Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
WATER ON TAP
A Eorlg people hod no need
Jo, engineering works to supply their woter. Hunters ond nomods comped neor noturol sources ond populotions were so sporse thot pollution oJ the woter supplg did not pose a serious problem. But os civilised liJe developed ond smoll settlements grew into cities, woter monogement become o mojor concern, not onlU to supply the urbon centres but olso to irrigote the Jorms surrounding them. The solution wos to Jind o wou to roise woter up Jrom the rivers.
to control the Jlood woters "J the Tigris, Euphrotes ond the Nile. Such conols not onlg irrigoted crops
conols
but olso supplied woter Jor domestic purposes, the woter being stored in lorge pottery jors, hond-corried Jrom the river bg household sloves. The remoins the eorliest oqueduct on
"J record hove been pinpointed to the works oJ the Assyrion king ond moster builder Sennocherib (705-681 BC), who developed o 10-mile conol in three stoges, including 18 Jresh-woter courses Jrom the mountoins.
being the Jirst
B Around 5000 BC, primitive ottempts were mode bg the Eggptions. They
used the Perion Wheel, o woter-wheel thot dipped contoiners into a river, liJting up woter os it revolved. Another method wos o simple lever-ond-bucket sgstem colled shodooJ. The
Jo,
invention
the
more occurote explonotion is thot Archimedes wos the Jirst to try to describe in mothemoticol terms the
woy these devices worked.
screw, to liJt woter is oJten ottributed to Archimedes Q87-213 BC) but both devices were without doubt in use thousonds oJ yeors beJore his time. A
"J Mesopotomio, Bobylonio ond EgUpt hod constructed systems oJ doms ond
sonitotion of their woter supplg. Foced with the prlblem oJ directing-enough woter towords Rome - woter Jrom the Tiber, o muddy, smelly river, wos out q the question they set obout constructing the most extensive sgstem oqueducts in the oncient world. "J These brought the pure woters oJ the Apennine Mountoins into the city, with settling bosins ond Jilters olong the woy, to ensure the wtter's clorit! ond cleonliness. The Jirst, built oround 312 BC during Appius Cloudius Coecus's odministrotion, wos Aquo Appio, oh underground oqueduct obout 10 miles in length.
1
IELTS Reading Self-Marking Practice Exam 1
By using it, Romon orchitects could roise oqueducts to the height needed to spon volleys. The Aquo Morcion in Rome - oround 56 miles long with o
dropped. As the door hissed owo!, opening ond closing, he reolised the weight wos displocing oir ond octing
led
10-mile bridged section - wos built by the proetor Morcius in 144 BC, ond wos the Jirst to corrU woter obove ground. Eventuollg, Rome wos served bg eleven linked oqueducts. These kept the citg's tops ond Jountoins running providing on ostonishing 38 million
woter eoch doy. Ports gollons "J these ore still in use, "J severol "J such olthough the construction
mossive woter-supply sgstems declined with the Joll oJ the Romon Empire. For severol centuries oJterwords, springs ond wells provided the moin source oJ
"J
Ctesibius to investigote methods "J moving Jluids olong o pipe using o piston, ond to the Jounding principle hydroulics. Ctesibius's Jorce pump "J pumping high wos not copoble "Jit ploged o vitol volumes oJ woter but port in oncient Greek culture. Among other uses, Jorce pumps droined the bilges oJ the troding ships oJ the time. They were used to extinguish Jires ond they brought to liJe the Jountoins thot groced Alexondrio.
G pumping woterworks were completed in 1562. This pumped river woter to o reservoir suspende d 120Jt obove the Thomes. lt wos then distributed bg grovitg vio leod pipes to surrounding buildings. ln more recent times, mony oqueducts hove been built worldwide. Among them ore the oqueducts supplying woter to Glosgow (35 miles long), Morseilles (60 miles), Monchester (96
miles), Liverpool (68 miles) ond Vienno (144 miles). ColiJornio now hos the most extensive oqueduct system in the
The introduction oJ the Jorce pump in the 16'h Englond in the middle "J extended the centuru greotlu possibilities oJ development oJ wotersupply systems. This pump wos bg no meons o new invention. lt wos in Joct
Ctesibius the broinchild "J "J Alexondrio ond it dotes to the 3'o
century BC. Like oll greot engineers, Ctesibius took his inspirotion Jrom his surroundings. While working on o wog to roise ond lower a mirror in his
by
leod
the Colorodo River's Porker Dom is corried 242 miles over the Son Bernodino
weighted line Jrom the door over a pulleg ond into o pipe, which slowed the speed ot which the weight
Mountoins, supplying more thon o billion gollons o dog. ln oddition, the 338-mile Los Angeles oqueduct drows woter Jrom the Owens River in the Sierro Nevodo, giving o doilg supplg oJ oround 4 billion gollons.
