Internal Combustion Engines

2.
61 Spring 2004
Internal Combustion Engines
John Heywood
Wai Cheng
2.61 Spring 2004
Internal Combustion Engines
John Heywood
Wai Cheng
MIT OpenCourseWare
Cambridge, MA
http://ocw.mit.edu/
2006 Massachusetts Institute of Technology
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Contents
Highlights of this Course ...................................................................... 1
Course Description.............................................................................. 1
Syllabus ............................................................................................ 2
Calendar............................................................................................ 3
Readings ........................................................................................... 5
Lecture Notes ................................................................................... 13
Overview and Basics of Engine Operation
Engine Geometry and Performance Parameters
Ideal Cycle Analysis and Combustion Stoichiometry
Gas Exchange: 4-Stroke and 2-Stroke
Spark-ignition Engine Combustion and Flame Propagation and
Structure
Knock
SI Engine Emissions
Emission Control Technology and Review
Mixture Preparation and Engine Friction
Engine Heat Transfer and 2-Stroke SIE Performance
4-Stroke SIE Performance
Variable Valve Control and Gasoline DI Engines
Diesel Overview and Diesel Combustion
Future Engine Technology and Discussion
Labs...............................................................................................110
Lab 1
Lab 2
Assignments ...................................................................................117
Problem Set 1
Problem Set 2
Problem Set 3
Problem Set 4
Problem Set 5
Problem Set 6
Exams............................................................................................141
2002 Quiz 1
2002 Final Exam
Project ...........................................................................................153
Project Description
Exhaust Temperature Data, with EGR
Emissions Data
One of Many Possible Solutions
Related Resources............................................................................174
Highlights of this Course
This course features homework assignments, labs and an extensive
reading list.
Course Description
This course elaborates on the fundamentals of how the design and
operation of internal combustion engines affect their performance,
operation, fuel requirements, and environmental impact, study of fluid
flow, thermodynamics, combustion, heat transfer and friction
phenomena, and fuel properties, relevant to engine power, efficiency,
and emissions, examination of design features and operating
characteristics of different types of internal combustion engines:
spark-ignition, diesel, stratified-charge, and mixed-cycle engines. The
project section details the Engine Laboratory project. We have aimed
this course for graduate and senior undergraduate students.
Course Meeting Times
Lectures:
Two sessions / week
2 hours / session
Level
Graduate
1
Syllabus
Text
Heywood, John B. Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. New
York: McGraw-Hill, 1988. ISBN: 007028637X.
Grading
Grade will be based on
ACTIVITIES PERCENTAGES
Quiz + Exam 45%
Homework 25%
Lab Report 20%
Design
Problem
10%
Total 100%
Homework
Homework Policy
1. The purpose of the homework and problems is to get each of you
to think about and use the material we discuss in class.
2. Obviously, I want each of you to make a serious try at each
problem. If discussions with other students help you get started,
then contribute to and benefit from such discussions.
3. However, I expect that each of you will work independently on
the details of the problem solutions which you hand in as your
work. I regard it as dishonest to copy from any previously
circulated solutions and present such work as your own.
4. If you have any questions about the above, please discuss them
with me.
2
Calendar
SES # TOPICS KEY DATES
1
Overview
Basics of Engine Operation
Problem set 1 out
2
Engine Geometry
Performance Parameters
3
Engine Disassembly
In Lab
Problem set 1 due
Problem set 2 out
4
Ideal Cycle Analysis
Combustion Stoichiometry
5
Fuel-air Cycle Model
Fuel-air Cycle Results
Problem set 2 due
Problem set 3 out
6
Gas Exchange: 4-Stroke
7
Spark-ignition Engine Combustion
Flame Propagation and Structure
8 Recitation
Problem set 3 due
Problem set 4 out
9 Knock
10 SI Engine Emissions
11
Emission Control Technology
Review
3
12
Quiz (Duration: 1-1/2 hours) Open
Book
Problem set 5 out
13
Mixture Preparation
Engine Friction
14
Engine Heat Transfer
Problem set 5 due
Problem set 6 out
15 4-Stroke SIE Performance
16
Variable Valve Control
Gasoline DI Engines
17
Diesel Overview
Diesel Combustion
Problem set 6 due
Design problem out
18
Diesel Emissions
Emission Control
19
Turbocharging
Diesel Performance
20 1-hour Lab Preparation Design problem due
21 2-hour Lab Session
22
Engine Noise
Engine Dynamics
Lab report due 1
week after session
22
23
Future Engine Technology
Discussion
24
Final Exam (Duration: 3 hours)
Open Book
4
Readings
The readings referred to the table below are recommended readings
from the text:
Heywood, John B. Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. New
York: McGraw-Hill, 1988. ISBN: 007028637X.
SES # TOPICS READINGS
1 Overview
Basics of Engine Operation
Essential
Chapter 1
2 Engine Geometry
Essential
Section 2.2
Performance Parameters
Essential
Chapter 2
3 Engine Disassembly
In Lab
4 Ideal Cycle Analysis
Essential
Sections 5.1-5.4
Combustion Stoichiometry
Essential
Sections 3.1-3.4
Sections 3.7, 4.1, 4.3
(Working fluid properties)
Helpful
Section 3.5
5
Sections 4.2, 4.4, 4.9.1
(Working fluid properties)
5 Fuel-air Cycle Model
Essential
Sections 4.5, 4.6, 5.5
Helpful
Section 4.7
Fuel-air Cycle Results
6 Gas Exchange: 4-Stroke
Essential
Sections 6.1, 6.2, 6.5
Helpful
Section 6.3
Essential
Section 6.6
Sections 8.1, 8.2.1 (In-
cylinder flows)
Helpful
Section 6.7
Sections 8.3-8.5 (In-cylinder
flows)
7
Spark-ignition Engine
Combustion
Essential
Sections 9.1, 9.2.2, 9.2.3,
9.3.1, 9.3.2, 9.4.1, 9.4.3
Helpful
6
Sections 9.2.1, 9.3.3, 9.3.4,
9.4.2, 9.5.1
Flame Propagation and
Structure
8 Recitation
9 Knock
Essential
Section 9.6.1
Helpful
Sections 9.6.2, 9.6.3
Essential
Sections 11.1, 11.2.1, 11.2.3,
11.3, 11.4.1, 11.4.3, 11.6.1,
11.6.2, 7.4
SI Engine Emissions
(cont.)
Essential
Sections 11.1, 11.2.1, 11.2.3,
11.3, 11.4.1, 11.4.3, 11.6.1,
11.6.2, 7.4
11
Emission Control
Technology
Review
12
Quiz (Duration: 1-1/2
hours) Open Book
13 Mixture Preparation
Essential
Sections 7.1, 7.3.1, 7.6
Table D4, p. 915 (Fuels)
Helpful
7
Section 7.5
Engine Friction
Essential
Sections 13.1 13.3, 13.5
Helpful
Section 13.6
14 Engine Heat Transfer
Essential
Sections 12.1, 12.2, 12.3
Helpful
Sections 12.4, 12.7
Essential
Sections 15.1, 15.2
Helpful
Sections 15.3, 15.4
Essential
Sections 15.1, 15.2
Helpful
Sections 15.3, 15.4
(cont.)
Essential
Sections 15.1, 15.2
Helpful
Sections 15.3, 15.4
8
16 Variable Valve Control
Gasoline DI Engines
17 Diesel Overview
Diesel Combustion
Essential
Sections 10.1, 10.2, 10.3,
10.7
Helpful
Sections 10.5, 10.6.1, 10.6.3
Sections 10.6.2, 10.6.5
(Diesel fuels)
18 Diesel Emissions
Essential
Sections 11.2.4, 11.4.4,
11.5.2
Helpful
Sections 11.5, 11.6.4
Section 12.5 (Diesel heat
transfer)
Emission Control
19 Turbocharging
Diesel Performance
Essential
Sections 15.5, 15.7
Helpful
Section 15.6
20 1-hour Lab Preparation
9
21 2-hour Lab Session
22 Engine Noise
Essential
Section 7.6, "Engine Noise."
In Heywood, J. B. and E.
Sher, The Two-Stroke Cycle
Engine. Philadelphia PA:
Taylor and Francis, 1999.
Engine Dynamics
23 Future Engine Technology
Discussion
24
Final Exam (Duration: 3
hours) Open Book
Corrections to the text Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals
Chon, Dale M., and John B. Heywood. "Performance Scaling of Spark-
Ignition Engines: Correlation and Historical Analysis of Production
Engine Data."SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) Technical Paper
2000-01-0565 (2000).
Berckmller, M., et al. "Potentials of a Charged SI-Hydrogen Engine."
SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) Technical Paper 2003-01-3210
(2003).
10
11
Corrections to text (current printing): (JBH 10/29/01)
p. 77 Table 3.2. The enthalpies of formation for C
8
H
18
are for n-octane. For isooctane they are 224.1
and 259.3 MJ/kmol for gas and liquid C
8
H
18
, respectively.
p. 89: Middle of page: x
CO
2
, x
CO
and x
0
2
should be x
CO
2
, x
CO
, andx
O
2
.
p. 122: Figure 4-10 is a repeat of Fig. 4-3 due to an editing error, though Fig. 4-10 is correctly labeled
burned mixture properties. A correct Fig. 4-10 is attached. It is only slightly different: e.g., at
1000 K the burned mixture u for | = 1.2 is 4% lower than the unburned mixture value, and h is
s s
1% lower than the unburned mixture value. These differences scale, approximately, with |.
p. 151 Underneath Eq (4.65) insert:
K is given by Eq. (4.63)
p. 152: Line 5. C
m
H
n
O
r
should be C
n
H
m
O
r
.
p.188 In Eq. (5.66c), m is omitted. It should read:
S
3b
S
2
= mc
v
ln
|
\

T
T
3
2
a
|
.
|
+ mc
p
ln
|
\

T
3b
|
= mc
v
lno + mc
p
ln|
T
3a
.
|
p. 306: Equation (7.18): The sign at the beginning of the second line of the equation (a minus sign) should
be a plus sign.
p. 388: Equation (9.27). The sign in front of the third term in the square bracket should be , not + :

T' T 1 | 1|
(
i.e.,

+
T
w
( 1)
ln
(
T
w
bT
w
\
' 1.
|

p. 553: Equation (10.37). There should be a + sign between the two round brackets within the square
bracket., i.e.,
| 1 1 | | 21.2 |
0.63
(
t (CA) = (0.36 + 0.22S
p
)expE
A
R T

17,190
.
| +
\

p 12.4
.
|
(
(
id

\

p. 620: The reference for Fig. 11-33 should be Yu, R.C., Wong, V.W., and Shahed, S.M., Sources of
Hydrocarbon Emissions from Direct Injection Diesel Engines, SAE paper 800048, SAE Trans.,
vol. 89, 1980. (This is a new reference; make it reference 87 and add it to p. 667.)
p. 679: In the inserted graph in Figure 12-5, the scale for thermal conductivity k
g
is not correct. The values
should be multiplied by 5 x 10
5
: e.g., the peak value of 10 x 10
-8
= 10
-7
W/m.K should be 10
-7
x (5
x 10
5
) = 5 x 10
-2
W/m.K.
p. 880 In Fig. 15-45, the units for pressure (middle left) should be kPa and not MPa.
