protozoa,
fungi, bacteria.
Ecology – is the study of the interaction between
organisms and the world around them.
Ecosystem – refers to the interactions between
living organisms and their nonliving environment.
Phototrophs are producers of food and oxygen for
chemoheterotrophs.
Dead plants and animals would clutter the earth if
chemoheterotrophic saprophytes and
decomposers did not break down dead organic
compounds.
Photoautotrophs contribute energy to the
ecosystem by trapping energy from the sun and
converting it to build organic compound.
Metabolic Enzymes
Metabolism is the sum of the chemical
reactions in an organism, Metabolic
reaction
Catabolism is the energy-releasing
processes.
Anabolism is the energy-using
processes.
Metabolic enzymes enhances and
regulates metabolic reaction.
A metabolic pathway is a sequence of
enzymatically catalyzed chemical
reactions in a cell.
Metabolic pathways are determined by
enzymes.
Enzymes are encoded by genes.
Biologic Catalysts
Biologic catalysts- protein that either
causes a particular chemical reaction to
occur or accelerates.
Substrate- particular substance in which
enzymes act
Apoenzyme- protein (inactive)
Cofactor- nonprotein component
Coenzyme- organic cofactor (activator)
Holoenzyme- apoenzyme + cofactor
Kinds of Enzymes

Endoenzymes- produce within the cell

that remains within the cell (digestive
enzymes)
Exoenzymes- produce within the cell
and released from the cell (cellulase)
 Factors that Affects the
Efficiency of Enzymes
Enzymes can be denatured by temperature and
pH
Temperature
pH
Substrate concentration
Competitive Inhibition
Non-competitive Inhibition
Metabolism
Metabolite- any molecule that is a
nutrient, an intermediary or end product
of metabolism
Catabolism- breakdown of
carbohydrates to release energy
Anabolism- assembly of smaller
molecules to larger molecules
 Metabolism
ATP is generated by the phosphorylation of ADP
 Biochemical Pathways
Series of linked biochemical reactions that occur in
a step-wise manner, leading from the starting
material to the end product.
Glucose is the favorite “food” of cells, including
microorganisms.
Nutrients- energy sources
Chemical bonds- stored energy
Whenever chemical bonds within the nutrients are
broken, energy is released.
Aerobic respiration and fermentation reactions.
 Catabolism/Aerobic
Respiration of Glucose

The breakdown of carbohydrates to

release energy
Glycolysis
Krebs cycle
Electron transport chain
Glycolysis
Glycolytic pathway, the Embden-Meyerhof
pathway, Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas pathway.
A nine-step biochemical path, involving nine
separate biochemical reactions, each of which
requires specific enzymes.
Six-carbon molecule of glucose is broken down
into three-carbon molecules of pyruvic acid.
Can take place with or without oxygen.
Produces very little energy– only 2 ATP.
Takes place in the cytoplasm of both prokaryptic
and eukaryotic cells.
 Krebs Cycle
The pyruvic acid molecules produced during
glycolysis are converted into acetyl-CoA
molecules.
The Krebs Cycle is consists of eight separate
reactions, each of which is controlled by a different
enzymes.
Acetyl-CoA combine with oxalate to produce
citric acid (tricarboxylic acid).
Only 2 ATP produced, but a number of products
like NADH, FADH2, and H ions.
Mitochondria (eukaryotes); inner surface of cell
membrane (prokaryotes).
Electron Transport Chain
Certain of the products produced during the
Krebs cycle enter the electron transport
chain.
Consist of a series of oxidation-reduction
reactions, whereby energy is released as
electrons are transferred from one compound
to another.
Oxygen is at the end of the chain; referred to
as then final or terminal electron acceptor.
Cytochrome oxidase- enzyme responsible
for transferring electrons to oxygen.
Produces 32 ATP in prokaryotic cells, and 34
ATP in eukaryotic cells.
Net yield by aerobic respiration: 36 ATP
(prokaryotic cells) and 38 ATP (eukaryotic
cells).
Aerobic respiration of glucose produces 18-
19X ATP than fermentation.
 Biochemical Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
Pathway
Glycolysis 2 2

Krebs Cycle 2 2

ETC 32 34

Total ATP 36 38

Number of ATP Produced From One Molecule

Of Glucose by Aerobic Respiration
 Pathway Eukaryote Prokaryote

Glycolysis Cytoplasm Cytoplasm

Intermediate step Cytoplasm Cytoplasm

Krebs cycle Mitochondrial matrix Cytoplasm

ETC Mitochondrial inner Plasma

membrane membrane
Fermentation of Glucose
Do not involve oxygen
First step is glycolysis
Next step is the conversion of pyruvic acid into an
end product.
Does not use the Krebs cycle or ETC
End product depends on specific organism
involved:
Saccharomyces spp. and Zymomonas spp. convert
pyruvic acid to ethanol and CO2
Lactic acid bacteria convert pyruvic acid to lactic
acid.
Alcohol fermentation. Produces ethyl alcohol +
CO2
Lactic acid fermentation. Produces lactic acid.
Homolactic fermentation. Produces lactic acid
only.
Heterolactic fermentation. Produces lactic acid
and other compounds
In human muscle cells, lack of oxygen during
extreme exertion results in pyruvic acid being
converted to lactic acid.
Fermentation produces only 2 ATP
Aerobes/facultative aerobes Vs. oblgate
anaerobes
Oxidation-reduction Reactions

Paired reactions in which electrons are

transferred from one compound to another.
Oxidation- loss of one or more electrons
Reduction- gain of one or more electrons
Reducing agent- electron donor
Oxidizing agent- electron acceptor
Anabolism

Require energy to form chemical bonds.

The energy is provided by the catabolic
reactions occurring simultaneously in the cell.
Referred to as biosynthetic reactions.
Photosynthesis
Chemosynthesis
 Photosynthesis
Photo: Conversion of light energy into chemical
energy (ATP)
Light-dependent (light) reactions
Synthesis: Fixing carbon into organic molecules
Light-independent (dark) reaction, Calvin-Benson
cycle
Oxygenic:
6 CO2 + 12 H2O + Light energy → C6H12O6 + 6 O2 + 6 H2O
Anoxygenic:
CO2 + 2 H2S + Light energy → [CH2O] + 2 A + H2O
 Chemosynthesis
Use energy from chemicals.
Chemoautotroph, Thiobacillus ferroxidans

2Fe2+ NAD+
ETC

2Fe3+ NADH
ADP + P ATP
2 H+
 Finish!
Next topic: Microbial Genetics