ISSN: 0976-3759

ISSN: 0976-3759

Journal of SCHOOL SOCIAL WORK

March 2013

Journal of SCHOOL SOCIAL WORK

March 2013

ISSN: 0976-3759

ISSN: 0976-3759

Journal of SCHOOL SOCIAL WORK

March 2013

Journal of SCHOOL SOCIAL WORK

March 2013

ISSN: 0976-3759

ISSN: 0976-3759

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M a r c h 2013 Page Contents Editorial D rVijayalakshmi V 02 Handling Parent-Child Power Struggles D rH i t e s hNJ a g a n i and Radhika P Joshi 03 Power Struggles in Parenting Teens S u n d a r a v a l l iT 07 Sexuality Education: A Study in Karnataka J a g a d i s h B and Dr Siddegowda Y S 13 Evidence-Based Social Work Practice: Zimbabwe Seeks the Way Tawanda Masuka and Richard Gamuchirai Banda 21 April 2013 HSE: Dr Rajendrakumar PATTERN RECOGNITION May 2013 HSE: Dr Amali Megala CONTROL Vs. AUTONOMY

Volume IX Issue 10

PINCODE: Thanking you, Yours truly,

Honorary Special Editor: Dr Vijayalakshmi V

Assistant Professor, School of Social Sciences and Languages, VIT University, Vellore 632014

Focus: Power Struggle

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Note: Views expressed by the contributors are not necessarily the official view of the Journal.

Journal of SCHOOL SOCIAL WORK

March 2013

Journal of SCHOOL SOCIAL WORK

March 2013

ISSN: 0976-3759

ISSN: 0976-3759

Editorial The Power of Love The most common power struggle creation of unpleasantness. Power which we could see in our everyday struggles can damage the life is that between parents and relationship between you and your children. Generally everyone wants child; no one feels particularly friendly to feel powerful. Our children are no or loving toward someone with whom exception from these feelings. So, they are battling. the more we do to give them Along with that it can become appropriate ways to feel powerful the habitual. Its a habitual power fewer will be the power struggles. struggle if a mom and daughter battle Theres a natural tension between every morning about what the child parents and children primarily due to is wearing to college. While no one parents responsibility to guide a likes these routines, they are difficult childs action and the childs to end once they are embedded in a inclination to manage himself. Power relationship. struggles occur when either overstep Parents usually get into power their bounds. struggle with their children not Even when a child feels valued, because they are overly controlling loved and respected he will still but because they are afraid or create power struggles because after inexperienced. If the power struggle all, he is human. But if parents is a daily affair and remains consistently keep in mind why their unresolved or turns ugly by the day, child does this the struggle can be it is time to seek professional help to effectively handled and even be to end the battle. Power struggle is avoided altogether. essential for autonomy, but when it In power struggles, theres a persists, parents may lose influence strong element of emotion. You in the lives of their children. So, a insist on one thing and the child professional support from a school demands another, both of you dig in social worker is needed to your heels and when the power understand the different problems struggles ends, often nothing is and to learn possible handling resolved and you find yourself in a techniques to manage and reduce similar battle the next day. power struggle between parents and Sometimes, both the parties feel that children. Nip the struggle in the bud none gained anything except the but not autonomy, at any cost! 02 Journal of SCHOOL SOCIAL WORK March 2013

Handling Parent-Child Power Struggles

Hitesh N Jagani* Radhika P Joshi**
* Dr Hitesh N Jagani, Coordinator, Swami Vivekanand Post Graduate Academy, P. G. Centre of Social Work, Bhavnagar (Gujarat) Email: hitesh28jagani@gmail.com ** Radhika P Joshi Lecturer, Swami Vivekanand Post Graduate Academy, P. G. Centre of Social Work, Bhavnagar (Gujarat) Email: joshi_rqdhika1988@yahoo.com,

Introduction: 1.To teach the child lifelong skills Battles between parents and for good character, such as children about who is going to do what responsibility and self-control. and when are as old as life itself. 2.To protect the child. These power struggles test parental 3.To instill values. patience, endurance, and common Self-control of parents: sense. Every parent knows that From the childs point of view, power struggles are not fun and power struggles are often reaction to usually nobody wins parent or punishment in the forms of rebellion, child. They can be stressful, retaliation, fear, and/ or passive unpleasant and destructive to a resistance. When parents and harmonious family life and parent- children are locked in a power child relationship. When we ask struggle, it is important for the parent parents to envision their future to stay calm and let go for the relationship with their child as a moment as they are more mature. The teenager, What qualities do you want time to re-examine the needs of the the relationship to have? the parents parents and child causing the power almost always answer with the struggle is later, when the emotional qualities of: open communication, temperature in the relationship goes shared feelings, thoughts and values, down. Unmet needs: fun times together, mutual respect, Children dont misbehave; they act and being approachable when their in inappropriate ways to get their child has problems. needs met. Parents have to meet Discipline style: Every child needs discipline, and those needs and teach children how the discipline style can provide to get them met in socially connection or disconnection in the appropriate ways. Children are like relationship. The goals of discipline icebergs. We see the tip of the iceberg (behaviour) protruding out of are: 03 Journal of SCHOOL SOCIAL WORK March 2013

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the water. Most of the time, we dont to them is indeed mammoth. The even look at the massive submerged parents are often at their wits end with portion of needs and feelings that the childs continual demands and prompt the behaviour. Once the over-stepping the expectations the underlying needs and feelings of the parent has about the childs child are recognized and addressed, behaviour, how they dress, what they the behaviour often improves. eat, and how they talk. Yet these Disciplinary tools: challenges are a normal part of life The most common disciplinary as parents and children struggle in tools used for younger children upto relating to each other. As years go preschool age are redirection, by, the arguments may change from substitution, supervision, offering not eating enough vegetables to choices, changing the environment, living with someone outside of ensuring enough nourishment, sleep, marriage. Both the parent and the stimulation and attention. Most child want to win and neither seems discipline at this age is prevention. flexible enough to compromise. What The most effective disciplining tools causes these unpleasant struggles? used for older, school-aged children The child is torn between the need and teens are active listening, I to become their own person and messages, time in, changing the become independent, and their environment, modelling, related dependence on mom or dad for consequences, and problem- guidance and support. The parent solving. A crucial disciplining tool wants the child to become a selfoften overlooked is meeting the reliant individual, yet has a hard time needs of parents. Parents who are letting go. The good news is that hungry, tired, stressed, need support power struggles are a childs healthy and a time-out doesnt often make desire for autonomy and identity. Of their best parenting decisions. course the parent wants a confident, Indian concern: independent child. Indias concern for children is Tips to reduce power struggle: evident in the constitutional The following are some useful provisions, policies, programmes ways to reduce and even eradicate and legislation. But, for a nation with power struggles: 160 million children of less than 6 1. Stay cool, and remember whos years of age, the task of reaching out in charge. When the parent gets 04 Journal of SCHOOL SOCIAL WORK March 2013

into a power struggle and overreacts, they lose authority over their children. Parents convey genuine authority by keeping their cool. When they overreact, they lose it. 2. Establish a few ironclad rules and stick to them. Decide on four or five non-negotiable demands that reflect your personal values and practical goals, such as: no hitting; no TV until homework is finished. Dont wrangle over details or negotiate. Simply say, Sorry that is against house rules. And drop it. Often children will try to start another argument. Dont overexplain and dont renegotiate. Just point to the list. 3. Focus on what really matters. Many power struggles are not worth the trouble. Does it matter if their bedroom is not ready? Would it be the end of civilization if they played one more round of Nintendo? Would it stunt their growth if they wore sloppy clothes and oversized tennis shoes? Of course not. Knowing when to forgo an argument is one of the keys to successful parenting. Keeping battles to a minimum and concentrating on issues that genuinely affect the childs wellbeing is critical.