12
Lecture Notes and Topics
Lecture Session Topic
1 Overview and Basics of Engine Operation
2 Engine Geometry and Performance
Parameters
3
4 Ideal Cycle Analysis and Combustion
Stoichiometry
5
6 Gas Exchange (4-Stroke and 2-Stroke)
7 Spark-ignition Engine Combustion and
Flame Propagation and Structure
8 No Lecture Available
9 Knock
11 Emission Control Technology and Review
13 Mixture Preparation and Engine Friction
14 Engine Heat Transfer and 2-Stroke SIE
Performance
16 Variable Valve Control and Gasoline DI
Engines
17 Diesel Overview and Diesel Combustion
23 Future Engine Technology and Discussion
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
2.61 Internal Combustion Engines
Lab session: Engine disassembly
Tuesday, February 10, 2004
2:00 4:00 P.M.
Please report to Ferran Ayala and Thane Dewitt in the Laboratory area of the Sloan
Automotive Lab (first floor of Building 31).
The purpose of this session is to get some hands-on experience on the mechanical aspect
of the engine. You should learn the mechanical construction of the engine, how the
different components are arranged, and get a feel for the size and weight of the
components.
There are three engines. Two of them are Ford 4-cyliner, 16-valve engines for the
compact size vehicles. The more modern one has a plastic intake manifold to reduce cost
and NVH (Noise, Vibration and Harshness). The third engine is a Peugeot engine. The
class will be divided into three groups; each group is responsible to disassemble one
engine. However the whole class should participate in the initial looking at each of the
whole engine and the final study of all the parts for the three engines.
Before disassembly, take a look at the engines as a whole, note the arrangement of the
different components, the gas exchange circuit: intake, exhaust, EGR (Exhaust Gas
Recirculation), and PCV (Positive Crankcase Ventilation) system, the coolant circuit and
the fuel flow circuit. Understand the function of these components.
When the engine is open, look at the valve train arrangement, the lubrication circuit, the
EGR route, the coolant passage, and the piston/ crank/ balance weight arrangement.
Record the measurements indicated on the next page. The measurements may be shared
by the group, but the comments and calculations should be done by each individual.
110
Engine
Measurements
Mean intake port length
Mean exhaust port length
Minimum intake port cross sectional area
Minimum exhaust port cross sectional area
Mean intake manifold runner length
Mean exhaust manifold runner length
Mean intake manifold cross sectional area
Mean exhaust manifold cross sectional area
Intake valve and minimum seat diameter
Exhaust valve and minimum seat diameter
Intake and exhaust valve stem diameter
Maximum intake and exhaust valve lift
Cylinder bore (at TDC and BDC)
Stroke
Connecting rod length (pin center to pin center)
Piston top land diameter
Piston top land height
Piston middle land diameter
Piston middle land height
Overall piston height (max and min)
Piston diameter (skirt center to skirt center)
Piston top ring dimensions (thickness x height x outer diameter)
Piston top ring groove diamensions (inner diameter x height)
Piston middle ring dimensions (thickness x height x outer diameter)
Piston middle ring groove diamensions (inner diameter x height)
Calculations
Cylinder displaced volume
Bore/Stroke
Connecting rod length/Crank radius
Intake valve minimum seat diameter/Bore
Exhaust valve minimum seat diameter/Bore
Maximum intake valve lift/Intake valve diameter
Maximum exhaust valve lift/Exhaust valve diameter
Volume of one intake port plus one intake manifold runner/
displaced volume of one cylinder
Volume of one exhaust port plus one exhaust manifold runner/
displaced volume of one cylinder
Clearance Volume (Vc)
Crevice Volume V1
Crevice Volume V2
Crevice Volume V3
Crevice Volume V4
Connecting rod lower end and upper end mass
111
Crevice Volumes
V
1
V
2
V
3
V
4
Top of Piston
3
Determine V
1
, V
2
, V
3
, and V
4
in mm , and as a percentage of the clearance volume
112
Balancing of Connecting Rod
The connecting rod can be considered as equivalent to two masses concentrated at its
ends (see diagram below), such that the sum of the masses is equal to the mass of the rod
(Taylor).
When doing a force balance of the piston motion, the mass of all the parts which are
considered to reciprocate with the piston must be taken into account. These include the
piston, the piston rings, the piston pin, and the equivalent mass of the upper end of the
connecting rod.
Roughly find the center of gravity of the connecting rod by balancing it, and then find the
corresponding mass of its lower and upper ends by summing moments. What proportion
of the total mass of the rod should be included in the piston mass calculation?
(A)
W
1
W
1
W
2
h
j
c g
c g
W
2
(B)
113
Laboratory Session
Tuesday, April 27, 2004
Background
This laboratory is designed to provide direct experience with the experimental methods
used in internal combustion engine research and development. During the laboratory a set
of engine performance and emissions data will be taken from an operating spark-ignition
engine on a test stand. The data will be processed, analyzed and interpreted in the context
of the course lecture material.
Students will work in groups. Each group should process their experimental data as a
group. Each individual will then write up a laboratory report as described below. Please
read these notes carefully before you come to the laboratory.
Objective
The experiments are designed to examine the effect of changes in spark timing and
relative AFR on spark-ignition engine performance and emissions characteristics. The
results are going to be compared with those computed from the GMR simulation code.
Experimental Method
To eliminate effects of extraneous variables we will hold constant:
- Design variables (compression ratio, valve timing, etc).
- Inlet pressure (load) and speed.
- Inlet temperature and exhaust pressure.
- Oil and coolant temperature.
The test procedure is the following:
1. Maintain engine speed at 1500 rpm and inlet pressure at 0.7 bar. Run the engine until
it reaches steady state conditions (coolant temperature is approximately 60
0
C).
2. Set the relative AFR to stoichiometric. Retard and advance the spark timing about the
value that gives the MBT according to the lab sheet and record all data listed on it. To
determine GIMEP, COV and location of maximum pressure, record in-cylinder
pressure data for approximately 150 cycles for each case.
Page 1 of 3
114
3. Repeat these measurements for different relative AFR s, both on the lean and rich
side according to the lab sheet. Use the specified MBT spark timing for each value of
the relative AFR.
Analysis
The following tasks are to be addressed in the lab report:
1. Effect of changes in spark timing:
- Plot GIMEP, COV and location of maximum in-cylinder pressure versus spark
advance and explain the shape of the curves. What is the location of maximum in-
cylinder pressure when MBT spark timing is applied?
- Plot NOx, HC emissions and exhaust gas temperature versus spark advance.
Explain the effect of spark timing on each of them.
2. Effect of changes in relative AFR:
- Plot the MBT spark timing variation with the relative AFR. What does the MBT
spark-timing data tell you about the variation in burn rate with the relative AFR?
Is there any significant variation in the location of maximum in-cylinder pressure
when the relative AFR changes but the spark timing is always set to be the
optimum?
- Plot GIMEP and COV versus the relative AFR. Explain the effect of AFR on
combustion variability. At what AFR is combustion most stable, and why?
- Determine the indicated values for specific fuel consumption and fuel conversion
efficiency and plot them versus the relative AFR.
- Plot HC, CO, CO
2
and NO
x
emissions versus the relative AFR. Calculate H
2
O and
estimate H
2
concentrations in the exhaust stream and include them also in graphs.
Specify the background moisture for the measurement of each species. Plot also
the exhaust gas temperature versus the relative AFR. Explain the trends of all
curves you plot.
- Determine the relative AFR from the exhaust gas composition measurements and
plot it versus the measured value as recorded by the UEGO sensor.
- Calculate the combustion efficiency for each point and explain the trend.
3. Comparison of experimental data with the fuel-air cycle results and the GMR
simulation code (change geometry when possible according to given engine specs):
- Plot on the same graph GIMEP based on the experimental data, the fuel-air cycle
results and the GMR simulation code versus the relative AFR.
- Draw the corresponding graph for the indicated fuel conversion efficiency.
Page 2 of 3
115
- Compare the experimental data with the corresponding calculated values based on
the GMR simulation code of CO, CO
2
, NOx and H
2
O. Be careful to have the
same background moisture for each species for compatible comparisons.
Laboratory Report
The laboratory report is due on Thursday, May 6, 2004 by 5 pm in Ferran Ayalas office.
We recommend that you process your data with other members of your laboratory group.
Reports should be written separately by each individual, however. The report should
include the following:
- Brief introduction, which reviews the goals of the experiment and procedure.
- Analysis.
- Results.
- Discussion and interpretation.
- Experimental data (attached as one or more appendices).
The questions the report should address are listed in the previous section.
Word processor or neatly handwritten reports are requested. Excessive length and
repetition of material in the laboratory handout are undesirable. Best marks are obtained
with a logical report organization, a concise summary of what was done, and good
physical explanations of the trends observed in the data. There may well be
inconsistencies in the data; these should be identified and explained where possible.
Page 3 of 3
116
Problem Set 1
Due: Tuesday, February 10, 2004
1. Explain briefly the following differences between a standard automobile spark-ignition (SI) engine
and a truck diesel engine:
(a) where the fuel is injected and why
(b) how the load is varied at fixed speed
(c) how the combustion process starts, develops and ends
(d) how the in-cylinder pressure varies as a function of crank angle (draw qualitatively the
pressure traces for both engines in the same graph showing their relative magnitudes and
when approximately the combustion starts and ends in each case).
(e) how the fuels are different and why
2. At 45
0
after top dead center (ATDC) on the expansion stroke, the pressure in a SI engine cylinder
is 1000 kPa. The bore and the stroke are 80 mm, the ratio of the connecting rod length to the crank
radius is 3.5, the piston mass (including the pin and half the connecting rod) is 0.57 kg, the
crankcase pressure is 100 kPa, the axial friction force on the piston (due to rings sliding against
the cylinder liner) is 65 N and the engine speed is 2500 rpm.
(a) Draw the piston and connecting rod free body diagrams, calculate all forces acting on them
and compute the torque delivered to the crankshaft.
