YouCANPassYour

.
typesare: QUALITATIVE:Descriptions withoutnumber.(Ex)The bookisheavy. QUANITATIVE:Descriptions thatusenumbers.(Ex)The bookhas250pages. Step2:MakeaHYPOTHESIS.Thisisan educatedguessbasedon qualitativeandquantitativedata. Scientistshouldlookfor2 variablesintryingtofind answerstotheproblem. INDEPENDENTVARIABLE(IV) ThethingIchange DEPENDENTVARIABLE(DV) ThethingImeasure

BiologySOL!
.
EXPERIMENT.Eachhas: 1. CONTROLGROUP:thegroup thatstaysthesame(doesnt receivetheIV).Itsneededto compare. 2. EXPERIMENTALGROUP:the groupthatismanipulated(the groupyouareperformingthe experimenton).Thisgroup receivestheIV. Step4:MakeaCONCLUSIONorTHEORY Ifthedatagatheredfromyour controlledexperimentsupport yourhypothesis,youaccept yourconclusion. Ifthedatadoesntsupport yourhypothesis,startover!

*****ScientistsusetheSCIENTIFICMETHODtohelpthemanswerquestionsandsolveproblemsaboutthenaturalworld.***** Step1:MakeanOBSERVATION.Thetwo Step3:SetupaCONTROLLED

Scientific Method

HowtoIdentifyVariableson aGraph:

YaxisistheDV. ThethingImeasure

XaxisistheIV. ThethingIchange

*Watermakeslifepossible!Itsauniversalsolvent,comesinthreestates,andhasahighspecificheattoregulatetemperature*

Water & its Properties

has2hydrogenand1oxygen. Waterhasapositiveside(hydrogen)anda negativeside(oxygen).Thesecharges allowwatertosticktootherthingsthat alsohaveacharge. HYDROGENBONDSholdwatertoitself andtootherchargedsubstances.

ThechemicalformulaofwaterisH2O.It

Whenwaterstickstootherthings(likea carwindow)ADHESIONistakingplace. WhenwaterstickstoitselfCOHESIONis takingplace

Watercomesin3states:solid,liquidor gas.Inthesolidstate(ice),waterisless densethantheliquidstate.Icefloats! WaterhasaHIGHSPECIFICHEAT.Itcan absorbalotofenergywithoutincreasing itsowntemperature.Thisiswhywater takessolongtoboil! Weusethispropertytohelpus regulateourbodytemperature. Whenourbodytemperaturegets toohigh,westarttoPERSPIRE (sweat).

Wedonotwantourbodytemperature tofluctuateverymuchbecauseit wouldalterchemicalreactions (METABOLISM).When metabolismisthrownoff, HOMEOSTASIS(balance)isalso thrownoff.Thiscanleadtodeath!!!!

pH Scale

SubstanceswithapHbelow7arecalledAcids.SubstanceswithapHabove7arecalledBases.SubstanceswithapHof7areNeutral.Wateris theonlyneutralsubstance.

ThepHscaleactuallymeasurestheamountofHYDROGENIONS(H+)thatarepresentinasolution.pHcouldstandforTHEPOWEROF HYDROGEN.ThelowerthepHvalue,thegreatertheamountofhydrogenions(H+)presentinthesolution

*Alllivingthingsarecomposedof4macromolecules.Macromoleculesarelargepolymers(theprefixpolymeansmany) thatarecomposedoflotsofsmallerbuildingblockscalledmonomers(theprefixmonomeansone).*
1. Carbohydrates:Theonly macromoleculethatisusedfor ENERGY.Carbohydrateisafancy wordforSUGAR.Themostimportant sugarisGLUCOSE(C6H12O6).The buildingblocksofcarbohydratesare MONOSACCHARIDES.

Macromolecules Macromolecules

2.

Lipids:Theonlymacromoleculeused toSTOREENERGYandtoprovide INSULATION.Therearethreeclasses oflipids(fats,oils&waxes).The buildingblocksoflipidsareFATTY ACIDS. Proteins:Theonlymacromolecule thatcanSPEEDUPCHEMICAL REACTIONSandprovide STRUCTURE&SUPPORT.The buildingblocksofproteinsareAMINO ACIDS. NucleicAcids:Theonly macromoleculesthatTRANSMITS HEREDITYINFORMATION.There aretwotypesofnucleicacids:DNA& RNA.Theirbuildingblocksare NUCLEOTIDES.

