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CAUSES:
Increasing maternal age
Increasing parity
Nutritional factors Pituitary gonadotropin Infertility therapy Assisted reproductive therapy
Fraternal Twin Fertilization of two separate ova double ovum, or dizygotic Identical Twins Twins arise from single fertilized ovum single-ovum, monozygotic Have increased incidence of discordant malformations
Superfetation An interval as long as or longer than a menstrual cycles intervenes between fertilizations. Requires ovulation and fertilization during the course of an established pregnancy Not yet proven in humans Superfecundation Fertilization of two ova within the same menstrual cycle but not as the same coitus, nor necessarily by sperm from the same male.
Determination of Zygosity
Ultrasound Can determine zygosity as early as the first trimester Dizygotic: presence of two separate placentas and a thick generally 2mm or greater dividing membrane (twin peak sign) Monozygotic: membrane generally less than 2mm in thickness and reveals only 2 layers. ( T sign) Placental Examination Visual examination of the placenta and membranes Placenta should be carefully delivered to preserve the attachment of the amnion and chorion to the placenta Infant Sex and Zygosity Twins of the opposite sex are almost always dizygotic
Maternal Adaptation
Nausea and vomiting in excess of that
characterizing singleton pregnancies. Maternal blood volume expansion is greater Increased in cardiac out of 20% Blood loss for twin delivery via NSD 935 ml
Pregnancy Outcome
Abortion Malformation
- Defects resulting from twinning itself. This category includes conjoined twinning, acardiac anomaly, sirenomelia, neural-tube defects, and holoprosencephaly. - Defects resulting from vascular interchange between monochorionic twins. Vascular connections may also conduct dramatic blood pressure fluctuations, causing defects such as microcephaly, hydranencephaly, intestinal atresia, aplasia cutis, or limb amputation. - Defects that occur as the result of crowding. Low birthweight Preterm birth
Conjoined Twins
Anterior (thoracopagus)
Posterior (pygopagus)
Cephalic (craniopagus) Caudal (ischiopagus)
Conjoined Twins
Acardiac Twin
Twin reversed-arterial-perfusion (TRAP) sequence is
a rare (1 in 35,000 births) but serious complication of monochorionic, monozygotic multiple gestation. In the TRAP sequence, there is usually a normally formed donor twin who has features of heart failure as well as a recipient twin who lacks a heart (acardius) and various other structures. Caused in the embryo by a large artery-to-artery placental shunt, often also accompanied by a vein-tovein shunt. The perfusion pressure of the donor twin overpowers that in the recipient twin, who thus receives reverse blood flow from its twin sibling.
Acardiac Twin
acardius acephalus -
Failure or disrupted growth of the head acardius myelacephalus partially developed head with identifiable limbs acardius amorphous failure of any recognizable structure to form
Management
Without treatment, the donor or "pump" twin has
been reported to die in 50 to 75 percent Methods of in utero treatment of acardiac twinning: goal is interruption of the vascular communication between the donor and recipient twins.
sibling such that the donor becomes anemic and its growth may be restricted, whereas the Recipient becomes polycythemic and may develop circulatory overload manifest as hydrops. Donor twin - pale, recipient sibling plethoric Fetal consequences: circulatory overload with heart failure Occlusive thrombosis is also much more likely to develop in this setting. Polycythemia may lead to severe hyperbilirubinemia and kernicterus
Pathophysiology:
Presence of solitary, deep arteriovenous channels
within the capillary beds of the villous tissue. Velamentous umbilical cord insertion may contribute to the development of unequal fetal blood volumes because the membranously inserted cord can be easily compressed, restricting blood flow to one twin.
Diagnosis:
postnatal diagnosis:
- weight discordancy between twins of 15 20% - hemoglobin level difference of 5 g/dL or greater Typically presents in the midtrimester when the donor fetus becomes oliguric due to decreased renal perfusion. Develops oligohydramnios, and the recipient fetus develops severe hydramnios, presumably due to increased urine production. Virtual absence of amnionic fluid in the donor sac prevents fetal motion, giving rise to the descriptive term stuck twin. Hydramniosoligohydramnios combination can lead to growth restriction, contractures, and pulmonary hypoplasia in one twin, and premature rupture of the membranes and heart failure in the other.
Management:
amnioreduction
septostomy
laser ablation of vascular anastomoses selective feticide
Discordant Twins
Size inequality of twin fetuses, which may be a sign of
pathological growth restriction in one fetus, is calculated using the larger twin as the index. As the weight difference within a twin pair increases, perinatal mortality increases proportionately. Restricted growth of one twin fetus usually develops late in the second and early third trimester and is often asymmetrical. Earlier discordancy is usually symmetrical and indicates higher risk for fetal demise. The earlier in pregnancy discordancy develops, the more serious the sequelae.
Pathology
In monochorionic twins, discordancy is usually
attributed to placental vascular anastomoses that cause hemodynamic imbalance between the twins. Dizygotic fetuses may have different genetic growth potential, especially if they are of opposite genders.