(b) Answer part (a) for the same crank position during the intake stroke if the engine is
working at half load conditions assuming that the friction force is the same.
Hint: a good approximation to piston acceleration is the following:
1
2 2
a = ? (cos L N p 2 +
R
) ? 2 cos
N engine speed
L stroke
R connecting rod length to crank radius ratio
theta crank angle measured from TDC
(Bosch Automotive Handbook, 4
th
Edition, pp. 404 405)
A more accurate expression can be found be differentiating twice the distance between the crank
axis and the piston pin axis.
3. An automobile engine should provide enough power to a car in order to overcome its resistances.
These resistances consist of the rolling resistance arising from the friction of the tires with the
road, the aerodynamic drag, the inertia as the car accelerates and the gravity if it is travelling up a
hill.
Ford Taurus (4-door) weights 1515 kg, and has a relatively flat torque engine speed curve of 247
Nm for medium speeds. Estimate:
(a) the road load power (power required to drive a vehicle on a level road at steady speed)
when the vehicle speed is 50 and 100 km/h. Comment on the relative importance of the
resistances as vehicle speed increases
(b) the power required to drive the car up to 20% gradient hill at steady speed of 50 km/h
Page 1 of 2
117
(c) the minimum time required to accelerate the car from 40 to 80 km/h on a level road with
the 3
rd
gear. You can assume that the ratio of the engine to the wheel speed is
approximately 1x3.27 (which is the transmission torque ratio with the 3
rd
gear times the
axle ratio).
Make appropriate estimations for road roughness and car geometry (drag coefficient, frontal area
and wheel radius).
4. A 4-cylinder, 4 stroke diesel engine is being designed. A bore of 100 mm and a stroke of 120 mm
have been selected and the operating speed is to be 1500 rev/min. A turbocharging system is
envisaged which will supply inlet manifold air at 2.0 bar, 380 K. The volumetric efficiency is
expected to be 90%. The indicated fuel conversion efficiency has been estimated at 55%, and an
air-fuel ratio of 28:1 is to be used. The friction mean effective pressure is expected to be 2.2 bar.
The calorific or heating value of the fuel is 42.5 MJ/kg.
Estimate:
(a) Mass flow rate of air into the engine (kg/s)
(b) Mass of fuel burned per cylinder per cycle (mg)
(c) The indicated work done per cylinder per cycle (kJ)
(d) The brake mean effective pressure (kPa)
(e) The engine shaft power output (kW)
(f) The brake specific fuel consumption (g/kWhr)
(g) The brake fuel conversion efficiency
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Problem Set 2
Due: Thursday, February 19, 2004
1. Several velocities, time, and length scales are useful in understanding what goes on inside engines.
Make estimates o the following quantities for a 1.6-liter displacement four-cylinder spark-ignition
engine, operating at wide-open throttle at 2500 rev/min.
(a) The mean piston speed and the maximum piston speed.
(b) The maximum charge velocity in the intake port (the port area is about 20 percent of the
piston area).
(c) The time occupied by one engine operating cycle, the intake process, the compression
process, the expansion process, and the exhaust process. (Note: The word process is used
here not the word stroke.)
(d) The average velocity with which the flame travels across the combustion chamber.
(e) The length of the intake system (the intake port, the manifold runner, etc.) which is filled
by one cylinder charge just before the intake valve opens and this charge enters the
cylinder (i.e., how far back from the intake valve, in centimeters, one cylinder volume
extends in the intake system).
(f) The length of exhaust filled by one cylinder charge after it exits the cylinder (assume an
average exhaust gas temperature of 425 C)
You will have to make several appropriate geometric assumptions. The calculations are
straightforward, and only approximate answers are required.
2. Evaluate the maximum bmep, the bmep at maximum power and the maximum value of the mean
piston speed (where applicable) for the engines described in the attached sheets:
Gasoline (natural aspirated and turbocharged)
(a) General Motors Vortec 4.2L DOHC I-6
(b) Audi AG 4.2L DOHC V-8
(c) BMW AG 3.2L DOHC I-6
(d) K13C with common rail fuel injection
(e) Subaru 2.5L H-4 turbocharged
Diesel (natural aspirated and turbochared)
(f) 5.9L Cummins 600 OHV l-6 turbodiesel
(g) Isuzu new V12 PE1-S
(h) Mitsubishi 2.8L
Specialty (hybrid, rotary, formula 1)
(i) Mazda 1.3L Renesis rotary
(j) Toyota 1.5L DOHC I-4 Hybrid
(k) Formula 1 engine: naturally aspirated, 3.0 liter, 10-cylinder, stroke to bore ratio is 0.48,
maximum brake power at 17000 rpm is 800 hp and the maximum brake torque at 13000
rpm is 350 Nm
Page 1 of 12
119
Explain briefly the differences in performance parameters between the various engine
configurations:
- SI: 2 valves per cylinder, 4 valves per cylinder, F1 racing engines
- CI: naturally aspirated, turbocharged engines
Also using the bsfc maps for the Isuzu H-Series diesel, the Audi 5-cylinder turbo diesel and the
Toyota SI 3L V-6 engine, calculate the brake fuel conversion efficiencies at the following
conditions:
- Best efficiency
- Typical automotive light load operation (half speed and 25% load)
3. The Isuzu V12 DI diesel 12PEI-S engine described in the attached sheets is operating at 2000 rpm,
full load. At this operating condition the total friction power (consisting of rubbing friction,
pumping and accessory power) is 50 kW. Making an appropriate assumption for the relative air-
fuel ratio (remember that diesels operate lean overall) and using the manufacturers specifications,
calculate the following:
(a) mechanical efficiency
(b) brake fuel conversion efficiency
(c) indicated fuel conversion efficiency
(d) volumetric efficiency
The engine is working with light diesel fuel, which has lower heating value 43.2 MJ/kg and
stoichiometric air-fuel ratio 14.5.
4. Using the ideal constant volume combustion cycle model, draw an accurately proportioned
cylinder pressure versus cylinder volume diagram for a lower compression ratio engine (say 8) and
a higher compression ratio engine (say 12) that shows why the higher compression ratio engine
has a higher indicated fuel conversion efficiency. In making this comparison on a p-V diagram, a
critical question is what should be held constant? Possible choices are one or more of these:
maximum cylinder volume, displaced cylinder volume, mass of air in cylinder, mass of fuel in
cylinder, relative air/fuel ratio of mixture in cylinder, pressure in cylinder at start of compression,
temperature of gas in cylinder at start of compression.
(a) Explain your choice of which of the above you will hold constant in this comparison.
(b) Carefully draw the two p-V diagrams on the same graph, indicating the relative magnitude
of pressures and temperatures at start and end of compression, at start and end of
expansion.
(c) Using these p-V diagrams explain why the higher compression ratio engine is more
efficient
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Problem Set 3
Thursday, February 19, 2004
Due: Tuesday, March 2, 2004
q
1. A modern naturally-aspirated spark-ignition engine has an indicated fuel conversion efficiency
i f
of 38 percent over its operating range. At 2000 rev/min, the mechanical friction mean
,
effective pressure (mfmep) is 90 kPa and the accessory (water, oil and fuel pump) friction (afmep)
is 20 kPa; both are independent of load. The engine operates at stoichiometric and MBT spark
timing at all intake manifold pressures. The exhaust pressure p
e
is 1 atmosphere.
(a) Develop an expression for the brake fuel conversion efficiency as a function of q
i f
,
,
mfmep, afmep, intake manifold pressure p
i
, exhaust manifold pressure p
e
, fuel heating
value Q
HV
, fuel/air ratio, intake system air density
i a
, just downstream of the throttle and
,
volumetric efficiency q based on
i a
.
v ,
(b) Evaluate the engines mechanical efficiency and brake fuel conversion efficiency, at an
intake manifold pressure of 0.4, 0.7, and 1.0 bar
(c) Assuming that the mechanical and accessory friction values remain the same at idle,
determine the intake manifold pressure at idle
2. An internal combustion engine is being operated with a pure alcohol as fuel. The fuel molecule
has 7 carbon atoms. A detailed analysis of the exhaust gas constituents on a wet molar basis (i.e.,
with the H
2
O present) in the exhaust manifold yielded the following:
CO
2
: 13%, CO: 5.2%, H
2
O: 9.1%, H
2
:1.3%, and N
2
: 71.3%
(a) Determine the elemental composition of the fuel molecule
(b) Determine the relative air-fuel ratio. Is this lean stoichiometric or rich?
(c) The engine is a 4-valve per cylinder naturally aspirated SI engine. It has a displaced volume
of 3 liters, the airflow is 0.06 kg/sec and the engine speed is 3000 rpm. Estimate the engine
load (i.e., the approximate ratio of the actual brake torque to the maximum brake torque at
these conditions. The friction mean effective pressure is 200 kPa at this speed and is
essentially independent of load at the loads considered here. The gross indicated fuel
conversion efficiency is also independent of load.
Hints: you may need to make appropriate assumptions concerning engines breathing
characteristics and normalized torque, according to the given engine technology.
3. Calculate the following parameters for a constant-volume combustion fuel-air cycle (Fig. 5-2a
from text):
(a) the pressures and temperatures at states 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6
(b) the indicated fuel conversion efficiency
(c) the imep
(d) the residual gas fraction
(e) the volumetric efficiency
The engine is working at full load and the compression ratio is 8.
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131
Make appropriate assumptions for the inlet pressure and temperature, exhaust pressure and air-fuel
ratio.
Hint: start the calculations at point 1 using a residual gas mass fraction of 3% and a mixture
temperature at start of compression of 343 K. One cycle calculation should suffice.
4. Estimate from fuel-air cycle results the indicated fuel conversion efficiency, the imep, and the
maximum indicated power at wide open throttle of two 4-stroke SI engines with the following
specs:
(a) six-cylinder, bore 9.2 cm, stroke 9 cm, compression ratio 7 and equivalence ratio 0.8.
(b) six-cylinder, bore 8.3 cm, stroke 8 cm, compression ratio 10 and equivalence ratio 1.1.
Assume that the actual indicated efficiency is 0.8 times the appropriate fuel-air cycle efficiency.
The maximum permitted value of the mean piston speed is 15m/s.
Explain also briefly why:
- the efficiency of these two engines is approximately the same despite their different
compression ratios.
the maximum power of the smaller displacement engine is approximately the same as that of the
larger displacement engine.
5. Carbon dioxide (CO
2
) emissions from engines are a matter of increasing concern due to their
contribution to the so-called greenhouse effect. Both the characteristics of the hydrocarbon fuel
and engine factors determine an engines CO
2
emissions levels.