Enzyme

3.

4.

*Enzymesarebiologicalcatalysts.Theyspeedupchemicalreactionsandregulatemetabolism.Enzymesareproteinsthatcan lowerachemicalreactionsactivationenergy*
EnzymesareCATALYSTS.Catalysts SPEEDthingsup! Withoutenzymes,chemicalreactions (metabolism)wouldhappentooslowlyto keepyoualive. Enzymesareshapespecific.Enzymescan onlycatalyzereactants(Substrates)if theycanfitinsidetheenzymesACTIVE SITE. Enzymesspeedupchemicalreactionsby LOWERINGACTIVATIONENERGY. Activationenergyistheamountofenergy neededtostartachemicalreaction. ActivationEnergyworkslikeaspeed bump. Thebiggertheactivationenergy theslowerthechemicalreaction Thesmallertheactivation energythefasterthechemical reaction.

Enzymes

*Themicroscopeisoneofthemostimportanttoolsinbiology.Itallowedscientiststodiscoverthecellandallofitsstructures.*
knowaboutmicroscopes: 1. DeterminingTotal Magnification:Multiplythe eyepiece(thatisalways10x)by theobjectivelens(thelensesthat canberotated) 10xObjectiveLens=TotalMag. 2. MakingaWetMountSlide: Alwaysplacethecoversliponat a45 Angletopreventair bubbles.

...

Theareonly2thingsthatyouneedto

Microscopes&theCell

Microscopy

****Everythinglivingthingsismadeupofatleastonecell.Cellsarethelowestlevelofstructureoflivingthingsthatcanstill performalltheactivities(metabolism).**** Alllivingthingsaremadeupofonlyoneof CellofEukaryotes twotypeofcells: PROKARYOTICCELLSor EUKARYOTICCELLS. Prokaryotesaresimple,small, andlackanucleus.Theonly exampleofaprokaryoteis BACTERIA. Eukaryotesarecomplex,large, andcontainanucleusandlotsof organelles.Allprotists,fungji, plantsandanimalsaremadeup PlantCell AnimalCell ofeukaryoticcells. ****EukaryotescontainmembraneboundORGANELLES.Eachorganelleperformsaspecificjobinthecelltohelpmaintain metabolismandhomeostasis.**** 1. NUCLEUS:Thisisthecontrolcenter 7. CHLOROPLAST:Thisisfoundinplantsandisthesiteof ofthecell.ItcontainsthecellsDNA photosynthesis. andcontrolsthecellsmetabolismand 8. CELLWALL:Thisisarigidlayerfoundontheoutsideofplant homeostasis. cells.Itgivesplantcellstheiruniquerectangularshape. 2. MITOCHONDRIA:Thisisthepower 9. CELLMEMBRANE:Thissurroundsallcells.Itmaintains plantofthecell.Thecellsenergy homeostasisbycontrollingwhatcanenterandleavethecell. supply(ATP)ismadeherevia ItscomposedoftwolayersofPHOSPHOLIPIDS. CELLULARRESPIRATION. ThePHOSPHOLIPIDBILAYERhasapolarheadandtwo 3. RIBOSOMES:Thesearethesitesof nonpolartails.Thisallowsthingsthataresmalland proteinsynthesisforthecell. nonpolartocrossthemembranewithoutaskingfor 4. GOLGIAPPARATUS:Thisisthepost permission. officeofthecell.Itpackagesand Foodandrawmaterialsfor exportsmaterialsinandaroundthe chemicalreactionsmustbe cell. abletocrossthemembrane. 5. ENDOPLASMICRETICULUM:There aretwokinds:smoothandrough. Wastemustbeabletoleave Bothhelptomovethingsaroundthe themembrane. cell.Theyworklikeasystemofroads inthecell. 6. LYSOSOMES:Thesearethegarbage cansofthecell.Theybreakdown waste. ...

Cell Structures

Cell Structures

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Cells: An Overview

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Oncethemicroscopewasinvented, ROBERTHOOKEwasabletoseeand namethetinystructuresthatmakeuplife whilestudyingcork.Hewasthefirst persontousethewordCELL.

WiththehelpofHookeandother scientistsworkingwiththemicroscope, theCELLTHEORYwascreated. THECELLTHEORY: 1. Alllivingthingsarecomposedof cells. 2. Cellsarethebasicunitsof structureandfunctionoflife. 3. Cellscanonlycomefrompre existingcells.