4. Have realistic expectations. Part of establishing simple, nonnegotiable age-appropriate rules is making sure parents have realistic expectations. Children cant be expected to behave like adults. 5. Establish an environment that encourages children to go along with your agenda. Many classic power struggles revolve around bodily issues sleeping, eating, toileting, dressing. Offer limited choices in each of these areas that guide your child toward your goal and that gives him/her a sense of power, even if the choices are limited. Also, look for opportunities to support and agree with your child. Refrain from saying a routine no. 6. Spend positive time. The parent should spend at least 10 minutes a day alone reading or playing with the child. Also, the parent could spend an additional 30 minutes a week playing with the child games, sports doing something the child wants to do. These positive attention activities can strengthen their interaction and lessen the impact of potential parent-child conflict. 7. Understand your childs pace. Being rushed is not compatible 05 Journal of SCHOOL SOCIAL WORK March 2013

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with a childs natural rhythm. The slow response, which is seen by the parent as a challenge to their authority, is normal for children. Time runs much slower for children than the hectic pace of working adults. 8. Avoid disagreements when pressed for time. Stress and fatigue, on the part of either the parent or child, can turn a benign disagreement into a full-blown power struggle. When fresh, comments or requests can be easily handled. When tired or stressed out, the same comment can trigger heated debates. 9. Be creative. When the childs cooperation is got creatively, power struggles may evaporate. If cleaning their room is a problem, set a timer and have a 10-minute cleanup blitz, with an agreement that you will stop precisely when the buzzer sounds.

Is it worth the trouble? Sometimes parents wonder whether it is worth their while to have a power struggle at all. Parents have to regulate the childs behaviour if the childs health or safety or a deeply held value is at stake. Parents need not unduly worry about what others will think. The routine No can be avoided. They have to learn to accommodate the childs needs for new experiences without compromising on their own belief system and firmly established family rules. Conclusion: Power struggle though inevitable can be regulated and reduced with patience, creativity and clear rules in the family framed with the age of child in mind. Todays power struggle is tomorrows independence. Let us help our children become independent. Children raised in a dictatorship cant function as an adult in a democracy.

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Power Struggles in Parenting Teens

Sundaravalli T*
*Sundaravalli T, Assistant Professor in Psychology, St. Justins College of Education, Madurai.

References: Deborah Kent (1996): Power Plays Your Children will Always Try to Test the Limits of Your Authority. Heres How to be Fair and Firm . Working Mother, July/ August 1996). Datta V R (1994): Developmental Differences among Pre-school Children in Group Care and In-Home Care. Project Report. Mumbai, Tata Institute of Social Sciences, 1994. GOI (1985): Child in India: A Statistical Profile, New Delhi: Ministry of Social Welfare.

Introduction: Almost all children become increasingly resistant to parental authority as they grow older. For many children, that resistance is acted out in socially acceptable ways. But some children really get entrenched in power struggles. They may become defiant, not just resistant. Their most common answer is No, Im not going to do it. When you tell them there will be consequences, theyll tell you they dont care. This is mainly due to their over-confidence. Control Vs. Autonomy: Power is one of the strategies people use to get their needs and wants met. As children grow, we can see them trying to gain power in order to get more autonomy and control over their lives. When the child was an infant, parents had almost all the power. When children are young, they express their discomfort by crying; that was the only power he had. As the child grows older, he takes more responsibilityand with more responsibility comes more power. He learned to look after himself. He communicated that he was hungry or, and he also learned

that refusing to do chores gave him some power. He learned to do his homeworkand refusing to do it also gave him power. Remember, there is no such thing as positive or negative power: its simply power with positive or negative values. Empowering the teens: There are many things in life that are empowering children as they grow as teens. Certainly information, knowledge and communication skills are empowering in a constructive way. And also sadly, violence, abuse, and threats can be empowering in a destructive way. If children learn the latter lesson at any point in their development, they can become entrenched in a way of behaving where they use acting out, threats and verbal abuse to get what they want. This is a dangerous path for children to tread, and parents should treat this behaviour with care when it first develops. Perception is everything: When teens engage in power struggles with parents, although it may look like theyre trying to control their parents generally they dont think of it this way. They just feel that March 2013 07

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whatever is going on isnt fairor that denied to them. So teens can develop a way of its not their fault. In fact, they probably arent even aware theyre testing looking at some of their parents parents power. They see it as, I dont decisions as unfair. That perception want to clean my room now. I just want fuels their willingness to fight, argue, to watch T.V. or Youre old- and engage in defiant power fashioned, you just dont understand. struggles with you. For example, you And thats their actual perception decide you dont want your teen to most of the time theyre really seeing go to a party if theres no adult it that way. Most teens dont perceive supervision. Your teenager just wants life the same way their adult parents to go to the same party her friends do. As adults, we often mistakenly are attendingshe doesnt have any think children see the same picture thoughts at all about adult supervision we do, so we might wonder Whats or risk. When you bring it up, she the problem? when they start arguing thinks youre old-fashioned or out of with us. But most children dont have touchand the conflict starts there. It may be annoying (in fact, youll the adult ability to perceive the totality of whats going on. And not only are probably feel youre saying the same they developmentally immature, but things over and over) but children there are certain obstacles that can need to find ways to challenge adult block them from developing that authority appropriately. And by awareness in an age-appropriate appropriately I mean not cursing, verbally abusing or personally manner. attacking you. By the way, if the The other side: Teenagers especially see the challenge is appropriate, parents world very differently than parents. need to learn how to respond with an While parents are concerned about open mind. Need for power struggles: safety and want their children to avoid Many parents are surprised to doing high risk things, teens may feel as if theyre being held back from know that we dont want to take all doing things that appear reasonable power struggles away. Rather, we and legitimate to them. This becomes want to take the defiance out of the even more complex when children power struggle. This is because as go through their discover that some of their peers are children allowed to do the things that are developmental stages, they need to 08 Journal of SCHOOL SOCIAL WORK March 2013