2
IELTS Reading Self-Marking Practice Exam 1
Questions
1-6
for each onswer.
ryffi5ru
choose N0 M0RE THAN THREE W0RDS from the passage
Perian Wheel
(a type of water-
canals
2 ........
wheel.)
r
ol - ........
water for
and
o system of
aqueducts
(a lever and
bucket system)
r J ........
used for
to reservoir carried to
buildings through
and
invention of
keeping water in
5 ........ led to
aqueducts above ground
6 ........
Questions
7-10
Reading Passage
labelled A-G.
write the correct letter A-G in boxes 7-10 on your answer sheet.
7 8 9
10
an invention that could onty suppl.y Limited amounts of water a reference to a widespread but false beLief
reasons why water-suppty systems needed
to be devetoped
the name of the person responsibte for creating the first known aqueduct
Questions 11-13
Answer the questions below using N0 M0RE THAN THREE W0RDS
Write your onswers
tl t2
13
to
move?
What did Ctesibius succeed in causing to move? What area of science did Ctesibius help to establ.ish?
actice test
3
IELTS Reading Self-Marking Practice Exam 1
English Self-Study
HOWL OF WOLVES
EARS
U
N
A
+#*iiI#iiFiJfii=i.d+#**
U B U RB
iii
Phil Miller flies the single-engine plane in a tight circle at an altitude of about 300 feet, listening on his headset to beeping from a wolf 's radio
collar. The animal is somewhere below in a mix of patchy pine forest and low, sparse brush scattered over a snow-covered swamp. lt is a gray day, drizzlingand misty, and after the plane circles a line of pines several times, the wolf is still not visible. Then Mr Miller spots a pair their coats a peppery mix of gray, black and
cinnamon - standing casually under a pine tree, looking for all the world like they are trying to decide whether it's worth going out in the rain. lf they were really worried about the weather,
big fanfare, without big attention.' He added that because the wolves conducted their own repopulation, public reaction had been largely favourable. ln the 1950s, nofthern Minnesota had a remnant population of a few hundred wolves, Dr Treves said. After the Endangered Species Act was passed in1973, the protection
they might go to the vast Mall of America in Bloomington, Minnesota, only a two-hour drive away - or a 19O-kilometer trot, no great challenge for a wolf. These wolves are not on Arctic tundra or in the confines of Yellowstone National Park. They are in Wisconsin, not exactly the suburbs, but not the wilderness
either.
the wolves to start growing in number. There are now more than 3,000 wolves in Minnesota,
Michigan and Wisconsin.
The day after flying with Mr Miller, who tracks wolves from the air, I went with Adrian Wydeven as he drove slowly around on sandy
roads looking for wolf tracks in the same forested areas. Mr Wydeven, a mammalian ecologist, has been in charge of the wolf
programme for the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources for about 10 years. The talking stopped when we saw tracks in the sand. These were wolf tracks, not the large
dog tracks we had seen earlier. 'lf you look at these tracks,' he said, 'they're more elongated
wilderness
to
were thought emblematic of wilderness,' said Dr Adrian Treves, a biologist with the Wildlife Conservation Society in New York who has just published an analysis of what conditions
- a gallop. 'lf he's chasing after a deer, that would make sense,' Mr Wydeven said.
feet
than those other tracks.' He noted that the wolf was not trotting but running, so that both back feet set down at once and then both front
conflict. But the nearly 350 wolves of Wisconsin, in 80 known packs, have shown
that they can cope with people.
Stepping into the snow at the side of the road, he added, 'lt looks like the deer veers off a bit
'The wolves,' Dr Treves said, 'have managed to make dens and breed successfully for 25 years
here.' The tracks were fresh. 'l would say less than a day. I would say a few hours. lt could be this morning. There might be just a pair.'