 ****Substancesneedtobeabletotravelintoandoutofcellacrossthecellmembrane.Thismovementcaneitherhappen spontaneously(byitself)orwiththeinputofenergy(ATP)**** Thereare3typesofPASSIVETransport: Therearetwotypesoftransport:PASSIVE &ACTIVE 1. DIFFUSION:themovementofsubstancesfromaregionofhighconcentrationto lowconcentration. 1. PASSIVETRANSPORT:This 2. OSMOSIS:themovementofwaterfromaregionofhighconcentrationtolow movessubstancesacross concentration. membranesfromregionsofhigh concentrationtolow 3. FACILITATEDDIFFISION:themovementofsubstancesfromhightolowwiththe concentrationwithoutenergy. helpofatransportprotein. 2. ACTIVETRANSPORT:This movessubstancesacross membranesfromregionsoflow concentrationtohigh concentrationwithenergy(ATP) Examples:Endocytosis& Exocytosis ****CELLULARRESPIRATIONandPHOTOSYNTHESISareprocessesthatallowcellstouseandmakeenergytokeepthecell alive.Theyhaveacyclicalrelationshipwithoneanother.Theydependononeanother!**** Photosynthesis CellularRespiration CELLULARRESPIRATION isaprocess PHOTOSYNTHESISisaprocessthatturns thatturnssugar( glucoseC6H12O6)into lightenergyfromthesunintofood CO2 O2 usableenergyforthecell(ATP). (glucose)forplants.Plantsandorganisms thatmaketheirownfoodarecalled HETEROTROPHS (organismswhocannot AUTOTROPHS.Autotrophsperform maketheirownfood)usethisprocessto photosynthesisintheirCHLOROPLASTS. Chloroplast releaseATPfromfoodinthe MITOCHONDRIA . INPUT(Reactants):Chloroplasts takeincarbondioxideandsunlight. INPUT(Reactants):Mitochondria takeinoxygenandglucose OUTPUTS(Products):Chloroplasts Glucose releaseoxygenandglucose. OUTPUTS(Products):Mitochondria releasecarbondioxideandATP!!!! Mitochondria ****DNAisadoublehelixcomposedof2complementarystrands.Ithas4nucleotidescomposedofeitherA,T,C,orG:Apairs withT,GpairswithC.ThisstructuremakesDNAREPLICATIONandPROTEINSYNTHESISpossible.!**** WhenDNAneedstodivide,DNAREPLICATIONbegins.Theweakhydrogenbonds thatareholdingthetwostrandsofDNAtogetherbreakapartandtheDNAunzips. ThetwooriginalstrandsofDNAthenbecometemplatesfornewdaughterstrandsof DNAthatwillform. ..

Transport

Metabolism

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DNA

.....

****TheprocessofturningDNAintoproteinsfollowsaspecificorder.Itstartsinthenucleusandendsattheribosome.**** rst,DNAisturnedintoMESSENGERRNA F (mRNA).RNAistheskinnycousinofDNA whichmeansitcanleavethenucleus.RNA issinglestranded.Itonestrandlooks almostidenticaltoDNAwiththeexception ofthenitrogenbaseURACIL.Uraciltakes theplaceofthymine.,soUpairswithA. MakingRNAfromDNAiscalled TRANSCRIPTION. Next,themessagetransferredfromDNAto mRNAmakesitwaytotheribosome(the siteofproteinsynthesis). MakingproteinsfrommRNAis calledTRANSLATION. ****DNAisthecellsgeneticmaterial.Itmustbecopiedbeforethecellcandivide.Tohelpwiththis,theDNAispackaging intostructurescalledCHROMOSOMES.Humanshave46chromosomesthatmustbecopiedexactlybeforethecellcandivide. TheprocessofcelldivisioniscalledMITOSIS.Mitosishas4steps:PROPHASE,METAPHASE,ANAPHASE&TELOPHASE.**** ChromosomeStructure: ****GENETICSisthestudyofheredity.AGENEisabasicunitofheredity.AnALLELEisoneoftwoormorealternativeforms ofaspecificgene.Twoallelesmakeupagene.GREGORMENDELcrossedpeastodevelopthegenetictheorywestilluse.**** Therearetwotypesofalleles: Exampleofamonohybridcross:Consideracrossbetweenatruebreedingtallplant (TT)andatruebreedingshortplant(tt). DOMINANTALLELES:Theexpressed trait.Representedbyacapitalletter. RECESSIVEALLELES:Theunexpressed trait.Representedbyalowercaseletter. Thetwoletters(representingtwoalleles) representanorganismsGENOTYPE. Therearetwotypesofgenotypes: HOMOZYGOUS:twoidenticalalleles (TT)or(tt) HETEROZYGOUS:twodifferent alleles(Tt) Theexpressionofthegenotype(physical appearanceofthegene)isthe PHENOTYPE. Wecanusetheparentgenotypesto predictwhatoffspringmightlooklike. Monohybridcrossescanbecompletedby usingaPUNNETSQUARE.