challenge their parents appropriately in order to get more autonomy. And parents, in turn, need to teach their children that with autonomy comes responsibility and accountability. Children are looking to be more independent and make more decisions, but they should not be allowed to argue in an abusive, hurtful or obnoxious way. Heres the bottom line: Teens have to learn how to handle power struggles with their parents in a way that is not a personal attack. Often, parents dont want to expand a childs circle of control over his own life as fast as the child would like. At the same time, children want more control. Certainly, by the time children are in their teens, theyre questioning the rules parents have set for them. Their confrontation of parents limits becomes stronger and stronger as they get older. So defiant power struggles can increase in frequency and intensity unless parents know how to manage them. When giving in is good: No child accepts a No the very first time he/ she hears it. The child may plead and try to change the No command to a reluctant Yes from the controlling parent. First the child may use the charm element. If it does not work, may switch to a seemingly

logical argument which in reality is a guilt-inducing type to get things done. A typical trap many parents fall into is developing a pattern of giving in as the child wears them down with repeated requests. After that, any time the parents resist, teens get a clear message that the No is not final and it is negotiable. So, the teen tells himself, Well, if I push a little more, then theyll give in. And so they can continue the pattern forever. In effect, the child is confronting the boundaries created, and will keep confronting them until they no longer exist. When the battle is lost: The truth is, parents really cant win with somebody whos got nothing to lose. Parents end up losing more and more of their own power. If the child is abusive and aggressive, it is recommended that they seek some professional help. Because that pattern can be stopped and it has to be changed. They dont have to be stuck in that forever. Parents just need to learn how to deal with it. More than the momentary triumph or loss, parents have to establish that rules and limits can be learned comfortably at home. Defiance will be seen only as rudeness by others. Defiant children really need to learn that defiance doesnt solve their problem; defiance doesnt get them what they 09 Journal of SCHOOL SOCIAL WORK March 2013

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want in the first place. And if parents whatever it is we are asking of them. dont teach them this lesson when If they get parents hooked on theyre young, these children will something else, it no longer is about certainly find out later when theyre what we asked. Parents must dealing with the school system, their remember that neither one of us will employer, the police or their spouse. feel good about the interaction if Ways to avoid power struggle: parents allow themselves to get off When a teenager is asked topic and get in a power struggle. As to complete a simple chore and adults, we must remember that it is somehow your darling angel ends our job to model appropriate ways up yelling, slamming doors, with to navigate difficult situations. Parents giant teardrops falling. Somewhere in should stay calm (we all know that can the middle of that exchange some be very difficult at times) and address key elements are played out. When the issue at hand in a calm but firm parents are hooked into a power manner. If it continues, set limits and struggle with their teenager, it is OK, disengage. If parents are able to it happens to all. Although, we all remain calm, the power struggle recognize that power struggles occur, never occurs! we should know what to look for, to Answer consistently: avoid a big struggle from brewing! The second key in avoiding the Most children escalate on some type continuum of escalation is when the of continuum. Recognizing these five teenager starts the basic questioning key points may help parents to avoid tactic, Why do I have to sweep the getting into a power struggle with their floor, Where is the broom. These teenager! are reasonable questions and Stay focussed: deserve a reasonable answer. The The first key in avoiding a power teenager may have swept the floor struggle is to remember that it takes ten times and we feel they know two to create one. If parents do not exactly where the broom is. engage in the struggle, it will not However, it is important, especially occur. As difficult as it may be at with children that may have some times, remember, it is not personal! learning disabilities, to answer the Teenagers know exactly what buttons questions consistently and with a to push and how to get what they reasonable answer. If we respond to want. They are trying to avoid these questions with provocative 10 Journal of SCHOOL SOCIAL WORK March 2013

statements such as, because I told you to, or because I said so, it may be the catalyst for a power struggle. The goal is to get them to complete the task, not engage in a verbal volleyball session with us! Be good and feel good: The third step in the continuum is those challenging questions that seem to get the power struggles started. Comments such as, You cant make me, What are you going to do, or Why dont you do it. As much as we would like to say, because I told you to, or, I do enough around here; you need to do something, the goal is to get the task done, and for both sides to feel good about the interaction! When your teenager becomes non-compliant, it is important to set limits. Clear and reasonable rules: The key to setting limits is to make sure we keep the directives clear, simple, reasonable, and fair. Obviously, Do it, or you stay at home until you are 18, is not really reasonable or fair. We may feel like it is in the moment, but is our teenager really going to stay at home until they are 18? A more productive response may be, You can have some free time when you finish sweeping the floors. Then walk away! We have now placed the free time in

teenagers hands. They get to do the fun things when they finish sweeping the floor. They are making the choice! Say it with sugar coating: The fourth key to avoiding power struggles is not what we say, but how we say ! How we frame things can help children appreciate what we need from them. For example, Sweep the floor, now! is very direct and does not allow the teenager to feel like they have any control over the situation. Another approach might be to say, Would you prefer to sweep the floor or mop? This allows teenager to make choices and participate in the decision-making. Be predictable: The fifth key to avoiding power struggles is to be consistent! All children want is predictability! They want to know what to expect. If we give in and allow teenagers to skip doing chores because we do not want the argument, guess what? We will be doing those chores until they head off to college. As difficult and as challenging as it may be in the moment, being consistent will help teenagers make positive choices and feel good about themselves in the long run! It will only take a couple of times of implementing consequences, before teenagers realize it is easier just to do the task! 11 Journal of SCHOOL SOCIAL WORK March 2013

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Remembering that it takes two for a power struggle to happen, will help you disengage. Answering reasonable questions with reasonable answers will assist in keeping the interaction calm. Setting limits will let your teenager know what could happen. Recognizing how you frame directions will teach effective communication and allow the teenagers to be part of the process. Finally, being consistent will decrease the escalating interactions because they just arent that much fun anymore! Conclusion: From getting up in the morning to returning home by night, todays teen

faces many choices and issues. Parents can help their teen by learning about and having resources for these issues. Both the child who is mildly resistant to authority and the defiant, acting out child need to be empowered with problem-solving skills to learn how to communicate effectively in the many situations life presents. This particular training for adult life should start very early. Teens need to learn how to negotiate and advocate for themselves in order to gain power, and they need to do it in an appropriate waya way which doesnt get them into trouble and doesnt make the problem worse.