(a) Derive an expression for the mass of CO
2
produced per unit brake work output from the
engine in terms of the fuel H:C ratio (assume a fuel of composition (CH
y
)
n
), the fuels
lower heating value Q
LHV
, and the appropriate engine efficiencies.
(b) Compare the CO
2
producing potential of the following two fuel/engine combinations:
- A methane (CH
4
) fueled spark-ignition engine with a compression ratio of 10 operating
with a stoichiometric mixture.
- A diesel (CH
2
)
n
fueled compression-ignition engine with a compression ratio of 16
operating with a fuel-air equivalence of 0.4.
At the relevant load, the mechanical efficiency of the first engine is 0.6 and of the second 0.7.
Assume the results of available fuel-air cycle calculations adequately describe the effects of
compression ratio and equivalence ratio changes for both these fuel/engine combinations.
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132
Problem Set 4
Tuesday, March 2, 2004
Due: Thursday, March 11, 2004
1. Hydrogen is a possible future fuel for SI engines, considering both emissions (only water vapor is
present in the exhaust) and consumption (high heating value). A disadvantage of hydrogen fuel in
SI engines is that the partial pressure of hydrogen in the mixture with air reduces engines
volumetric efficiency, which is proportional to the partial pressure of air.
(a) Find the partial pressure of air in the intake manifold downstream of the hydrogen fuel
injection location at WOT (the engine is working with stoichiometric mixture).
(b) Estimate the ratio of the fuel energy per unit time entering a hydrogen-fueled engine
operating with a stoichiometric mixture to the fuel energy per unit time entering an
identical gasoline-fueled operating at the same speed with a stoichiometric mixture.
(c) How does the power output compare for both engines? What can you do to ensure that the
output of each engine is the same? What are your limitations? (for reference see BMW
paper: SAE 2003-01-3210, on 2.61 webpage)
2. A conventional spark-ignition engine operating with gasoline will not run smoothly (due to
incomplete combustion) with an equivalence ratio leaner than about |=0.8. It is desirable to
extend the smooth operating limit of the engine to leaner equivalence ratios so that at part throttle
operation (with intake pressure less than 1 atmosphere) the pumping work is reduced. Leaner than
normal operation can be achieved by adding hydrogen gas (H
2
) to the mixture in the intake
system. The addition of H2 makes the fuel-air mixture easier to burn.
(a) The fuel composition with mixed fuel operation is H
2
+ C
8
H
18
--- one mole of hydrogen
to every mole of gasoline, which is assumed the same as isooctane. What is the
stoichiometric air/fuel ratio for the mixed fuel?
(b) The lower heating value of H2 is 120 MJ/kg and for isooctane is 44.4 MJ/kg. What is the
heating value per kilogram of fuel mixture?
(c) Engine operation with isooctane and the mixed (H
2
+ C
8
H
18
) fuel is compared in a
particular engine at a part-load condition (brake mean effective pressure of 275 kPa and
1400 rev/min).
You are given the following information about the engine operation:
Fuel C
8
H
18
H
2
+ C
8
H
18
Equivalence ratio 0.8 0.5
Gross indicated fuel conversion efficiency 0.35 0.4
Mechanical rubbing friction mep 138 kPa 138 kPa
Inlet manifold pressure 46 kPa ?
Pumping mep 55 kPa ?
Estimate approximately the inlet manifold pressure and the pumping mean effective pressure with
(H
2
+ C
8
H
18
) fuel. Explain your METHOD and ASSUMPTIONS clearly. Note that mechanical
efficiency q
m
is defined as
q
m
= bmep/imep
g
= bmep/(bmep + rfmep + pmep)
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133
3. For four stroke engines, the inlet and exhaust valve opening and closing crank angles are typically:
IVO: 15 CAD BTDC
IVC: 50 CAD ABDC
EVO: 55 CAD BBDC
EVC: 10 CAD ATDC
(a) Explain why these valve timings improve engine breathing relative to valve opening and
closing at the beginnings and ends of the intake and exhaust strokes.
(b) Mention at least one modification you would do to the above valve timings if the engine
you are designing was
- intended for a race car
- turbo-charged
- working at low speeds
What other additional design issues are important?
4. In a spark-ignition engine, a turbulent flame propagates through the uniform premixed fuel-air
mixture within the cylinder and extinguishes at the combustion chamber walls.
(a) Draw a carefully proportioned qualitative graph of cylinder pressure p and mass fraction
burned x
b
as a function of crank angle u for 90 < u < 90 for a typical SI engine at wide-
open throttle with the spark timing adjusted for maximum brake torque. Mark in the crank
angles of spark discharge, and of the flame development period (0 to 10 percent burned)
and end of combustion, on both p and x
b
versus u curves relative to the top-center crank
position.
(b) Estimate approximately the fraction of they cylinder volume occupied by burned gases
when the mass fraction burned is 0.5 (i.e., halfway through the burning process).
(c) A simple model for this turbulent flame is shown below in Fig. 1. The rate of burning of
the charge dmb/dt is given by
dm
b
= A
f
S
T u
dt
Where A
f
is the area of the flame front (which can be approximated by a portion of a
cylinder whose axis is at the spark plug position),
u
is the unburned mixture density, and
S
T
is the turbulent flame speed (the speed at which the front moves relative to the unburned
mixture ahead of it). The rate of mass burning is influenced therefore by combustion
chamber geometry (through A
f
) as well as those factors that influence S
T
(turbulent
intensity, fuel/air ratio, residual gas fraction, and EGR). Compare combustion chambers A
and B shown in Fig. 1. Sketch the approximate location of the flame front when 50 percent
of the mass has been burned. (A careful qualitative sketch is sufficient; however, provide a
quantitative justification for your sketch.) Sketch the mass fraction burned versus crank
angle curves for these two combustion chambers on the same graph, each with its spark
timing set for maximum brake torque. You may assume the value of S
T
is the same for A
and B.
(d) Compare combustion chambers A and C in the figure below, which have the same flame
travel distance but have different chamber shapes. Which chamber has
- the faster rate of mass burning during the first half of the combustion process;
- the faster rate of mass burning during the second half of the combustion process;
- the more advanced timing for maximum brake torque?
Explain your answers
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134
Figure 1
5. An approximate way to calculate the pressure in the end gas (the unburned gas ahead of the flame)
just after knock occurs is to assume that all the end gas burns instantaneously at constant volume.
We assume that the inertia of the burned gases prevents significant gas motion while the end gas
autoignites. Use the data in Figure 9.5 from the text and assume that autoignition occurs at 10
CAD ATDC. You may also need to use the equilibrium charts of Chapter 4 from the text.
(a) Determine the maximum pressure reached in the end gas after knock occurs
(b) Estimate the volume occupied by the end gas as a fraction of the cylinder volume just
before autoignition occurs
6. Use the GM Vortec 4.2L DOHC engine, which appeared on problem set 2 to calculate the ratio of
actual gross indicated engine performance to the equivalent fuel-air cycle predictions in Figures 5-
9 and 5-10.
(a) Maximum power, assume total friction mep = 200 kpa
(b) Maximum torque, assume total friction mep = 150 kpa
(c) Best brake specific fuel consumption: the best measured value is 250 g/kWh at part throttle
and total friction mep = 140 kpa.
At WOT the engine operates rich with fuel-air equivalence ratio of 1.2. The engine operates
stoichiometric at other load points for emission control reasons. Explain briefly the reasons why
the fuel-air cycle predicts better performance than measured
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135
Problem Set 5
Due: Tuesday, March 30, 2004
1. This problem requires you to use an Engine Simulation Program developed by General Motors
Research Laboratories, which they have made available for free to academic institutions.**
Unless otherwise stated, use the preset values of the variables, which define engine geometry and
operating conditions. Assume burn duration of 50 CAD, unless otherwise stated.
(a) At WOT, 2000 rpm and stoichiometric mixture conditions vary the spark timing in 10
CAD intervals from 50 to 10 CAD BTC
- Plot the gross indicated mean effective pressure versus spark advance and determine
the MBT spark timing. Explain briefly the shape of the curve.
- Plot in the same graph u
max P
and u
burned % 50
versus spark advance. At MBT spark
timing, what are the values of u
max P
and u
burned % 50
?
- Plot the indicated specific fuel consumption (isfc) versus spark advance. What spark
advance gives a minimum isfc? How does it compare to MBT spark timing? Are there
any other factors that you would take into account when setting the spark timing in an
engine apart from efficiency and torque output?
- Plot P
max
versus spark advance. Why is P
max
important?
(b) At 2000 rpm and stoichiometric mixture conditions vary the inlet pressure in 0.25 bar
intervals from 0.25 to 1 bar (recall that the inlet pressure approximately scales with the
load). The burn durations are: Pi=0.25 bar, 70; Pi=0.5 bar, 50; Pi=0.75 bar, 44; Pi=1.0
bar, 38. Be sure to have the MBT spark timing for every point.
- Plot the MBT spark timing versus the inlet pressure. Explain briefly the shape of the
curve.
- Plot in the same graph u
max P
and u
burned % 50
versus the inlet pressure. Do you see any
variation of these values with the inlet pressure when the spark timing is always set to
MBT? How do they compare to the values you got in part (a)?
- Plot in the same graph the gross indicated, the net indicated and the brake mean
effective pressures versus inlet pressure. Show on the graph the pumping and the
mechanical friction losses.
- Plot in the same graph the gross indicated, the net indicated and the brake fuel
conversion efficiencies versus the inlet pressure. In the same graph include also the
mechanical and volumetric efficiencies. Explain briefly the dependence of the
mechanical efficiency on the inlet pressure. Does the gross indicated fuel conversion
efficiency vary significantly with the inlet pressure?
(c) At WOT and stoichiometric mixture conditions vary the engine speed in 1000 rpm
intervals from 2000 to 5000 rpm. The MBT spark timing for each speed is 2000 rpm, 28
BTC; 3000 rpm, 32 BTC; 4000 rpm, 36 BTC; 5000 rpm, 40 BTC. Determine the 0-
100% burn duration at each of these speed conditions (that corresponds to MBT). Answer
again part (b), having now the engine speed as a parameter.
**See GM Research Publication GMR-5758, "A User's Guide for the GM Engine-Simulation Program," March 4, 1987
Page 1 of 2
136
(d) At 2000 rpm and 0.5 bar inlet pressure, vary the fuel equivalence ratio in 0.1 intervals from
0.8 to 1.2. Be sure to have the MBT spark timing for every point. The burn durations are
=0.8, 65; =0.9, 54; =1.0, 50; =1.1, 48; =1.2, 47; Answer again part (b), having
now the fuel equivalence ratio as a parameter.
(e) Compare the simulation and the fuel-air cycle results at the operating conditions defined in
part (d).