The road is just a few miles from a cattle operation that has claimed significant
Practice test
4
IELTS Reading Self-Marking Practice Exam 1
ACADEMIC READIN
English Self-Study Objective: IELTS Academic Reading
depredations from wolves each year. Those attacks on livestock are the central problem in any resurgence of predators, and it is those attacks that Dr Treves has been studying. The state compensates anyone who has suffered loss from wolves. The highest risk, Dr Treves said, was 'at the colonization front' where an expanding wolf population, especially young, inexperienced wolves, comes into contact with people who are unused to coping with wolves. His findings may lead wildlife managers away
on livestock. The more refined the understanding of how wolves and people
interact, the better the chances are for keeping
the public on the side of the wolves. The wolves are doing their part to keep their
population growing. When Mr Wydeven was inspecting the tracks in the road, we came on a spot where the road was all scuffed up with tracks. 'They're milling about here,' he said. I asked whether they might be playing. 'They might be, or they might be mating,' he replied. 'We're still in the breeding season.'
From "Howl of Wolves Nears U.S. Suburbs," byJames Gorman. Copyright @ 2004 by the New York Times Co.
is
ACADEfvrIC READING
Questions
20-23
THREE W0RDS
from the plssage for each onswer. Wite your onswers fn boxes 20-23 on your onswer sheet. You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14-26 which are based on Reading Passage 2 on the following pages.
Questions 14-19 may not require an organised Reading Passage 2 has six paragraphs A-F.
Wolves in the US
20
one of the nationaI parks Choose the correct heading for each parograph from the list of headings below. o have reproduced i-x in boxes on tand your answer Wite the correct numbersfor some time 14-19 onused by 27 sheet. of various
..
kinds
Predictable behaviour i 23 Interpretingnot prevent attacks on cattle may ii evidence iii An out-of-date image of wolves iv New problems for wolves v Preventing negative views of wotves Questions 24-26 vi Wolves who may be sheltering Choose THREE letters A-F. vii Understandable reactions Wite your answers in boxes 24-26 on your onswer sheet. viii Contrasting behaviour patterns among wolves Which THREE of the following are mentjoned as new developments concerning wotves ix A largely unnoticed increase in the US? x Damage done by wolves A the ptaces they now inhabit B their abiHty to adapt to climate changes t4 Paragraph A C a change from Uving in packs to liv'ing in smaller groups D their ability to coexist15 Paragraph B with people 16 Paragraph C E the fact that they have benefited from environmental initiatives t7 Paragraph D F a change in the'ir behaviour towards other animats
a poticy of
18 19
Paragraph Paragraph
Practice
test
5
IELTS Reading Self-Marking Practice Exam 1
inexperienced wolves, comes into contact with people who are unused to coping with wolves.
His findings may lead wildlife managers away English Self-Study from lethal control, which Dr Treves said is inefficient at getting the wolves that are preying Objective: IELTS Academic Reading
Questions
was all scuffed up with tracks. 'They're milling about here,' he said. I asked whether they might be playing. 'They might be, or they might be mating,' he replied. 'We're still in the breeding season.'
From "Howl of Wolves Nears U.S. Suburbs," byJames Gorman. Copyright @ 2004 by the New York Times Co.
20-23
from the plssage for each onswer. Wite your onswers fn boxes 20-23 on your onswer sheet.
Wolves in the US
.
may not require an organised
20
one of the
nationaI parks
..
of various
a poticy of
23
Questions
24-26
in the
US?
A B C D E F
their abiHty to adapt to climate changes a change from Uving in packs to liv'ing in smaller groups their ability to coexist with people the fact that they have benefited from environmental initiatives a change in the'ir behaviour towards other animats
Practice
test
93
6
IELTS Reading Self-Marking Practice Exam 1
CADEfV1IC READING
English Self-Study You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 27-40 which are based on Reading Passage 3 on poges 94 and 95. Objective: IELTS Academic Reading
b[
are
On space missions, weightlessness and radiation are often seen as being the key dangers. But there is increasing evidence to show that one of the greatest hazards lies in the crew itself.The hostile sPace environments and the hardware are, of
course, crucial factors in any space mission. But
is the software of the human brain.
or
unexpected
so
signs
During long missions, space travellers have shown of increased territoriality, withdrawal and
need
for
privacy.
religious experience
missions
information. This is the period when crew members get testy with one another and with the ground crew.There have been reports describing how one crew member did not speak to another for days; there are even rumours of fist fights one over a chess game.Tensions frequently spill over to mission control, as they did in the Skylab strike. One Russian crew aboard a Salyut space station reportedly got so cross with mission control that they shut down communications for
24 hours. According
in 1973 and 1974 almost immediately ran into trouble. One astronaut erroneously
changed the control systems while suffering from
A House in
psychological problems. Crew members began the third mission with a schedule that was too strenuous. They
to Henry Cooper, who wrote a book, Spoce, on the loneliness of the longdistance astronaut, at least three missions have been aborted for reasons that were in part psychological. ln the 1976 Soyuz-2l mission to
and
the crew went on strike, refusing to perform scheduled tasks. Disregarding orders was an unusual and dangerous response for astronauts.