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Sexuality Education: A Study in Karnataka

Jagadish B* Siddegowda Y S**
*Jagadish B, Research Scholar, Department of Studies in Social Work, University of Mysore, Mysore, India, E-mail: jagadishtkm@gmail.com, jagadishb@toyotakirloskar.co.in, Mobile: 09900516376 **Dr. Siddegowda Y.S, Registrar, Karnataka Samskrit University, Bangalore and Professor, Department of Studies in Social Work, University of Mysore, Manasagangothri, Mysore, India, E-mail: yssgowda@yahoo.com

References: John W Santrock (2007): Child Development, Tata Mc Graw-Hill Publishing Company: New Delhi. S P Chaube (2003): Developmental Psychology, Neelkamal Publication: New Delhi. http://parentingteens.about.com/od/familylife/u/teenissues.htm http://www.empoweringparents.com/Power-Struggles-with-a-DefiantChild.php#ixzz2JIUbNlkA http://www.empoweringparents.com/Power-Struggles-with-a-Defiant-Child.php

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Introduction: (UNAIDS, 2008). Young people face increasing Adults have two choices: leave pressures regarding sex and children to find their own way through sexuality including conflicting the clouds of partial information, messages and norms. On the one misinformation and outright hand, sex is seen as a negative exploitation that they will find from emotion and associated with guilt, media, the internet, peers and the fear and disease, but the media and unscrupulous, or face up to the friends portray it as positive and challenge of providing clear, welldesirable. Such pressures may be informed, and scientifically-grounded perpetuated by a lack of accurate sexuality education based in the information, skills, and awareness of universal values of respect and their rights and by gender human rights. expectations. Knowledge about HIV Adolescence education: transmission remains low in many Sexuality education (also known countries, with women generally less as adolescence education) is well informed than men. According to defined as an age-appropriate, UNAIDS (UNAIDS, 2008), many culturally relevant approach to young people still lack accurate, teaching about sex and relationships complete information on how to avoid by providing scientifically accurate, exposure to HIV. Survey data from realistic, non-judgmental information. 64 countries indicate that only 40 per Sexuality education provides cent of males and 38 per cent of opportunities to explore ones own females aged 15 to 24 had accurate values and attitudes and to build and comprehensive knowledge decision- making, communication about HIV and its prevention and risk reduction skills about many 13 Journal of SCHOOL SOCIAL WORK March 2013

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aspects of sexuality (UNESCO 2009). sexuality education among students. Effective sexuality education is a To study the attitude of students vital part of HIV prevention and is also towards introducing sexuality critical to achieving Universal Access education in schools. targets for reproductive health and To know whether imparting HIV prevention, treatment, care and sexuality education in secondary support (UNAIDS, 2006). schools is required or not. If yes, Comprehensive sexuality education what should be the content/curriculum can radically shift the trajectory of the and who should deliver to the HIV epidemic, and young people students. demand more and better sexuality To suggest measures on the education, services and resources to basis of the findings of the study, to meet their prevention needs. Thus, improve the awareness among the awareness about comprehensive students on sexuality education. sexuality education has to be Research methodology: implemented in schools. But, for the The present study was undertaken success of any education, the to understand the knowledge and knowledge and attitude of the attitude of parents, teachers and students has to be ascertained. In students towards introducing sexuality this backdrop, the problem education in secondary schools. formulated for the present study was The place chosen for the present to understand the knowledge and study was nine districts in Karnataka attitude among students for State namely Bangalore Rural, introducing sexuality education in Tumkur, Dharwad, Gadag, Bidar, secondary schools. Gulbarga, Chamarajanagar, Mysore Aim of the study: and Dakshina Kannada. Students of The study was aimed at secondary schools in the age group understanding the knowledge and of 13-17 years studying from 8th to attitude of students on sexuality 10th standard constituted the study education in secondary schools. group or the universe. Multi-stage Specific objectives of the study: random sampling method is adopted In pursuance of the aim of the in this study.A descriptive diagnostic study, some of the specific objectives design was adopted to study the that were set for the study included: knowledge and attitude of students To study the knowledge about towards introducing sexuality 14 Journal of SCHOOL SOCIAL WORK March 2013

education in schools. Questionnaire covered aspects related to [i] was prepared by the researcher with relationships, [ii] values, attitude and inputs from subject experts to obtain skills, [iii] culture, society and human the students baseline information like rights, [iv] human development and district, government or private school, [v] sexual and reproductive health. co-education or exclusively girls Attitude questions related to school and gender. Broadly, the introducing sexuality education were questionnaire consisted knowledge also included. In total, there were 31 and attitude related questions. questions related to knowledge and Knowledge-related questions 10 attitude related questions. Details of sample design is furnished in table 1. Table 1: Sample Design for Students for 9 Districts (Whole Study) Class Private school Government school Total Co-ed Only Girls Co-ed Only Girls M F F M F F VIII 72 72 72 72 72 72 432 IX 72 72 72 72 72 72 432 X 72 72 72 72 72 72 432 Total 432 216 432 216 1296 In all, the study covered 1296 students. students. Data pertaining to sexuality Summary of knowledge and education related to relationships, attitude questionnaire: values, attitude and skills, culture, In knowledge questions, society and human rights, human percentage of mean score to development, sexual and maximum score is 56.72 per cent. reproductive health were gathered. This indicates that students do not The data obtained was analyzed have good knowledge and using statistical analysis. Students t understanding about sexuality test, chi-square test, analysis of education. Hence, students need to variance and co-efficient of correlation be taught on sexuality education in were employed to find out the schools. statistical significance between male In attitude-related questions, and female respondents among the 15 Journal of SCHOOL SOCIAL WORK March 2013

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percentage of mean score to education programmes. maximum score is 67.5 percent. This Mean knowledge and attitude indicates that there is a need to score of students based on age develop the attitude of students of students: towards sexuality education. Mean knowledge score of Mean knowledge and attitude students under the age group of 14 score of students based on years was 15.66, 15 years was 16.65, class studying: 16 years was 21.22 and 17 years was Mean knowledge score of 8th 21.08. Mean knowledge score of standard is 14.94, 9th standard is 17.58 students is significantly increasing and 10th standard is 21.93. Mean with increase in their age. knowledge score is significantly Mean attitude score of students increasing with increase in the under the age group of 14 years was standard. 6.27, 15 years was 6.35, 16 years was th Mean attitude score of 8 7.44 and 17 years was 7.48. Mean standard is 6.10, 9th standard is 6.52 attitude score of students is and 10 th standard is 7.63. Mean significantly increasing with increase attitude score is also significantly in their age. increasing with increase in the Opinion of students on standard of studying. introduction of SE: Mean knowledge and attitude Among all the students score of students based on (n=1296), 50.8 per cent stated that gender: they did not have awareness about Mean knowledge score of male sexual and reproductive anatomy! students was 18.86 and female Whereas, 49.2 per cent of them students was 17.8. Mean knowledge expressed that they have knowledge score of female students was less about the same. compared to male counterparts. Among all the respondents Mean attitude score of male (n=1296), more than half (59.5%) of students was 7.18 and females was the students mentioned that teachers 6.54. Mean attitude score of females will give the right information about was less compared to males. Thus, sexuality education, followed by it is very important to consider female parents (31.0%) and friends (9.5%). students very importantly during the Among all the students designing and delivery of sexuality (n=1296), majority (82.2%) stated that 16 Journal of SCHOOL SOCIAL WORK March 2013

there is a need to teach sexuality education in schools. Among all the students (n=1296), majority (77.1%) stated that sexuality education must be part of the curriculum. Suggestions: As evidence shows that sexual activity among young people is a reality, there is a need to take action to empower them to make responsible and informed decisions with regard to sexual and reproductive health, HIV and gender equality, as well as addressing gender-based violence. For this, while introducing sexuality education in schools, the learning objectives should cover the following four components in the learning process: Information: Sexuality education should provide accurate information about human sexuality including growth and development, sexual anatomy and physiology. Accurate scientific information is needed in the areas of reproduction, contraception, pregnancy and child birth, HIV and AIDS, Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs), family life and interpersonal relationships, culture and sexuality, human rights empowerment, non-discrimination, equality and gender roles, sexual abuse and gender-based violence.