- Plot on the same graph the gross indicated mean effective pressure versus the fuel
equivalence ratio for both cases.
Plot on the same graph the gross indicated fuel conversion efficiency versus the fuel equivalence
ratio for both cases.
2. In this problem you are asked again to use the GMR Engine Simulation Program. We are now
interested in heat losses and emissions. Keep the combustion duration at 60 CAD for all cases.
(a) Using MBT spark timings, sketch the following graphs:
- absolute levels of total heat losses with respect to speed and load (intake pressure) for
stoichiometric mixture. Use the same speed and load increments as in the last problem
set and draw the total heat losses as a function of speed with contours of constant
intake pressures.
- relative levels of total heat losses (as a fraction of the fuel energy delivered into the
engine) with respect to speed and load for stoichiometric mixture.
(b) Answer part (a) having only the fuel equivalence ratio as a parameter. The operating
conditions are: WOT, 2000 rpm and MBT spark timing for each point.
(c) Explain briefly the dependence of total heat losses (both absolute and relative) on speed,
load and mixture composition.
(d) At WOT, 2000 rpm and MBT spark timing for each point, plot the molar concentration of
CO
2
, CO, H
2
O, O
2
, H
2
and NO in the exhaust stream as a function of fuel equivalence
ratio. Plot also the exhaust gas temperature as a function of the equivalence ratio. Explain
briefly the shape of the curves you obtain.
(e) As already discussed in the lecture the Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR), is a widely used
emission control technology for decreasing exhaust NO emissions.
- Explain briefly why recycling exhaust gases reduces NO emissions. Is there any impact
on the combustion process? At what loads is EGR used and why?
- Plot NO emissions as a function of EGR mass fraction using the following operating
conditions: 2000 rpm, stoichiometric mixture, spark timing set at 28 CAD BTDC and
intake pressure such that each point has the same gross indicated mean effective
pressure. Use as a baseline case intake pressure 50 kPa and EGR 0% and increase EGR
until 30% with an increment of 10%. Plot also the intake pressure and the exhaust gas
temperature as a function of EGR.
- Do you think that the fraction of exhaust gases recycled must be higher or lower for
diesel engines in order to have approximately the same relative impact on NO and
why?
- Suggest another way to affect the combustion process and NO emissions in the same
way as EGR? Is there any way to control it?
(f) It is also interesting to see during what part of combustion NO is formed. Therefore, plot
NO emissions on a CAD basis from 120 to 120 CAD ATDC. Also plot the in-cylinder
pressure and the mass fraction of fuel burned. Use the baseline operating conditions: WOT,
2000 rpm, stoichiometric mixture and MBT spark timing.
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137
3. Explain, using your understanding of the fundamentals of spark-ignition engine combustion, the
causes of the observed variation in cylinder pressure cycle by cycle.
What impacts do these cylinder pressure variations have on engine operation?
Do you expect diesel engines to have higher or lower cycle by cycle variability?
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138
Problem Set 6
Due: Thursday, April 8, 2004
1. Compare the three-valve two-plug combustion chamber shown, with a four-valve chamber with
one spark plug on the cylinder axis. Make appropriate simple assumptions about the flame shape,
as it grows outward from the spark(s).
(a) For the four-valve, center plug, plot flame envelope area (flame outer boundary)
A
f
2t h r against r
f
r
0
through the combustion process. On the same graph, sketch
0
carefully the equivalent curve for the three-valve two-plug design assuming both plugs fire
at the same time: simple geometric calculations are required to short out the physics.
(b) Plot the mass fraction burned curves versus CAD for these two combustion chambers on a
qualitative but carefully proportioned graph from 45 CAD BTDC to 45 CAD ATDC.
Show on the graph the spark discharge location, the TDC, the location of maximum in-
cylinder pressure and the approximate end of combustion, with the spark timing for both
chambers set at MBT timing.
(c) With the two-plug chamber, the burn rate can be slowed down by firing one plug later than
the other. Estimate approximately the mass fraction burned after which further delaying the
second plug firing will have no impact on the burn rate.
Intake Intake
Spark
plug
r
0
/2
r
0
120
0
Exhaust
h
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139
2. You are designing a high power density (high maximum power per unit displaced cylinder
volume) port fuel injected naturally aspirated spark-ignition engine to have a maximum power of
150 kW for an automobile. Address the following questions:
(a) Explain how you will achieve higher than average power density.
(b) Explain how you will deal with knock. You may choose regular gasoline (Research octane
no. 92, Motor octane no. 82) or premium gasoline (Research octane no. 98, Motor octane no.
88) which is $0.20 a gallon more expensive
(c) Explain your emission control strategy and emission control system; you must meet strict
standards for hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and oxides of nitrogen
(d) Based on your choices in (a), (b) and (c) estimate the required displaced volume, bore, stroke,
number of cylinders, and compression ratio.
(e) Provide a description of your combustion system, explaining the objectives and logic behind
your choices.
3. In the disked-shaped combustion chamber of a spark-ignition engine, the flame propagates radially
outward from the spark plug at the center (on the cylinder axis). The flame can be modeled as a
thin smooth sheet at the location within the wrinkled turbulent flame, which on average separates
the unburned and burned gases.
(a) Derive an equation for the mass fraction burned x
b
= m
b
m as a function of r
f
r
o
(r
f
:
flame radius and r
o
: cylinder radius) and the density ratio r
d
=
u
b
. Plot this curve for
an appropriate value of r
d
.
(b) Draw a carefully proportioned graph of x
b
versus CAD for the engine operating at part load
with MBT spark timing (30 CAD BTDC), indicating the approximate mass fraction burned
at TDC and 10 CAD ATDC. Note that x
b
at u
max P
is about 0.75.
Make an appropriate estimate of P
max
. The pressure in the cylinder at IVC (50 CAD ABDC) is the
inlet pressure, i.e. 0.5 bar. The cylinder volume ratio, volume at IVC to volume at P
max
is 7.3. The
mixture is stoichiometric and the compression ratio is 10. Make reasonable assumptions of any
other quantities you may need.
4. A spark-ignition engine driving a car uses, on average, 120 grams of gasoline per mile traveled.
The average emissions from the engine (upstream of the catalyst) are 1.5, 2, and 20 grams per mile
of NOx (as NO
2
), HC (interpret HC measurement as hydrocarbons with H/C ratio of 1.85), and
CO, respectively. The engine operates with a stoichiometric gasoline-air mixture.
(a) Find the average concentrations in parts per million of NOx, HC (as ppm C
1
), and CO in the
engine exhaust.
(b) Calculate the average combustion inefficiency associated with the given emissions levels.
Include any hydrogen you estimate would be present in the exhaust stream.
(c) Assuming the engine has a three-way catalytic converter with efficiency of 95%, find the rise
in temperature in the catalyst, after the pollutants are removed. Neglect heat losses.
Page 2 of 2
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
Rating rev
min
mep
bar
cm
m/s
A
A
B
C
D
E
F
tonnes 555 655 770 900
90
94
13.79
14.79
5.70
5.95
bw
bhp
kw
bhp
96 13.42 5.21 kw
bhp
102 14.31 5.16 kw
bhp
Number of cyls
RLB 90
Stroke 1900 mm Scre 900 mm
Net weight, without water and oil
10 780
11 270
4 000
1 800
9 250
1 520
13 150
12 500
12 550
4 000
1 800
9 250
1 520
13 150
14 220
14 710
4 000
1 800
9 250
1 185
13 150
4 000
24 360
1 800
9 250
1 520
13 150
4 000
1 800
9 250
1 520
13 150
4 000
1 800
9 250
1 520
13 150
4 000
1 800
9 250
1 520
13 150
4 000
1 800
9 250
1 185
13 150
1 005 1 120 1 255
ERP 2
MCR 2
10 000
13 600
11 200
15 200
12 500
17 000
14 000
19 000
15 000
20 400
16 800
22 800
17 500
23 800
19 600
26 600
20 000
27 200
22 400
30 400
22 500
30 600
25 200
34 200
25 000
34 000
28 000
38 000
30 000
40 000
33 600
45 600
ERP 1
10 500
14 400
13 250
18 000
15 900
21 500
18 550
25 200
21 200
23 800
23 850
32 400
25 500
36 000
31 800
43 200
MCR 1 11 760
16 000
14 700
20 000
17 640
24 000
20 580
28 000
21 520
32 000
25 460
36 000
29 400
40 000
35 280
48 000
1 470
15 780 17 480 19 200 20 320
Typical performance diagram
SULZER RLB 90 2- STROKE ENGINE
(TURBOCHARGED)
Outputs, weights and dimensions
152
Design Project Corrected Version Number 2
Wednesday, April 14, 2004
Due: Thursday, April 22, 2004
Heavy duty diesel engine with EGR and particulate trap
For this project you need to design a heavy-duty truck diesel engine. The engine is 11
liter, 6 cylinder, with target maximum power of 360 kW and target bsfc of 185 g/kW-hr.
You will also incorporate an emissions strategy to meet current emissions standards.
1. Base Engine
Begin by sizing the base engine (no turbocharger), which will be 11 liter, 6 cylinder.
Assume a maximum mean piston speed (Sp) of 10 m/s. Use data on Figure 13.7 on page
722 in the text for estimates of mechanical/rubbing plus auxiliary mep. Making any other
reasonable assumptions necessary, determine the following parameters:
(a) Bore and stroke
(b) Compression ratio
(c) Connecting rod length
(d) Brake mean effective pressure, at maximum torque and maximum power
(e) Maximum torque and maximum power
(f) Maximum engine speed, at maximum power
2. Boost, turbomachinery, and intercooler
Design the required turbomachinery and intercooler for the engine by addressing the
following points:
(a) Based on your calculations in part 1, calculate the amount of boost pressure
required at maximum speed to produce the target power.
(b) Use a turbocharger to produce this boost, and define the main operating
parameters of the required turbomachinery. For both turbine and compressor,
provide values for mass flow rate, pressure ratio, inlet and exhaust temperatures
and pressures. Use typical values for isentropic efficiencies (q
t
=0.85, q
c
=0.80)
and assume the exhaust temperature is 900K.
(c) Include an intercooler to lower the temperature of the air coming out of the
compressor. Provide the inlet and outlet temperatures of the air, as well as the
coolants inlet and outlet temperatures and mass flowrate. Assume a counter-flow
heat exchanger with effectiveness of 0.8. (Heat exchanger effectiveness is the
ratio of the actual heat transfer to the heat transfer that would occur if the stream
with the minimum capacity rate were heated (or cooled) from its inlet temperature
to the inlet temperature of the other stream).