Genetics

Cell Division

DNA (continued)

Evolution

The6kingdomsofthelifeare: 1. Archaebacteria:Prokaryoticorganismsthatareonly foundinextremeenvironments. 2. Eubacteria:Singlecelled,prokaryoticorganismsthat cancausesickness(Example:streptococcus& salmonella) 3. Protist:Singlecelled,eukaryoticorganismsthatcan beeitherheterotrophic(protozoa)orautotrophic (algae). 4. Fungi:Multicellulareukaryoticorganismswithcell wallscomposedofchitin.Theseorganismsare externaldigesters(heterotrophic). 5. Plant:Multicellulareukaryoticautotrophswithcell wallscomposedofcellulose. 6. Animal:Multicellulareukaryicheterotrophsthatdo nothavecellwalls. ****EVOLUTIONistheprocessbywhichspecieschangeovertime.ItsbroughtonbytheprocessofNATURALSELECTION. Naturalselectionallowsforindividualswithcertaintraitstosuccessfullysurviveandreproduce,passingthosetraitstothe nextgeneration.**** ASPECIESisagroupofindividualsthatcaninterbreedandproduce SPECIATIONistheprocessbywhichnew fertileoffspring. speciesarise. Thehorseandzebraarebothmembersoftheirownspecies. Therearetwomechanismsthatcan Howdoweknow?Whenweforcethemtomate,theiroff leadtonewspecies: spring(azebroid)isnotfertile. o GeographicIsolation:the physicalseparationofspecies populationsbygeographic barriers(Example:oceansand mountains) o ReproductiveIsolation: IsolationWITHOUTthe presenceofaphysicalbarrier. (Example:Onegroupof individualsonlymatesinthe fall,andanotheronly reproducesinthespring.) EvidenceforEvolution
Scientistscanuselayersofundisturbed rocktodeterminetherelativeageof fossilizedorganisms.TheOLDESTfossils willalwaysbeatthebottomofthecolumn andtheYOUNGESTatthetop. Thistechniqueiscalledthe PRINCIPLEOFSUPERPOSITION.

****Alloflifecanbeclassifiedinoneof6kingdoms.Eachkingdomcanbebrokendownintoevensmallerunitsfor classification.ThemoderndayclassificationsystemisbasedonatwowordnamingsystemcalledBINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE.ThisnamingsysteminvolvesanorganismsGENUSandSPECIES.****

1.Fossils

****Scientistshave3areasoffocusthatprovideevidenceforevolution.**** 2.Anatomy 3.Biochemistry

HOMOLOGOUSSTRUCTURES:Structures thatlookSIMILARtooneanother.These demonstratedescentfromaCOMMON ANCESTOR (DivergentEvolution) ANALOGOUSSTRUCTURES:Different structuresthatperformsimilarfunctions. Theenvironmentforcesunrelated individualstodevelopstructuresto performsimilarfunction.NOCOMMON ANCESTOR!(ConvergentEvolution)

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Classification

Remember:OrganismsthathavemoreDNAin commonarecloselyrelated!Thismeansthat organismsthathavemoreproteinsincommon arealsocloselyrelated. Lookattheaminoacidchainofunknownanimal: MetGlySerTyrTyrArgHisHisGluLys Itmostcloselyresembles? Horse:MetGlySerSerTyrArgArgAspHisGlu Dog:MetGlySerTyrTyrArgHisAspGluLys Cat:MetGlySerTyrTyrArgHisHisArgCys Mouse:MetGlySerTyrTyrArgHisGluValVal Ourunknownanimalismostcloselyrelatedto thedog!Theresonly1differenceintheprotein sequence.

MetGlySerTyrTyrArgHisAspGluLys