After concessions from mission control, the crew
settled down and eventually completed an 84-day
mission.
The Russians have identified three phases in adaptation to space. The first lasts up to two months and is dominated by adjustments to the
new environment. This is followed by increasing
fatigue and decreasing motivation,'asthenia'.What
the Salyut-S space station, the crew was brought home early after the cosmonauts complained fiercely of an acrid odour in the space station's environmental control system. No cause was ever found, nor did other crews smell it;conceivably, it was a hallucination. Coincidentally, the crew had not been getting along. The crew of the Soyuz T- 14 mission to Salyut-7 in 1985 was brought home after 65 days after Vladimir Vasyutin complained that he had a prostate infection. Later, the doctors believed that the problem was partly
psychological. Vasyutin had been getting behind in
and
repetitious. Next comes a lengthy period during which the asthenia, which can include depression
Alexander Laveikin returned early from the Soyuz TM-2 mission to the Mir space station in 1987
Practice test
7
IELTS Reading Self-Marking Practice Exam 1
A(iAFEfvtIC RE/A,DIN
English Self-Study Objective: IELTS Academic Reading
because he complained
- he had made
partner, Yuri
indoors by the extreme temperatures. Antarctica has served as one of the primary means of gathering psychosocial data for space missions, according to Dr John Annexstad, a space scientist and ten-time veteran of scientific missions to
Antarctica.
The same psychological phenomena curse men and women on expeditions to remote places.
During the first few months of an Antarctic mission, interpersonal problems dont play a major part. The problem arises, says Dr Annexstad, after the initial shock and awe of the
environment wear off, and crew members get to know their surroundings a little better. Then they
the Arctic wastes or the realm of the deep, causing a series of symptoms heightened anxiety, boredom, depression, loneliness, excessive fear of danger and homesickness. The scientists and support staff who work in
Antarctica have been studied by DrJoannaWood
to rebel against authority and each other.ln one ice base, anxiety episodes increased from 3 during the first four months to l9 during the last
begin
Biomedical Research
four.ln a study of personnel who wintered over in the Antarctic, 85 per cent reported periods of significant depression,65 per cent had periods of anger or hostility,60 per cent suffered from sleep disturbance, and
months, you get tired of looking at the same faces. People frequently have behaviours that might be
cognition. During
53 per cent had impaired the 1977 lnternational Biomedical Expedition to Antarctica, a l2-man
it
must'winter over' for six months out of the year. During this period, there is little contact with the outside world and groups tend to be confined
Practice
test
8
IELTS Reading Self-Marking Practice Exam 1
27-29
from Reading Passage 3.
Complete the sentences below with words taken Use N0 M0RE THAN THREE W0RDS
27 28 29
Astronauts can get into a state ..... after two months in space. psychotogical problems on both space missions and expeditions The causes of to remote places are ... together with
called
to have some
..
Questions
A-D in
30 31 32 33 34 35
to carry out their duties. One of the astronauts did not complete the mission. One of the astronauts had faited to be selected for previous miss'ions. One of the astronauts made a mistake with the equipment. The astronauts percejved something that may not have existed.
The astronauts decided not
D Soyuz TM-2
36-40
Antarctic missions
According to Dr fohn Annexstad, relationships are not an important factor during the first part of a mission because crew members lack 36 ..... with their environment and have a feeling of 37 After this, there is less 38 .. ... from crew members and the number of events caused by 39 .. ... increases enormously as the mission continues. According to some stories, relationships can even result in 4O ..... involving crew members.
expectation
sympathy
boredom
cooperation
discussion
careLessness
fami[iarity
disappointment
misunderstanding
determination
amazement
involvement tension
failure
competition
Practice test
9
IELTS Reading Self-Marking Practice Exam 1