(d) Draw a schematic of your system
(Hint: You will need to include the effect of turbo-charging on pumping work)
Page 1 of 2
153
3. Brake efficiency
Evaluate the brake fuel conversion efficiency of the design at half maximum speed and
full load at that speed. Does it meet the target bsfc? If not, what changes in engine design
would bring it closer?
4. Emissions NOX
The engine you are designing must comply with 2004 EPA NOx requirements which are
set at 2.5 g/bhp-hr (assume for simplicity that the NOx requirement must be met at all
operating points); EGR has been chosen as the technology to reduce NOx levels.
Address the questions below using available data, and an appropriate safety factor:
(a) Draw a schematic of your system, showing clearly how you will drive EGR from
exhaust to intake. There are a few possibilities for doing this (the reference paper
on EGR systems might be helpful).
(b) Find the required amount of EGR to run at low load (25% max torque and 1600
rpm).
(c) Find the required amount of EGR to run at maximum power.
(d) Similar to part 2, recalculate the boost pressure at maximum power. Resize the
turbomachinery and intercooler to reach the stated target or best case power
output; use available data to determine the exhaust temperature. Also, include an
EGR cooler to lower the re-circulated gas temperature before it enters the engine;
using the same assumptions as part 2c, provide operating temperatures and
flowrates.
As a safety measure, it is common standard to reduce the amount of NOx, by an
additional 20% to 40% of the required EPA standard. For this design please use a
safety factor of 30% (i.e., reduce NOx to 1.75 g/bhp-hr, 30% below required
standard). Assume that the equivalence ratio based on the mass of fresh fuel and
fresh air must stay below the smoke limit of 0.7; for simplicity once you have
selected the level of EGR, assume NOx levels remain constant, in spite of additional
boosting (this is not the actual case). Also assume that beyond 8 CAD BTDC, for
every additional CAD delay in injection you lose 0.25 percentage points in indicated
fuel conversion efficiency.
(Note: Watch the units in the emissions data)
5. Emissions particulate
The engine you are designing must also comply with 2004 EPA particulate requirements.
Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF) has been selected as the technology to achieve the target
PM levels of 0.05 g/bhp-hr. Assume that current DPF technology can reach 99%
efficiency (i.e., 99% removal of particulates). Using a PM emissions safety factor of
50%, answer the following questions, all for maximum power conditions
(a) What is the approximate level of PM coming out of the engine?
Page 2 of 2
154
(b) Size the trap and calculate the average pressure drop. Assume a space velocity in
the range of 10,000 28,000 hr
-1
that minimizes the physical size of the
particulate trap (see SAE 2003-01-0047 for reference).
(c) What impact does the particulate trap have on the performance of the
turbocharged engine (be quantitative). What changes in boost pressure and
turbomachinery operating conditions are needed to keep best case output?
6. 2007 Emissions requirements:
Below is a table showing EPA Diesel engine emissions requirements for 2007.
NOx (g/bhp-hr) PM (g/bhp-hr)
0.20 0.01
(a) Based on engine out NOx levels of part 4, how efficient a NOx catalyst is needed
to meet 2007 emissions levels? Assume that the catalyst is used in conjunction
with EGR.
(b) Is it possible to achieve these levels of PM with the trap described in the SAE
2003-01-0047 paper?
(Note: Keep the same safety factors as in parts 4 and 5)
Page 3 of 2
155
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160
Displacement (m3) 11
Cylinders 6
Bore (m) 0.1326
Stroke (m) 0.1326
Compression Ratio 18
Connecting Rod Length (m) 0.3315
Bmep @ max torque (kPa) 895
Bmep @ max power (kPa) 835
Maximum torque (N-m) 783
Maximum power (kW) 173
Maximum engine speed at
maximum power(RPM)
2261
Design Project Solution
Here is a possible solution for the design problem.
1. Base Engine
Table 1 below summarizes the main parameters of the base engine
Table 1 Base Engine Summary
There are two possible methods to size the engine, and they should be consistent with
each other:
Method 1:
( ) ( )
2
/
, , stoich o a HV d v i f m
A F Q V N
P
| q q q
= (1)
Method 2:
Assume a bmep based on practical limits and fuel-air cycle charts, and solve for the
power output:
( )( )( )
2000
N Vd bmep
P = (2)
161
Using the first method, we must determine N , , , , ,
, ,
| q q q
o a v i f m
Calculate Engine Speed (N)
L 2
p S
N
max
= find L (3)
Assume B ~ L, so
( )
( ) ( )
4
L 6
4
B
6 V
3 2
d
t t
= =
L
cylinders
(4)
m L 1326 . 0
6
(0.011) 4
6
V 4
3
1
3
1
d
= |
.
|
\
|
= |
.
|
\
|
=
t t
so:
RPM 2260 or , sec / 71 . 37
) 1326 . 0 ( 2
10m/s
N revs = =
Determine |, and q
f,i
Chose r
c
=18 (maybe a bit high), and |=0.7 (smoke limit, maximum possible fuel we can
get in per mass of air). Using Fuel-air cycle results (Fig. 5-9, Heywood p. 182), then q
f,i
=
0.575. Applying a correction factor of around 80%, actual q
f,i
= 46%. The correction
factor can be between 80% and 85%; For this case, I chose 80% so that Method 1, and 2,
as explained above, are consistent with each other.
Determine IMEP
For phi=0.7, and r
c
=0.8, we get
( )( ) 5 . 10 imep so 5 . 10
imep
1
P
Pi
= = , (5)
Note that Pi is not atmospheric pressure. At WOT, there is a pressure loss in the intake
system, due to frictional losses that scale with speed. Pi will be less than atmospheric.
Likewise, the exhaust pressure (Pe) is not atmospheric; a higher than atmospheric
pressure is needed to pump the gases through the exhaust system. Once the gases leave
the exhaust system and reach ambient conditions, they will expand to atmospheric
pressure. Additionally, depending on the opening timing of the exhaust valves, the gases
might exit at a higher pressure than what is required to overcome the pumping loss in the
162
exhaust system. To get an idea, of the value of Pi, look at Figure 13-13 in the text
(Heywood P. 725). For a piston speed of 10 m/s,
(6)
Now allocate this pumping loss between Pe and Pi. At high speeds around 18% of the
loss is on the intake side, and the remaining 82% on the exhaust side. This will be
consistent with volumetric efficiency as explained below. So:
Pi= 101 kPa 0.18(40 kPa) = 93.8 kPa
Pe=101 kPa + 0.82(40 kPa) = 133.8 kPa
We can now calculate an imep:
( )( ) 9kPa . 984 5 . 10 kPa 8 . 93 imep = =
Determine Mechanical Efficiency q
m
; 1
imep
tfmep
imep
tfmep imep
m
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
= q (7)
where
pmep fmep tfmpe + = = mep) auxiliary and friction (rubbing mep friction total
From figure 13-7 (Heywood p 722), fmep for a fired engine at 2260 rpm ~ 140 kPa. So
( )
% 7 . 81
985
180
1
and ; 180 40 140
= =
= + =
m
kPa kPa tfmpe
q
Determine Volumetric Efficiency and
o a,
Using figure 6-8 (Heywood p. 217), assume a volumetric efficiency of 90% for a piston
speed of 10 m/s. Note that this volumetric efficiency measures the efficiency of the
entire intake system. Also note that we have chosen the right pressure loss allocation for
the intake system (as calculated in the imep section), consistent with volumetric
efficiency. The air density
o a,
, is just calculated from ideal gas law, at ambient
conditions. The value is 1.17 kg/m
3
40 ) 10 ( 4 . 0 p) S ( 4 . 0 Pi) - (Pe
2 2
= = = = x pmep
163
Fuel-to-Air Ratio & Heating Value
From table D.4 in the text (Heywood p. 915) we get the stoichiometric Fuel-to-Air ratio
of gasoline as 0.0697, and its heating value of 43.2 MJ/kg
Power calculation
With the estimates for each value, we can now calculate the power
( )( )
kW P
m kg kg kJ e m m
P
173
2
) 0697 . 0 )( 7 . 0 ( / 17 . 1 / 3 2 . 43 ) 011 . 0 sec)( / 7 . 37 )( 90 . 0 )( 46 . 0 )( 817 . 0 (
3
=
=
We also use method 2 to check for consistency. Rearranging equation 2.19b (Heywood
p50), we get:
( )( )( ) ( )( )( )
kW
rev dm kPa N Vd bmep
P 167
2000
sec / 7 . 37 3 11 805
2000
= = =
the methods are close
For low loads, follow the same procedure, with lower pumping loss, due to lower speed
(see figure 13-13, Heywood), and lower rubbing and auxiliary friction (see figure 13-7
Heywood); additionally, the allocation of pressure losses is different, and must be
consistent with volumetric efficiency.
2. Boost, Turbo-machinery and Intercooler
Boost pressure:
To find the boost pressure required, we use equation 1, and replace the volumetric
efficiency for the entire inlet system with the volumetric efficiency for the valves only
(
v
q ~ 94%). We also replace the ambient air density with the air density right before the
valves,
i a,
. This density can be determined from the ideal gas law, knowing the pressure
(which is approximately cylinder pressure divided by volumetric efficiency), and the
temperature (about the same as the cylinder temperature). Thus, we can vary the cylinder
pressure until we get the required power level, as defined by equation 1.
( ) ( )
2
/
, , stoich i a HV d v i f m
A F Q V N
P
| q q q
=
Note that as we vary the cylinder pressure, and consequently the density, the mechanical
efficiency (as defined by equation 7 above) will also change because the pumping loss
will change.
164
Pmep= P
exhaust
- P
intake
Thus the solution to this problem is iterative, and can easily be done with a spreadsheet.
After varying the cylinder pressure, determining the corresponding air density at the
valves through the ideal gas law, and calculating the mechanical efficiency, we get the
following target power:
( )( )
kW P
m kg kg kJ e m m
P
360
2
) 0697 . 0 )( 7 . 0 ( / 065 . 2 / 3 2 . 43 ) 011 . 0 sec)( / 7 . 37 )( 944 . 0 )( 46 . 0 )( 918 . 0 (
3
=
=
For this case the pressure that gives a density of 2.065 is 176 kPa, as dictated by the ideal
gas law:
( ) ( ) ) 944 . 0 ( 314
/ 97 . 28
/ 314 . 8
/ 065 . 2 *
3
_ ) ( ) ( ,
K
kmole kg
kmoleK kJ
m kg RT P
valves v es beforevalv es beforevalv i a cylinder
|
|
.
|
\
|
= = q
which gives Pcylinder=176 kPa. The pressure that must come out of the compressor is
approximately:
kPa
kPa
P
P
v
cylinder
comp
186
944 . 0
176
= = =
q
Thus the desired boost is 85 kPa. That is we have to compress 85 kPa above
atmospheric. Note that to relate pressure before the valves, and after the valves, as a first
approximation I have used the volumetric efficiency.