Values, attitude and social norms: Sexuality education should offer students opportunities to explore values, attitudes and norms (personal, family, peer and community) in relation to sexual behaviour, health, risk-taking and decision-making and in consideration of the principles of tolerance, respect, gender equality, human rights and equality. Interpersonal and relationship skills: Sexuality education should promote the acquisition of skills in relation to decision-making, assertiveness, communication, negotiation and refusal. Such skills can contribute to better and more productive relationships with family members, peers and friends. Responsibility: Sexuality education should encourage students to assume responsibility for their own behaviour as well as their behaviour towards other people through respect, acceptance, tolerance and empathy for all people regardless of their health status or sexual orientation. Policy framework: At the policy level, a welldefined national policy on sexuality education may be explicitly linked to education sector plans. Provide an institutional basis for 17 Journal of SCHOOL SOCIAL WORK March 2013

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the implementation of sexuality supporting the schools efforts in education programs. delivering good quality sexuality At school level: education. School management must take Social work interventions: the lead in motivating and supporting, Teachers need to be aware of as well as creating the right climate the biological, social, cultural and in which to implement sexuality psychological needs of the students. education and address the needs of School social worker can orientation young people. to all the staff in this regard. Curriculum to be delivered by Provide Social work services trained teachers to students - curative, correctional, Promoting access and links to rehabilitative, preventive and local sexual and reproductive health developmental. and other services in accordance with Social Work knowledge base national laws. can be adopted by teachers at Pre-service training at teacher individual, group and community training institutions and in-service and levels for enhancing the knowledge refresher training for classroom and attitude of students and parents teachers to be provided to build their on sexuality education. comfort and confidence. Teachers need to be trained in Develop skills of teachers in techniques of Social Work like participatory and active learning. interviewing, counseling techniques, Parental involvement: communication, listening, Co-operation and support of observation, questioning, parents, families and other supporting, educating, agreeing, community stakeholders should be disagreeing, reviewing and sought. reinforcing. Parental concerns can be Conclusion: addressed through the provision of The education sector has a critical parallel programs that orient them to role to play in preparing children and the content of their childrens learning young people for their adult roles and and that equip them with skills to responsibilities (Delors et al., 1996); communicate more openly and the transition to adulthood requires honestly about sexuality with their becoming informed and equipped children, putting their fears to rest and with the appropriate knowledge and 18 Journal of SCHOOL SOCIAL WORK March 2013

skills to make responsible choices in their social and sexual lives. In most countries, children between the age of five and thirteen, in particular, spend relatively large amounts of time in school. Thus, schools provide a practical means of reaching large numbers of young people from diverse backgrounds in ways that are replicable and sustainable (Gordon, 2008). The present study indicates that the students have limited awareness pertaining to sexuality. Thus, they run certain risks in terms of HIV/AIDS. It is important to note that they have the

inclination to learn sexuality education. Of course, parents and teachers also play a vital role in shaping them. Parents need to be able to address the physical and behavioural aspects of human sexuality with their children, and children need to be informed and equipped with the knowledge and skills to make responsible decisions about sexuality, relationships, HIV and other sexually transmitted infections. This is possible only when ageappropriate sexuality education is imparted by trained teachers.

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References: Aiken L R (1980): Content Validity and Reliability of Single Items or Questionnaires. Educational and Psychological Measurement 40 : 955-959 Boyer C et al (2005): Evaluation of a Cognitive-Behavioural Group Randomized Controlled Intervention Trial to Prevent Sexually Transmitted Infections and Unintended Pregnancies in Young Women. Preventive Medicine 40 (420-431): CEDPA (2001): Adolescent Girls in India Choose a Better Future: An Impact Assessment. Washington: DCCEDPA CEDPA (2006): Empowering Adolescents in India: The Better Life Options Program Washington DCCEDPA Center for Reproductive Rights (2008): An International Human Right: Sexuality Education for Adolescents in Schools New YorkCenter for Reproductive Rights Delors J et al (1996): Learning: The Treasure Within. Report to the UNESCO of the International Commission on Education for the Twenty-First Century, Paris, UNESCO. DNA (2011): AIDS Looms Over Lives of 11,000 Children in Karnataka February 14, 2011 Bangalore FisherJ, FisherW, Bryan A and Misovich S (2002): Information-MotivationBehavioural Skills Model-Based HIV Risk Behaviour Change Internvention for InnerCity High School Youth. Health Psychology 21 (2): 177-186 GordonP (2008): Review of Sex Relationships and HIV Education in Schools. Paris: UNESCO Kaplan R M and Saccuzzo D P (2001): Psychological Testing: Principle, Applications Contd...

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and Issues (5th Edition). Belmont CA: Wadsworth Kirby D, Barth R P, Leland N and Fetro J V (1991): Reducing the Risk: Impact of a New Curriculum on Sexual Risk-Taking, Family Planning Perspectives KirbyD (2001): Emerging Answers: Research Findings on Programs to Reduce Teen PregnancyNational Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy WashingtonD,C Kirby D (2002): Do Abstinence-Only Programs Delay the Initiation of Sex Among Young People and Reduce Teen Pregnancy? National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, Washington D C Kothari C R (2004): Sex Education in India. Government of India Report: New Delhi Lee A C and David W (1995): Construct Validity: Basic issues in Objective Scale Development, Psychological Assessment Vol 7 No 3309-319 Loevinger J (1957): Objective Tests as Instruments of Psychological Theory Psychological Reports 3635-694 Retrieved -12-7-2011 Mellanby A, Phelps F, Crichton N and TrippJ (1995): School Sex Education: An Experimental Programme with Educational and Medical Benefit. British Medical Journal 311414-417 NACO (2012): National AIDS Control Programme Phase III State Fact Sheets March 2012. National AIDS Control Organization Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India: New Delhi UNESCO (2009): International Technical Guidance on Sexuality Education An Evidence-Informed Approach for Schools,Teachers and Health Educators. The Rationale for Sexuality Education, Volume 1Paris2-11 UNESCO (2009): International Technical Guidance on Sexuality Education An Evidence-Informed Approach for SchoolsTeachers and Health Educators Topics and Learning Objectives Volume 2 Paris 2-33 UNICEF (2002): Lessons Learned About Life Skills-Based Education for Preventing HIV/AIDS Related Risk and Related Discrimination. New York: UNICEF UNICEF UNAIDS (2011): Opportunity in Crisis: Preventing HIV from Early Adolescence to Young Adulthood WHO (2002): Defining Sexual Health: Report of a Technical Consultation on Sexual Health. Geneva: WHO WHO (2005): Multi-country Study on Womens Health and Domestic Violence Against Women: Summary Report of Initial Results on Prevalence. Health Outcomes and Womens Responses Geneva: World Health Organization

