Tornado Basics

What is a tornado? A tornado is a narrow, violently rotating column of air that extends from the base of a thunderstorm to the ground. Because wind is invisible, it is hard to see a tornado unless it forms a condensation funnel made up of water droplets, dust and debris. Tornadoes are the most violent of all atmospheric storms. Where do tornadoes occur? Tornadoes occur in many parts of the world, including Australia, Europe, Africa, Asia, and South America. Even New Zealand reports about 20 tornadoes each year. Two of the highest concentrations of tornadoes outside the U.S. are Argentina and Bangladesh. How many tornadoes occur in the U.S. each year? About 1,200 tornadoes hit the U.S. yearly. Since official tornado records only date back to 1950, we do not know the actual average number of tornadoes that occur each year. Plus, tornado spotting and reporting methods have changed a lot over the last several decades. Where is tornado alley? Tornado Alley is a nickname invented by the media for a broad area of relatively high tornado occurrence in the central U. S. Various Tornado Alley maps look different because tornado occurrence can be measured many ways: by all tornadoes, tornado county-segments, strong and violent tornadoes only, and databases with different time periods. Please remember, violent or killer tornadoes do happen outside Tornado Alley every year. When are tornadoes most likely? Tornado season usually refers to the time of year the U.S. sees the most tornadoes. The peak tornado season for the Southern Plains is during May into early June. On the Gulf coast, it is earlier during the spring. In the northern plains and upper Midwest, tornado season is in June or July. But, remember, tornadoes can happen at any time of year. Tornadoes can also happen at any time of day or night, but most tornadoes occur between 49 p.m. What is the difference between a Tornado WATCH and a Tornado WARNING? A Tornado WATCH is issued by the NOAA Storm Prediction Center meteorologists who watch the weather 24/7 across the entire U.S. for weather conditions that are favorable for tornadoes. A watch can cover parts of a state or several states. Watch and prepare for severe weather and stay tuned to NOAA Weather Radio to know when warnings are issued. A Tornado WARNING is issued by your local NOAA National Weather Service Forecast Office meteorologists who watch the weather 24/7 over a designated area. This means a tornado has been reported by spotters or indicated by radar and there is a serious threat to life and property to those in the path of the tornado. ACT now to find safe shelter! A warning can cover parts of counties or several counties in the path of danger. We will Watch this Youtube video for a great explanation! How is tornado strength rated?

The most common and practical way to determine the strength of a tornado is to look at the damage it caused. From the damage, we can estimate the wind speeds. An Enhanced Fujita Scale was implemented by the National Weather Service in 2007 to rate tornadoes in a more consistent and accurate manner. The EF-Scale takes into account more variables than the original Fujita Scale (F-Scale) when assigning a wind speed rating to a tornado, incorporating 28 damage indicators such as building type, structures and trees. For each damage indicator, there are 8 degrees of damage ranging from the beginning of visible damage to complete destruction of the damage indicator. The original F scale did not take these details into account. The original F Scale historical data base will not change. An F5 tornado rated years ago is still an F5, but the wind speed associated with the tornado may have been somewhat less than previously estimated. A correlation between the original F Scale and the EF Scale has been developed. This makes it possible to express ratings in terms of one scale to the other, preserving the historical database. How do tornadoes form? The truth is that we don't fully understand. The most destructive and deadly tornadoes occur from supercells, which are rotating thunderstorms with a well-defined radar circulation called a mesocyclone. (Supercells can also produce damaging hail, severe non-tornadic winds, unusually frequent lightning, and flash floods.) Tornado formation is believed to be dictated mainly by things which happen on the storm scale, in and around the mesocyclone. Recent theories and results from the VORTEX2 program suggest that once a mesocyclone is underway, tornado development is related to the temperature differences across the edge of downdraft air wrapping around the mesocyclone. Mathematical modeling studies of tornado formation also indicate that it can happen without such temperature patterns; and in fact, very little temperature variation was observed near some of the most destructive tornadoes in history on 3 May 1999. We still have lots of work to do. What do storm spotters look for when trying to identify a tornado or a dangerous storm? Inflow bands are ragged bands of low cumulus clouds extending from the main storm tower usually to the southeast or south. The presence of inflow bands suggests that the storm is gathering low-level air from several miles away. If the inflow bands have a spiraling nature to them, it suggests the presence of rotation. The beaver's tail is a smooth, flat cloud band extending from the eastern edge of the rain-free base to the east or northeast. It usually skirts around the southern edge of the precipitation area. It also suggests the presence of rotation. A wall cloud is an isolated cloud lowering attached to the rain-free base of the thunderstorm. The wall cloud is usually to the rear of the visible precipitation area. A wall cloud that may produce a tornado usually exists for 1020 minutes before a tornado appears. A wall cloud may also persistently rotate (often visibly), have strong surface winds flowing into it, and may have rapid vertical motion indicated by small cloud elements quickly rising into the rain-free base. As the storm intensifies, the updraft draws in low-level air from several miles around. Some low-level air is pulled into the updraft from the rain area. This rain-cooled air is very humid; the moisture in the rain-cooled air quickly condenses below the rain-free base to form the wall cloud. The rear flank downdraft (RFD) is a downward rush of air on the back side of the storm that descends along with the tornado. The RFD looks like a clear slot or bright slot just to the rear (southwest) of the wall cloud. It can also look like curtains of rain wrapping around the cloud base circulation. The RFD causes gusty surface