Turbo-machinery
Knowing the desired boost, the turbo-machinery can now be sized to generate the
required pressure. This is done using the insentropic relationships for the compressor and
turbine. First we must size the compressor by finding the work required to compress the
gas to the desired pressure. Second, we must size the turbine to produce the work that
drives the compressor.
To determine the amount of work that is required to compress the gas we do an energy
balance assuming an adiabatic compressor:
) (
1 2
T T C m W
a p c
= (8)
where,
T
2a
= Actual compressor exit temperature
T1= Compressor inlet temperature (300K)
165
We calculate T2a using the compressor efficiency, and isentropic relationships:
1
1 2
2
T
T T
T
c
s
a
+
=
q
(9)
and:
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
1
2
1
1 2
P
P
T T
s
(10)
T1, P1, P2, , and q
c
are all known, so T2a, and consequently the compressor work can
be calculated.
Knowing the compressor work, we now size the turbine using the following equations:
m
c
t
W
W
q
= (11)
where
m
q is the mechanical efficiency for the turbine and compressor system. 95% is
reasonable estimate for this number
Cp
W
T T
t
a
=
4 5
(12)
where:
T5a=Actual turbine exhaust temperature
T4 = Turbine inlet temperature (engine exhaust, given at 900K)
To find the required turbine pressure ratio:
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =
1
4
5
5
4
T
T
P
P
P
s
r
(13)
where:
4
4 5
5
T
T T
T
t
a
s
+
=
q
(14)
Thus, enough equations for enough unknowns. Values for the temperatures, pressures,
and compressor work, are show in table 2.
Intercooler
Adding an intercooler to lower the intake temperature, will increase the density of the
gas, and consequently decrease the required boost, as reflected in table 2. For a given
pressure rise we get a higher change in density (due to lower gas temperatures going into
the engine). To size the intercooler you can select a coolant, and based on adequate
166
compressor turbine
Heat Exchanger Engine
1
2 3
4
5
6 7
estimates for inlet and outlet coolant temperatures, you can determine the required mass
flow-rate that is needed to achieve a certain temperature change in the air. You must use
the definition for heat exchanger to determine the allowed change in air temperature:
For the coolant I used water (Cp=4.2 kJ/kg K), and assumed that it goes in at 300 K, and
I want it to leave at 380 K.
To find the exit temperature of the air, and to determine the required flow rate of water, I
use the definition for heat exchanger effectiveness in conjunction with an energy balance:
For effectiveness we have:
) (
) (
max _ min
air or ,
out in
coolant out in air or coolant
T T Cp m
T T Cp m
c
and for the energy balance we have:
( ) ( )
air coolant
T Cp m T Cp m A = A
For this case, I chose the air and water to have about the same capacitance (mCp). Using
the effectiveness equation I can solve for Tout air. Note that the capacitances will cancel
out in the equation, and the maximum change in temperature occurs when Tout air=
Twater in, thus:
) (
) (
) (
_ _ _ _
_ _
irr
in water in air in air out air
in water air in
a out in
T T T T
T T
T T
=
= c c
Assuming, water temperature increases from 300 to 357, then Tair in is 314 K. Values
for the heat exchanger temperatures and flow-rates are also shown in table 2.
Figure 1
Schematic of Turbocharged Engine with Intercooler
167
State Temperature (K) Pressure (kPa) Temperature (K) Pressure (kPa)
1 300 101 300 101
2 401 233 372 186
3 401 233 314 186
4 900 223 900 188
5 801 127 833 127
6 N/A N/A 101 300
7 N/A N/A 101 380
Work Compressor 40 kW Work Compressor 29 kW
Intercooler
m_dot water 0..097 kg/sec
m_dot air 0.404 kg/sec
No intercooling With intercooling
Table 2
Turbocharged Engine with Intercooler: Operating Parameters
3. Brake Efficiency
At half maximum speed, and full load at that speed, I kept the same boost, but lowered
the fmep, per figure 13-7 in the text. The BSFC came out to be 188 g/kw-hr. This
number is actually quite good for industry standards. Other people perhaps got lower
(around 175), however, as I previously explained, I was more conservative in my
efficiency estimate from fuel air cycle tables, to be consistent with different ways of
calculating power. My calculation is shown below:
hr kW g
kg g hr kg
kW Power
hr g m
bsfc
f
= = = / 188
193
) / 1000 )( sec/ 3600 sec( / 010078 . 0
) (
) / (
Note that if we directly use break engine efficiency, we should get the same answer:
hr kW g
Q Q
bsfc
HV i f m HV b f
= = = = / 188
) 2 . 43 )( 460 . 0 ( 96 . 0
1
) (
1
) (
1
, ,
q q q
Ways to decrease bsfc include raising compression ratio, and reducing frictional losses.
4. Emissions NOx
168
compressor turbine
Inter-
cooler
Engine
1
2 3
5
6
Inter-
cooler
Venturi/
Mixer
4
7
Engine Mode
NOx Standard
g/bhp-hr
NOx safety
target g/bkW-
hr
NOx Safegy
target g/bkW-
hr
EGR
Timing (CA
from TDC)
Hit in Fuel
economy
(percentage
points)
25% max
torque, 1600
rpm
2.50 1.75 2.35 24% 1 2%
Maximum
power
2.50 1.75 2.35 24% 0.5 2%
Figure 2
Schematic of Turbocharged Engine with Intercooler
The schematic shows how EGR will be driven from the engine. There are a few ways of
doing this; one way is to use a Venturi system, as shown above. Another way is to
optimize the system so that the pressures at the air and EGR intersection are about the
same. It is necessary for these pressures to be equal, otherwise there will be backflow in
the direction of lower pressure. Overall, however, the addition of EGR will impact the
fuel economy of the engine. This is the price that we must pay to have lower emissions.
The first step of this problem is to define the amount of EGR that is needed to meet EPA
emissions levels. The emissions requirements along with their safety levels are shown in
table 3 below.
Table 3
169
Must operate
below dashed
line
Using the figures provided, there are various possibilities for selecting EGR, depending
on the hit on fuel economy. Figure 3 below is an example that shows that there is a range
of timings and EGR levels that will give the proper amount of NOx
Figure 3
Acceptable operating area for low load
Once EGR has been calculated, the loss in engine efficiency can be assessed, as well as
the required boost. Again this is an iterative process. There are many variables affecting
engine power, and they are all related as well, thus at least a spreadsheet must be setup.
For example, boost affects engine power, but it also affects mechanical efficiency, which
in turn affects engine power, thus all these variables must be connected when solving the
system.
One important implication of adding EGR, is that the pressure in the cylinder chamber
must increase if we are to maintain constant mass of fresh fuel and air; this is what we
should desire if we are to maintain the same power output from the engine as the case
without EGR.
The total pressure is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of air and the EGR:
170
State Temperature (K) Pressure (kPa)
1 300 101
2 434 295
3 327 295
4 349 279
5 990 241
6 864 121
7 438 241
With intercooling
Intercooler
Mass flowrate
(kg/sec)
Tin (K) Tout (K)
EGR 0.171 300 380
Compressor 0.131 300 380
EGR air T
P P P + =
Assuming the molecular weights of both Air and EGR are about the same, then the mole
fraction is approximately equal to the mass fraction of each mixture, and PT can be
expressed as:
EGR
P
P
air
T
=
1
Additionally, since there is a pressure loss of around 16 to 20 kPa associated with the
venturi, a higher boost is still needed. To reach the target power output, a total boost of
194 kPa is required, for total pressure of 295 kPa. This is a high boost, higher than
industry standard for this size engines. Perhaps a more practical boost is 150 kPa (P
T
=251 kPa), or less. However this limits the maximum power to 310 kW. If you
recognized the practical limitations, this is a perfectly acceptable answer.
Table 4
Table 5
171
5. Emissions Particulates
(a) The particulate emissions corresponding to the chosen EGR level, can be obtained
from the data provided (PM levels vs injection timing for various EGR fractions). At
24% EGR, the PM coming out of the engine is approximately 0.2 g/bkW-hr
(b) To size the trap, use the space velocity that will minimize the volume of the trap, in
this case 28,000 hr
-1
. This is evident from the relationship for space velocity:
velocity Space
V
V
_ =
where V
is the volume flow-rate of the gases going through the trap, and V is the volume
of the trap. For a smaller trap volume we get a higher space velocity.
Solving for the volume of the trap we get
velocity Space
V
V
_
=
Using the ideal gas law to solve for V
sec / 10 . 1
) (
3
m
P
RT m m m
V
exhaust
exhaust egr fuel air
=
+ +
=

Solving for Volume

L m
m
V 141 141 . 0
sec 3600 / 000 , 28
sec / 10 . 1
3
3
= = =
Values used are shown in table 6 below
Table 6
As shown in figure 4 of SAE 2003-01-0047, The maximum pressure loss through the
trap, at a space velocity of 28,000/hr, is 6 kPa. This is a very small percentage of the
total exhaust pressure (~2.5%), and the effect on turbo-machinery is small.
Mdot_air&fuel
(kg/sec)
Mdot_egr
(kg/sec)
Texhaust (K) Pexhaust (kPa)
Space Velocity
(1/sec)
Volume
flowrate
(m3/sec)
Trap Volume
(L)
0.43 0.10 864.74 121.00 7.78 1.10 140.87
172
6. 2007 Emissions requirements
Using the same safety factor as in part 6, the table below shows the new emissions that
must be met:
Table 7
Where catalytic converter efficiency is defined as:
in t pollu
out t pollu
cat
m
m
, tan
, tan
1
= q
As shown in table 7, a catalytic converter with 92% efficiency will be needed to meet
2007 NOx emissions requirements.
The required particulate trap efficiency is fairly high (97%) but the trap presented in the
Ford paper seems to have efficiencies of around 99%, so it should work fine for 2007
emissions requirements.
NOx
Standard
g/bhp-hr
NOx safety
target
g/bhp-hr
NOx
Safegy
target
g/bkW-hr
Current
Engine out
g/bkW-hr
Required
efficiency
(catalytic)
PM
Standard
g/bhp-hr
PM safety
target
g/bhp-hr
PM Safegy
target
g/bkW-hr
Current
Engine out
g/bkW-hr
Required
Efficiency
(trap)
0.2000 0.1400 0.1879 2.3490 0.9200 0.0100 0.0050 0.0067 0.2000 0.966
173
Bibliography on Internal Combustion Engines
Obert, Edward F. Internal Combustion Engines and Air Pollution. New York: Intext
Educational Publishers, 1973 edition.