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Evidence-Based Social Work Practice: Zimbabwe Seeks the Way

Tawanda Masuka* Richard Gamuchirai Banda**
*Tawanda Masuka, Social Work Lecturer, Bindura University of Science Education, Zimbabwe, tmasuka@buse.ac.zw, masuka.tawanda@yahoo.com **Richard Gamuchirai Banda, Social Work Lecturer, Bindura University of Science Education, Zimbabwe, gamuchiraibanda@yahoo.com,

Contributors to note
JSSW expects contributors to submit along with their articles a declaration (see page 12) to the effect that it is original and had not been published (or under consideration for publication) elsewhere. The PDF format of JSSW is widely circulated and hence contributors are expected to be aware of the consequences. ~Ed. 20 Journal of SCHOOL SOCIAL WORK March 2013

Introduction: Evaluative inquiry in social work and the human services go back at least as far as the parallel debates about whether social work is a profession, and if so, how should social workers be educated and trained for their task (Shaw, 2005). Evaluative inquiry in social work and the human services should contribute to the development and evaluation of practice and enhance professional and moral purpose, strengthen social works disciplinary character and location, and promote human services evaluation marked by rigour, range, variety, depth and progression (Shaw, 2005). Social work has been defined by Beckett (2006) as a profession that promotes social change, problemsolving in human relationships and the empowerment and liberation of people to enhance well-being. Whilst OConnor, Hughes, Turney, Wilson and Setterlund (2006:1) noted that social work practice seeks to

promote human well-being and to redress human suffering and injustice. Practitioners aim to mobilise the forces of the individual, community and state to address the processes by which individuals and groups who are marginalised or diminished in their capacity, to participate as citizens. Scenario in Zimbabwe: At present, social workers in Zimbabwe rely primarily on the advice of their colleagues and supervisors, personal experiences, relevant theory, and authoritative texts for practice direction. These information sources have served the profession well over the past century. But with evidence-based practice there is going to be a shift with practice being informed by research findings on social work methods and problems that people face. American Council of Social Work Education (1992) observed that evidence-based practice is consistent with applying appropriate research-based knowledge and technological March 2013 21

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advances. The 21st century has resulted in expansion of ICTs (Information and Communication Technology) which can be utilized in promoting evidence-based social work practice. Social work as a profession cannot ignore modern technology. Treagle and Darcy (2008) noted that, today every aspect of human life is being affected by information and communication technology and the future promises more transformations. The 21st century has been dubbed the information age. Therefore social work cannot escape the impact of technology. ICT and social work: The term ICT can be defined as the umbrella term that includes any communication devices or applications, encompassing: radio, television, cellular phones, computer and network hardware and software, satellite systems, as well as the various services and applications associated with them, such as videoconferencing and distance learning (Treagle and Darcy, 2008). The definition of ICT needs a serious consideration because of the general confusion in the understanding of the word Technology. Technology can be defined as the process of using scientific, material and human

resources in order to meet human need or purpose. If we then consider a simple definition of information as that which can be communicated and understood (Treagle and Darcy, 2008), we can then put together a basic definition of IT as the use of information in order to meet human need or purpose. Therefore ICT is the use of information in order to meet human need or purpose including reference to the use of contemporary devices such as the internet as the sources of such information. This article seeks to propose an alternative social work practice philosophy in Zimbabwe, which has since been adopted in Western countries where professional social work originated. The writers hold the view that Evidence-based Practice (EBP) should be adopted in Zimbabwe for increased effectiveness in social work practice. Thus the article provides a conceptual framework, the research methodology used, and analysis and discussion as well as conclusion and recommendations. Conceptualisation of evidencebased social work practice: The EBP approach is viewed as a coherent integration of science and clinical practice. This thinking evokes the notion of social work as a science March 2013

and this has further been supported by the International Federation of Social Workers (2000) which predicates that social work methodology is based on a systematic body of evidence knowledge derived from research practice and evaluations. Although perspectives on what EBP entails may vary, it is safe to say there is a broad agreement that the evidencebased movement hopes to ensure that professional practice is based on best available knowledge of what constitutes effective methods. Some in social work view EBP as a mix of (a) learning what treatments work based on the best available research (whether experiential or not),( b) discussing client views about the treatment to consider cultural and other differences, and to honour client self-determination and autonomy, (c) considering the professionals clinical wisdom based on work with similar and dissimilar cases that may provide a context for understanding the research evidence, and (d) considering what the professional can, and cannot, provide fully and ethically (Gambril, 2003; Gilgun, 2006). American Psychological Association (2006; 273) defines EBP as the integration of the best available research with clinical

expertise in the context of patient characteristics, culture and preferences. see Fig. 1 below. Fig. 1 The EBP Model
Practioners Individual Expertise Best Evidence

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EBP

Clients Values and Expectations

Sackett e ta l (1997)

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Efficacy of EBP: Evidence-based practice is one useful approach to improving the impact of practice in medicine, psychology, social work, nursing and allied fields. While all professions have directed considerable attention to evidence for many years, and to many different kinds of evidence, EBP puts particular emphasis on the results of experimental comparisons to document the efficacy of treatments against untreated control groups, against other treatments, or both. Note that this frames evidence in a very specific and delimited manner (Gambril, 2003). All the underpinnings of experimental 23 Journal of SCHOOL SOCIAL WORK March 2013