Diagnosis
Weight of larger twin minus weight of smaller
twin, divided by weight of larger twin. Most useful index of size discordancy ultrasonographic assessment of twin discordancy: abdominal circumference superior to head circumference, femur length, or transverse cerebellar diameter
Management
Ultrasonographic monitoring of growth within a
twin pair has become a mainstay in the management. Other ultrasonographic findings, such as oligohydramnios, may be helpful in gauging fetal risk. Depending on the degree of discordancy and the gestattional age, fetal surveillance may be indicated, especially if one or both fetuses exhibit growth restriction. Delivery is usually not performed for size discordancy alone, except occasionally at advanced gestational ages.
gestational age at the time of the demise, the chorionicity, and the length of time between the demise and delivery of the surviving twin. Early demise such as a "vanishing twin" does not appear to increase the risk of death in the surviving fetus after the first trimester. Later in gestation, the death of one of multiple fetuses could theoretically trigger coagulation defects in the mother. Management decisions should be based on the cause of death and the risk to the surviving fetus. Majority of cases of a single fetal death in twin pregnancy involve monochorionic placentation.
prevented. Failure of one or both fetuses to thrive be identified and fetuses so afflicted be delivered before they become moribund. Fetal trauma during labor and delivery be avoided. Expert neonatal care be available.
Diet
Requirements for calories, protein, minerals,
vitamins, and essential fatty acids are further increased in women with multiple fetuses. Caloric consumption should be increased by another 300 kcal/day. Supplementation with 60 to 100 mg/day of iron and with 1 mg of folic acid is recommended.
Antepartum Surveillance
Assessment of amnionic fluid volume - associated
oligohydramnios may indicate uteroplacental pathology and should prompt further evaluation of fetal well-being. The nonstress test or biophysical profile is commonly used in management of twin or higherorder multiple gestation. Doppler evaluation of vascular resistance Increased resistance with diminished diastolic flow velocity often accompanies restricted fetal growth.
Tocolytic therapy
Corticosteroids for lung maturation Cerclage not been shown to improve perinatal
outcome Twin gestation with preterm ruptured membranes are managed expectantly much like singleton pregnancies.
remain with the mother throughout labor. Continuous external electronic monitoring or, if the membranes are ruptured and the cervix dilated, simultaneous evaluation of both the presenting fetus by internal electronic monitoring and the remaining sibling(s) by external monitors, is typically used. Blood transfusion products should be readily available. An intravenous infusion system capable of delivering fluid rapidly should be established. In the absence of hemorrhage or metabolic disturbance during labor, lactated Ringer or an aqueous dextrose solution is infused at a rate of 60 to 120 mL/hr. An obstetrician skilled in intrauterine identification of fetal parts and in intrauterine manipulation of a fetus should be present.
available to help evaluate the position and status of the remaining fetus(es) after delivery of the first. An experienced anesthesiologist should be immediately available in the event that intrauterine manipulation or cesarean delivery is necessary. For each fetus, two people, one of whom is skilled in resuscitation and care of newborns, are appropriately informed of the case and remain immediately available. The delivery area should provide adequate space for all members of the team to work effectively. Moreover, the site should be appropriately equipped to take care of any maternal problems plus resuscitation and maintenance of each neonate.
clinicians because it provides excellent pain relief and can be rapidly extended cephalad if internal podalic version or cesarean delivery is required.
Vaginal Delivery
When the first twin is cephalic, delivery can
usually be accomplished spontaneously or with forceps. As in singletons, when the first fetus presents as a breech, major problems are most likely to develop if: - fetus is unusually large and the aftercoming head is larger than the capacity of the birth canal. - Fetus is sufficiently small so that the extremities and trunk are delivered through a cervix inadequately effaced and dilated to allow the head to escape easily.
delivered, the presenting part of the second twin, its size, and its relationship to the birth canal should be quickly and carefully ascertained by combined abdominal, vaginal, and at times intrauterine examination.
the pelvic inlet but is not fixed in the birth canal Presenting part can often be guided into the pelvis by one hand in the vagina while a second hand on the uterine fundus exerts moderate pressure caudally. Alternatively, an assistant can maneuver the presenting part into the pelvis using ultrasonography for guidance and to monitor heart rate. It is essential to have an obstetrician skilled in intrauterine fetal manipulation and an anesthesiologist skilled in providing anesthesia to effectively relax the uterus for vaginal delivery of a noncephalic second twin to obtain a favorable outcome.
Gynecologists (1998) has determined that the interval between delivery of twins is not critical in determining the outcome of the twin delivered second.
Cesarean Delivery
The American College of Obstetricians and
Gynecologists (1998) has concluded that, in general, cesarean delivery is the method of choice when the first twin is noncephalic. It is important to place patients in a left lateral tilt so as to deflect the uterine weight off the aorta to avoid hypotension. The uterine incision should be large enough to allow atraumatic delivery of both fetuses. It is important that the uterus remain well contracted during completion of the cesarean delivery and thereafter. Remarkable blood loss may be concealed within the uterus and vagina and beneath the drapes during the time taken to close the incisions.