winds that occasionally have embedded downbursts. The rear flank downdraft is the motion in the storm that causes the hook echo feature on radar. A condensation funnel is made up of water droplets and extends downward from the base of the thunderstorm. If it is In contact with the ground it is a tornado; otherwise it is a funnel cloud. Dust and debris beneath the condensation funnel confirm a tornado's presence. A excellent comprehensive list of questions and answers about tornadoes can be found here: http://www.spc.noaa.gov/faq/tornado/

Tornado Types
Tornadoes come from mainly two types of thunderstorms: supercell and non-supercell. Tornadoes that come from a supercell thunderstorm are the most common, and often the most dangerous. A rotating updraft is a key to the development of a supercell, and eventually a tornado. There are many ideas about how this rotation begins. One way a column of air can begin to rotate is from wind shear when winds at two different levels above the ground blow at different speeds or in different directions. An example of wind shear that can eventually create a tornado is when winds at ground level, often slowed down by friction with the earth's surface, come from the southwest at 5 mph. But higher up, at 5000 feet above the same location, the winds are blowing from the southeast at 25 mph! An invisible tube of air begins to rotate horizontally. Rising air within the thunderstorm tilts the rotating air from horizontal to vertical now the area of rotation extends through much of the storm. Once the updraft is rotating and being fed by warm, moist air flowing in at ground level, a tornado can form. There are many ideas about this too. Scientists still have many questions. As few as 20 percent of all supercell thunderstorms actually produce tornadoes. Why does one supercell thunderstorm produce a tornado and another nearby storm does not? What are some of the causes of winds moving at different speeds or directions that create the rotation? What are other circulation sources for tornadoes? What is the role of downdrafts (a sinking current of air) and the distribution of temperature and moisture (both horizontally and vertically) in tornadogenesis? And, since not all tornadoes come from supercells, what about tornadogenesis in non-supercell thunderstorms? Non-supercell tornadoes are circulations that do not form from organized storm-scale rotation. These tornadoes form from a vertically spinning parcel of air already occurring near the ground caused by wind shear from a warm, cold, or sea breeze front, or a dryline. When an updraft moves over the spinning, and stretches it, a tornado can form. Eastern Colorado experiences non-supercell tornadoes when cool air rushes down off the Rocky Mountains and collides with the hot dry air of the plains. Since these types of tornadoes happen mostly over scarcely populated land, scientists are not sure how strong they are, but they tend to be small. One non-supercell tornado is the gustnado, a whirl of dust or debris at or near the ground with no condensation funnel, which forms along the gust front of a storm. Another non-supercell tornado is a landspout. A landspout is a tornado with a narrow, rope-like condensation funnel that forms while the thunderstorm cloud is still growing and there is no rotating updraft - the spinning motion originates near the ground. Waterspouts are similar to landspouts, except they occur over water. Damage from these types of tornadoes tends to be EF2 or less.

Tornado Detection
Forecasters and storm spotters have learned to recognize certain thunderstorm features and structure that make tornado formation more likely. Some of these are visual cues, like the rear-flank downdraft, and others are particular patterns in radar images, like the tornadic vortex signature (TVS). Storm spotters have been trained to recognize tornado conditions and report what they see to the National Weather Service. Storm spotters can be emergency managers or even local people with a keen interest in severe weather who have taken formal storm spotter training in their community. Computer programs, called algorithms, analyze Doppler radar data and display it in ways that make it easier for forecasters to identify dangerous weather. A storm with a tornado observed by radar has certain distinguishing features and forecasters are trained to recognize them. When a Doppler radar detects a large rotating updraft that occurs inside a supercell, it is called a mesocyclone. The mesocyclone is usually 2-6 miles in diameter, and is much larger than the tornado that may develop within it.

Mesocyclone Display Algorithm What we do: NSSL developed the WSR-88D Mesoscale Detection Algorithm to analyze radar data and look for a rotation pattern meeting specific criteria for size, strength, vertical depth, and duration. A mesocyclone is usually 2-6 miles in diameter, and is much larger than the tornado that may develop within it. NSSL researchers discovered the Tornado Vortex Signature (TVS), a Doppler radar velocity pattern that indicates a region of intense concentrated rotation. The TVS appears on radar several kilometers above the ground before a tornado touches ground. It has smaller, tighter rotation than a mesocyclone. While the existence of a TVS does not guarantee a tornado, it does strongly increase the probability of a tornado occurring.