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research: the quality of because intuitive considerations are conceptualization, the quality of implicit; they cannot be reviewed, measures, the clarity and specificity planned, criticized, or imparted to of treatments used, the quality of others, nor can they be systematically samples studied and of the quality reviewed. Evidence-based practice and completeness of collected data is consistent with systematic planned are assumed to be sound and fully practice and similar theories of adequate to determining what works. practice in that it makes the There is also an assumption that the evidentiary foundations of practice questions framed for the research decisions fully transparent and allow for critical perspectives and are establishes the validity of fully ethical (Mullen and Schlonsky, professional knowledge and of 2004). Rubin (2010) postulates that practice effectiveness (Rosen, the basic tenets of EBP in social work 1993;85). are as nearly as old as the profession Secondary sources: itself since earliest writers of social Effective use of the scientific work literature such as Mary literature in evidence-based practice Richmonds acknowledged the requires that social workers also be importance of utilizing research to knowledgeable about secondary guide practice sources of evidence-based practice EBP enables planning: recommendations, including practice Evidence-based practice is guidelines, systematic reviews, consistent with previous efforts to literature digests, and manualized develop effective and replicable interventive approaches (Sackett et professional interventions with al, 1997). It is important that student systems of all sizes. Rosen (1993) and professional practitioners be able contended that practitioners should to identify their information needs as be explicit about the outcomes they they arise, translate them into hope to achieve, the rationale they potentially answerable questions, use to select interventions, and the locate and acquire the best available professional knowledge they use to evidence with which to answer them, make practice decisions. In this critically evaluate the quality and sense, Rosen (1993;86) observed, applicability of the evidence located, systematic planned practice . . . is use the evidence obtained in their the antithesis of working intuitively, practice activities, and evaluate the 24 Journal of SCHOOL SOCIAL WORK March 2013

process to determine if their information needs have been fulfilled and the service consumers outcomes optimized (Sackett et al., 1997). Thus, social work education supporting evidence-based practice should foster greater appreciation for the role scientific findings can play in enhancing professional practice; provide the general knowledge and skills needed to select, evaluate, and apply the best supported interventions; and help student practitioners learn to successfully cope with the many information needs that will arise throughout their practice careers as they confront diverse practice problems on a regular basis. Empirical social work practice: A number of different movements have emerged over the past 40 years in an effort to promote empirical social work practice. Systematic programme evaluation methods were developed in reaction to early reviews that questioned the efficacy of social casework interventions (Fischer, 1976). Advocates of research-and-development programs (Rothman and Thomas, 1994) and single-case research (Bloom, Fischer, and Orme, 1995) also sought, albeit by different methods, to create stronger

connections between social work research and practice. These developments, unfortunately, have effected remarkably little change in actual practitioner conduct (Howard and Lambert, 1996). However, there are several reasons why evidencebased practice may succeed in promoting empirical practice in social work where previous efforts have foundered. Three significant areas: First, the number of wellcontrolled intervention evaluations published by social work researchers appears to be growing rapidly. Reid and Fortune (1999) identified approximately 100 fully randomized or quasi-experimental studies published by social workers between 1990 and 2000. Three areas of significant research activity with immediate implications for social work practice were identified as chemical dependency, mental health, and adolescent problem behaviour. Other studies suggest that social work researchers increasingly recognize the importance of randomized controlled trials and other rigorous designs for intervention research. The rapid growth of the Society for Social Work and Research to more than 900 members also portends positive developments in terms of the 25 Journal of SCHOOL SOCIAL WORK March 2013

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expansion of social work practice research (Howard and Jenson, 2001). Second, the number of intervention and other evaluations conducted in related disciplines and professions has grown exponentially in recent years, many of which are indisputably germane to professional social work practice. For example, approximately 300 controlled evaluations of more than 40 alcohol dependence treatments have been published (most of them relatively recent), few of which were conducted by social workers (Howard and Jenson, 2001). Abundant research findings relating to all aspects of substance abuse have also made it possible to publish practice guidelines for chemical dependency treatment that have offered social workers and other practitioners userfriendly, research-based recommendations for opiate, cocaine, alcohol, and other substance abuse treatment (Walker and Howard, 1996). Finally, social work students have never before been systematically exposed to recently developed methods for identifying, critically appraising, and integrating relevant research findings into their practice activities on a real-time basis. As they begin to experience the tangible fruits 26

of their practice-driven literature explorationsreduced uncertainty, improved interventive efficacy and efficiency, and greater familiarity with the methods of evidence-based practicesome practitioners will become ardent supporters of evidence-based practice approaches (Walker and Howard, 1996). Although the dearth of relevant research findings in some practice areas and logistical limitations will limit the applicability of real-time evidence-based practice in the near term, it is an approach that will serve practitioners well as the scientific database subserving social work practice becomes ever larger and increasingly rigorous. Statement of the problem: Research has found out that social workers rarely utilize research findings to guide practice (Rubin, 2010).Instead they rely on their judgment, advice from respected colleagues. agency tradition, consultants and supervisors. This often results in use of inappropriate and ineffective intervention methods. This approach has dominated social work practice in Zimbabwe.EBP is being touted as a better alternative to the often criticized traditional social work practice philosophy. Therefore this article sought to explore what March 2013

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EBP is and how it can be adopted in evidence that can guide their practice, Zimbabwe through the use of hence evidence-based social work available ICT. practice. Hill and Shaw (2011) Research methodology: postulated that ICTs have become an This article is based on desk integral part of social and working life. research which involved sourcing Hence social workers cannot lag information on the topic from behind without embracing this accessible authoritative sources of necessity. literature. The writers are of the view Impact of internet: that it was appropriate for this Today the internet as a form of ICT exploratory study and information on is by far the largest source of the topic was difficult to get. A follow information, which has the evidence up study is proposed which will which is supposed to guide social involve field research where workers in practice. This is because interviews will be conducted with information pertaining to social work target populations. methods and social problems EBP through ICT: emanating from research is being The knowledge and information disseminated on the internet. The required for evidence-based social information being disseminated is the work practice is derived from a evidence that can be used to inform number of sources. Mullen and social work practice. On the internet Schlonsky in (2004) identified the the information can be found as following sources, impact evaluation, databases, research findings in implementation evaluation, attitudinal electronic journals and general studies, ethical analysis, economic documents. Perhaps what is most analysis, statistical modeling and important is that social work practice descriptive studies. Therefore should determine how ICT can be sources of evidence for evidence- used to enhance practice, rather than based social work practice are many ICT influencing social work practice. and varied. The continued This is important because information improvement in ICT has resulted in on the ICT platforms is being easy access to these sources of disseminated for various purposes, evidence. Therefore by embracing social workers should therefore tap ICT, it will be easier for social workers into information that can inform their to tap into the various sources of professional practice. Journal of SCHOOL SOCIAL WORK March 2013 27