A good basic text on engines from the 1950s with modest updating in 1968; much
excellent descriptive material.
Taylor, C. Fayette, and Edward S. Taylor. The Internal Combustion Engine. International
Textbook Company, 1961.
A basic text now out of print and somewhat dated.
Taylor, C. F. The Internal Combustion Engine in Theory and Practice. Vol. 1, and 2.
Cambridge, MA: M.I.T. Press, 1966 and 1968. Reissued in paperback in 1977, and in
1985 as Second Edition with minor modifications.
A much expanded version of reference 2; an advanced text with extensive material on
engine design practice of the 1950s and 60s.
Rogowski, A. R. Elements of Internal Combustion Engines. New York: McGraw-Hill,
1953.
An elementary text used primarily for undergraduate teaching.
Lichty, L. C. Combustion Engine Processes. 6th ed. New York, : McGraw-Hill Book
Company, 1967. ISBN: 0070377200.
A good basic text on all types of combustion engines, now somewhat dated.
Khovakh, M., (general editor). Motor Vehicle Engines. English translation form Russian.
Moscow: MIR Publishers, 1976.
A Russian text with an excellent ordering of subject material.
Patterson, D. J., and N. A. Henein. Emission from Combustion Engines and their Control.
MI: Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc., 1972.
A comprehensive text on engine emissions; now somewhat dated.
Ayres, Robert U., and Richard P. McKenna. Alternatives to the Internal Combustion
Engines. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1972. ISBN: 0801813697.
A fundamental text on the alternative engines to the internal combustion engine.
Nunney, M. J. The Automotive Engine. London: Newnes-Butterworths, 1974.
A book which reviews modern automotive engine practice; contains descriptions of
design and operation of engines and engine components.
Yamamoto, Kenichi. Rotary Engine. Mazda: Toyo Kogyo Co., Ltd., 1969.
Excellent text on the design and operation of Wankel engines.
174
Ansdale, R. F. The Wankel RC Engine: Design and Performance. London: Iliffe Books,
Ltd., 1968.
Contains much technical and historical information on the Wankel engine.
Springer, G. S., and D. J. Patterson, eds. Engine Emissions: Pollutant Formation and
Measurement. New York, and London: Plenum Press, 1973.
A set of contributed chapters on different emissions topics; some chapters are still useful.
Sitkei, G. Heat Transfer and Thermal Loading in Internal Combustion Engines.
Budapest: Akademiai Kaido, 1974.
A monograph on heat transfer in spark-ignition and diesel engines and temperature
distributions in engine components.
Annand, W. J., and G. E. Roe. Gas Flow in the Internal Combustion Engine. Haessner
Publishing, Inc., 1974.
A review of selected topics related to gas flow in IC engine intake and exhaust systems.
"Should We Have a New Engine?" An Automobile Power Systems Evaluation. Vol. 1.
Summary, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, JPL SP 43-17,
August 1975.
Popular summary of study which evaluates the internal combustion engine and its
alternatives.
Goodger, E. M. Hydrocarbon Fuels; Production, Properties and Performance of Liquids
and Gases. London: Macmillan, 1975.
Useful review of fuels, automotive and non-automotive.
Cummins, Lyle. Internal Fire: The Internal Combustion Engine 1673 - 1900 Revised
Edition. 2nd ed. Warrendale, PA: Society of Automotive Engineers, 1976.
Excellent and readable history of the internal combustion engine by the son of the
founder of the Cummins Engine Company.
A History of the Automotive Internal Combustion Engine. Warrendale, PA: Society of
Automotive Engineers special publication, SP-409, 1976.
A set of four SAE papers reviewing the history of IC engine developments.
Blackmore, D. R., and A. Thomas. Fuel Economy of the Gasoline Engine. New York,
NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1977.
A useful introduction to how fuel properties affect spark-ignition engine operation.
Thomson, W. Fundamentals of Automotive Engine Balance. London: Mechanical
Engineering Publications, Ltd., 1978.
A short straightforward monograph on the balancing of various arrangement
reciprocating engines.
175
Benson, R. S., and N. D. Whitehouse. Internal Combustion Engines. Vol. 1, and 2.
London: Pergamon Press, Inc. 1979.
A modern text, limited in scope, with special emphasis on computer simulations of
engine flow and combustion processes.
Watson, N., and M. S. Janota. Turbocharging the Internal Combustion Engine. New
York: John Wiley & Sons, 1982.
An extensive and excellent professional reference text on turbochargers, and
turbocharged engine performance.
Benson, R. S. The Thermodynamics and Gas Dynamics of Internal Combustion Engines.
Vol. 1. Edited by J. H. Horlock, and D. E. Winterbone. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982.
Extensive and detailed monograph on unsteady engine intake and exhaust flow processes.
Horlock, J. H., and D. E. Winterbone, eds. The Thermodynamics and Gas Dynamics of
Internal Combustion Engines. Vol. 2. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986.
Extensive and detailed monograph on in-cylinder engine processes and methods of
analysis.
Hilliard, J. C., and G. S. Springer, eds. Fuel Economy in Road Vehicles Powered by
Spark Ignition Engines. New York, and London: Plenum Press, 1984.
A set of contributed chapters on engine and vehicle factors which affect fuel economy;
some are excellent.
Stone, R. Introduction to Internal Combustion Engines. MacMillian Publishers, Ltd.,
1985. 2nd ed. 1992.
An introductory text appropriate to a survey undergraduate course on engines.
Ferguson, C. R. Internal Combustion Engines--Applied Thermosciences. New York: John
Wiley & Sons, 1986.
A new text focusing primarily on Thermal/Fluids Science aspects of engine operation.
Bosch. Automotive Handbook. 5th ed. Published by Robert Bosch GmbH. Warrendale,
PA: Distributed by SAE, 2000.
A concise and useful summary of technical data on engine and vehicle components and
systems.
Heywood, J. B. Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. London: McGraw-Hill,
1988.
An extensive text and professional reference on the fundamentals behind engine
operation and design.
Bosch. Automotive Electric/Electronic Systems. Published by Robert Bosch GmbH.
Warrendale, PA: Distributed by SAE, 1988.
A practical guide to and description of automotive electrical systems.
176
Arcoumanis, C., ed. Internal Combustion Engines. London; San Diego: Academic Press,
1988.
A collection of contributed chapters on gasoline and diesel engines, turbocharged engines
and automotive fuels; some are good.
Blair, G. The Basic Design of Two-Stroke Engines. Warrendale, PA: Society of
Automotive Engineers, 1990.
A monograph with simple programs focused on two-stroke gasoline engine design issues
and their underlying principles.
Owen, K., and T. Coley. Automotive Fuels Handbook. Warrendale, PA: Society of
Automotive Engineers, 1990.
An extensive compilation of information on gasolines and diesel fuels and their effects on
engine operation.
Newton, K., W. Steeds, and T. K. Garrett. The Motor Vehicle. 11th ed. London; Boston:
Butterworth, 1989.
A useful source of practical information on engines, transmissions and vehicles.
Lenz, H. P. Mixture Formation in Spark-Ignition Engines. New York, NY: Springer-
Verlag, 1990.
A resource for detailed information on gasolines, carburetors, fuel injection systems, and
the mixture formation process.
Ramos, J. I. Internal Combustion Engine Modeling. New York: Hemisphere Publishing
Co., 1989.
A review and useful introduction to the various models now available for engine
processes.
Heck, R. M., and R. J. Farranto. Catalytic Air Pollution Control. New York: Van
Nostrand, Reinhold, 1995.
A readily understandable review of catalyst fundamentals and application to vehicles.
Blair, G. P. Design and Simulation of Two-Stroke Engines. Warrendale, PA: SAE, 1996.
An update and extension of Blairs earlier book; extensive information on small high-
performance two-stroke spark-ignition engines.
Sher, E., ed. Handbook of Air Pollution from Internal Combustion Engines: Pollutant
Formation and Control. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 1998.
An extensive set of chapters, by different authors, on four-stroke and two-stroke cycle
sparkignition and diesel engine operation and emissions, and fuel effects.
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York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1997.
An introductory text on IC engine fundamentals.
177
Borman, G. L., and K. W. Ragland. Combustion Engineering. WCB McGraw-Hill, 1998.
A valuable reference volume on combustion processes in different practical systems,
including IC engines, with extensive information on fuels.
Heywood, J. B., and E. Sher. The Two-Stroke Cycle Engine: Its Development, Operation
and Design. Warrendale, PA: SAE, Taylor & Francis, 1999.
A comprehensive summary of the technical literature on two-stroke cycle engine
processes which govern its operation and its design.
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Englewood Cliffs, CA: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1988.
A review of air pollutant formation processes and sources, and control approaches.
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control their magnitude.
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PA: SAE, 1999.
An extensive handbook on the theory, design, and applications of diesel engines.
Bosch. Gasoline-Engine Management. 1st ed. Published by Robert Bosch GmbH.
A handbook with extensive practical details on gasoline spark-ignition engines and their
management and control.
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A handbook witih extensive practical details on diesel engines, their emissions, and their
management and control.
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Engines. Published by Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg. Warrendale, PA: Distributed
by SAE, 1999.
Multi-author volume on direct injection gasoline and diesel engines, focusing on the
different practical approaches to direct injection of liquid fuel into the cylinder.
Winterbone, D. E., and R. J. Pearson. Theory of Engine Manifold Design. Warrendale,
PA: SAE, 2000.
A text on the theory and methodology for analyzing unsteady gas flows in engine
manifolds.
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engine manifold design.
178
Blair, G. P. Design and Simulation of Four-Stroke Engines. Warrendale, PA: SAE, 1999.
A description of engine simulations, largely developed in the authors laboratory, and
their application to four-stroke engine performance prediction and design.
Ferguson, C. R., and A. T. Kirkpatrick. Internal Combustion Engines Applied
Thermosciences. 2nd ed. NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2001.
A new edition of #27: An introductory text focusing on the thermal science processes
important to internal combustion engine operations.
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A monograph on two-stroke cycle gasoline engines, the origins of their emissions and
methods of control.
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A detailed monograph on engine exhaust gas treatmentcatalysts, particulate filtersas
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Control. New York, and Basel: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 2002.
Analysis based text, focused primarily on engine dynamics, structural design, and
automated diesel engine control.
Zhao, F., D. L. Harrington, and M-C. Lai. Automotive Gasoline Direct-Injection Engine.
Warrendale, PA: SAE, 2002.
An extensive review of the literature on GDI engine performance, combustion,
efficiency, and emissions, and the state of GDI engine development.
179
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