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Networking: make research findings in social work Therefore the computer and its relevant in addressing problems of various applications can be used in clients. This is vital in Zimbabwe promoting evidence-based social because of lingering questions on work practice. Hill and Shaw (2011) the relevance of social work in observed that through computer addressing some of the social networking there are now reliable problems being faced by orphaned systems of data backup which allows and vulnerable children (OVC). rapid sharing of information. They The ethical issue: further noted that within social work The need to adopt EBP is also ICTs play a vital role, helping an ethical issue. The utilisation of professionals to store and share evidence-based approach could information and contributing to new counter the use of ineffective forms of practice. Such new forms of treatment methods which are used in practice in Zimbabwe include third world countries such as evidence-based practice. Zimbabwe. Social workers will be in Implications of utilising ICT: a position to use effective tried and Practitioners can make use of tested treatment techniques when tried and tested intervention methods dealing with clients problems. Rubin resulting in effective and efficient (2010) is of the view that professionals service provision. The ICT platforms need to improve practice. Hence such as the internet have current social work professionals have an information that can be used by social ethical obligation to improve in work practitioners in the helping practice through contributing to social process. This cuts on the costs of work knowledge development by service provision in terms of time and providing data or researching on even money, which is a huge benefit complex situations or cases for which for the organization providing the data is not readily available. Social service, as well as the client receiving work practitioners in various settings the service. Sackett et al (1996) encounter unique, challenging and observed that evidence-based intriguing cases which may not have practice is one step toward making been captured in social work sure each client gets the best service literature; hence documenting such possible. data by practicing social workers Evidence-based practice will gives the profession an edge towards 28 Journal of SCHOOL SOCIAL WORK March 2013

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refining its intervention techniques specific to social work practice and subsequently inventing its own methods as well as social problems. unique body of knowledge. In Zimbabwe we have a dearth of Involvement of clients: researches on social work methods Sackett et al (1996) add that and an array of social problems which involving the recipients and clients of can inform evidence-based practice. social work services enhances the Lack of training in critical appraisal quality of data gathered during of practice methods and social practice as this may help in the problems as well as modern IT skills assessment of the effectiveness of presents twin challenges to adoption interventions as well as providing of evidence-based social work indications on innovation needed, in practice. In Zimbabwe, there is lack conjunction with practice wisdom, of adequate infrastructure in terms of which may best meet the needs of research workforce, funding, and the clientele in a constantly changing national strategic policies to support environment. Evidence derived from evidence-based practice in social research by social work practitioners work. Worse still there is limited is thus derived from and should also appreciation of the basic tenets of address various practicing concerns evidence-based approaches by and should provide information which authorities responsible for formulating helps in making enormous social national social welfare policies and contributions by addressing societal programmes. challenges. There is a general lack of Challenges to EBP in Zimbabwe: information and communication Currently there is limited technology infrastructure such as collaboration between research computers and internet connectivity. organisations and local universities This challenge is more pronounced in Zimbabwe. This makes it in government departments impractical to have evidence-based practicing social work such as the practice since evidence-based department of social services. Also education should be introduced institutions offering social work before practice. The education education are faced with this should be guided by accessible and challenge which makes evidenceupdated evidence in the form of based practice a pipedream. The research findings from studies computer-student ratio through rough Journal of SCHOOL SOCIAL WORK March 2013 29

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estimation is still low. Conclusion: The adoption of evidence-based social work practice presents one of the best chances for social work to become relevant in third world countries. This is because social work has often been criticized as grappling with symptoms rather than causes of social problems due to use of ineffective techniques. Information and communication technology can be used as tools in promoting evidence-based social work practice which holds amazing potential to enhance the effectiveness of social work interventions, thereby realizing positive outcomes for the clientele and the community at large. The social work profession will become more visible due to effective, systematic and scientific approach in addressing socio-economic challenges that confront Zimbabwe as a nation. Recommendations: The writers propose that the concept of evidence practice need to be popularised in institutions of higher learning offering social work education such as University of Zimbabwe, Bindura University of Science Education and Womens University in Africa. It is necessary to incorporate the concept of evidence-

based practice into social work curriculum. In the Zimbabwean context, it is also of paramount importance to introduce continued professional education programmes for currently practising social workers, for practitioners to gain an appreciation of evidence-based practice. There is also need to provide opportunities for social workers to acquire sufficient knowledge and skills on the appropriate use of technology as this will make it easier for them to adapt and incorporate technology in practice. Dustin (2006) observed that social workers should have relevant IT skills in order to be effective care providers in the 21st century and beyond. In particular, the Council of Social Workers in Zimbabwe should make it mandatory for all registered social workers to fulfill the ethical responsibility of contributing to social work body of knowledge as a condition for renewing practicing certificates. There is need to improve on the availability of computers and internet connectivity in institutions of higher education for easier teaching of evidence-based practice. In organizations employing social workers it will make it simple to practice evidence-based social work when dealing with clients and their March 2013

problems. In addition, social welfare policy makers and Research Council of Zimbabwe should promote evidencebased practice by availing financial resources and other research infrastructure to professionals and social welfare organizations which

promote evidence-based social work practice. Furthermore, the donor community which funds most nongovernmental organizations should also uphold evidence-based practice by making it a requirement or condition for granting funding.

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References: APA (2006): APA Presidential Task Force on Evidence-Based Practice. Washington, DC: APA. Beckett C (2006): Essential Theory for Social Work Practice, London: Sage Publications. Council on Social Work Education (1992): Curriculum Policy Statement for Masters Degree Programs in Social Work Education. Alexandria, VA: Author. Dustin D (2006): Skills and Knowledge Needed to Practice as a Care Manager: Continuity and Change. Journal of Social Work 6(3), 293-313. Gambril E (2010): Evidence-Based Practice and the Ethics of Discretion. Journal of Social Work 11(1): 26-48. Gambril E (2010): Evidence informed practice: Antidote to Propaganda in the Helping Professions? Research on Social Work practice, 20, 303-320. Gambril E (2003): Evidence-Based Practice: Implications for Knowledge Development and Use in Social Work. In A Rosen and E Proctor (Eds.), Developing Practice Guidelines for Social Work Intervention .37-58. New York: Col. Univ. Press. Gilgun J (2006): The Four Cornerstones of Qualitative Research. Qualitative Health Research, 16(3), 436-443. Howard M O and Lambert M D (1996): The Poverty of Social Work: Deficient Production, Dissemination, and Utilization of Practice-Relevant Scientific Information. In P R Raffoul and C A McNeese (Eds.), Future issues for social work practice (pp. 270-292).Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Mullen E and Schlonsky A (2004): From Concept to Implementation: The Challenges Facing Evidence-Based Social Work. Faculty Research and Insights: A Series Featuring CUSSW: Faculty Research. OConnor I et al (2006): Social Work and Social Care Practice, London: Sage Publications. Rosen A (1993): Systematic Planned Practice. Social Service Review, 3, 84-100. Rothman J and Thomas E (Eds.). (1994): Intervention Research: Design and Development for Human Services. New York: Haworth. Rubin A (2010): Teaching Evidence-Based Practice in Social Work: Retrospective and Prospective, Journal Social work, 11 (1), 64-79.

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Journal of School Social Work English Monthly ISSN: 0976-3759 Registered with Registrar of Newspapers for India under No: TNENG/2004/14389 Postal Registration: TN/ CC (S) DN / 47 / 12-14 Licensed to post under: TN/PMG (CCR) / WPP - 663 / 12-14 Date of publication: First week of the month FORM IV
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