Hook echo A hook echo describes a pattern in radar reflectivity images that looks like a hook extending from the radar echo, usually in the right-rear part of the storm (relative to the motion of the storm). A hook is often associated with a mesocyclone and indicates favorable conditions for tornado formation. The hook is caused by the rear flank downdraft and is the result of precipitation wrapping around the back side of the updraft. Dual-polarization radar technology, installed on NWS radars, can detect the presence of random shaped and sized targets like leaves, insulation or other debris. This gives meteorologists a high degree of confidence that a

damaging tornado is on the ground, and is especially helpful at night when tornadoes are difficult to see with the human eye. What we do: NSSL's On-Demand, a web-based tool helps confirm when and where tornadoes have possibly occurred by mapping circulations on Google Earth satellite images. NWS forecasters can quickly review warnings and check their accuracy with this system. Emergency responders and damage surveyors have also used On-Demand to produce high-resolution street maps of potentially damaged areas so they can more effectively begin rescue and recovery efforts.NSSL engineers and scientists have adapted phased array technology, formerly used on Navy ships for surveillance, for use in weather forecasting. Phased array technology can scan an entire storm in less than one minute, allowing forecasters to see signs of developing tornadoes well ahead of current radar technology. NSSL uses a mobile Doppler radar to position close to tornadic storms to scan the entire lifecycle of a tornado. This helps us understand atmospheric processes to help improve forecasts of significant weather events. NSSL's second generation Warning Decision Support System, WDSS-II, is an advanced algorithm development and visualization platform that accepts data from multiple sources and organizes it in ways that convey critical severe weather information to warning meteorologists. NSSL developed the Tornado Detection Algorithm now used by the National Weather Service in their forecasting operations. Work continues on the next-generation system which uses Multiple Radars and Multiple Sensors (MRMS) to present critical information to forecasters.

Tornadic Vortex Signature in radar data. In this display, the circle is a mesocyclone, and the triangle is the TVS. [+] NSSL built the first real-time displays of Doppler velocity data. This lead to an NSSL scientist's discovery of the Tornadic Vortex Signature in radar velocity data in the 1970's. These developments helped spur deployment of the WSR-88D NEXRAD radar network. The Department of Commerce recognized NSSL's contribution to the NEXRAD program and to our Nation by awarding a Gold Medal to NSSL. NSSL made the first observations of a tornadic storm with two Doppler radars (called dual-Doppler). The radars were located about 40 miles from each other and were able to record data on the same storm but from two different perspectives. The data was used to map the structure of a tornadic storm at several altitudes. NSSL has used an airborne Doppler radar (installed on NOAA's P-3 research aircraft) to study storms. The first direct measurements of a tornado recorded with an airborne Doppler radar were made by NSSL. New concepts of making dual-Doppler measurements using the WSR-88D with the airborne Doppler were first tested in 1989 and are now used routinely. The Oklahoma Weather Alert Remote Notification (OK-WARN) program provides deaf and hard-of-hearing Oklahomans access to emergency severe weather information via alphanumeric pagers and/or E-mail addresses.

NSSL scientist Vincent Wood received the Department of Commerce Gold Medal award for his part in developing this hazardous weather pager program.

Tornado Forecasting
Meteorologists at the NOAA Storm Prediction Center (SPC) issue daily forecasts, or convective outlooks, for organized severe thunderstorms over the U.S. based on current weather observations and forecast models. They also closely monitor areas they think are at a higher risk for tornadoes. If conditions develop that are favorable for tornadoes, SPC forecasters issue a severe thunderstorm or tornado watch that typically lasts four to six hours. Local forecast offices, emergency managers, storm spotters and the general public are alerted to the possibility of severe weather. Tornado warnings are issued by the local National Weather Service Forecast Office when a tornado has been sighted or indicated by weather radar. People in the warning area should seek appropriate shelter immediately. What we do: Every year NSSL, the Storm Prediction Center and other NWS forecasters work closely together in the Hazardous Weather Testbed for 6-8 weeks during the spring to assess new forecasting models and discuss their effect on forecasting operations. Computer forecast models Meteorologists often rely on massive computer programs called numerical weather prediction models to help them decide if conditions will be right for the development of tornadoes. These models are designed to calculate what the atmosphere will do at certain points over a large area, from the Earth's surface to the top of the atmosphere. Data is gathered from weather balloons launched around the globe twice each day, in addition to measurements from satellites, aircraft, and temperature profilers and surface weather stations. The models start with these current weather observations and attempt to predict future weather, including supercells, using physics and dynamics to mathematically describe the atmosphere's behavior. The predictions are usually output in text and graphics (mostly maps). Ensemble forecasting Computer models work great if the weather follows the rules we have set. When the weather breaks the rules, the predictions have trouble too. Another technique being developed is the concept of ensemble forecasting. Instead of using just one model, a supercomputer runs several models at one time an ensemble. If each run looks similar, then we can assume the weather will likely follow the rules. If the runs look different in different places, then we understand that something in the atmosphere is causing the weather to misbehave. Another technique is to run the same model several times with varying starting weather conditions. This approach results in a number of predictions that produce a range of possible future weather conditions. Interpreting the model output is key, and takes a lot of practice. Forecasters use their experience, knowledge, persistence (what makes us think the weather is going to change from what it is now?) and eyes (looking out the window!) to fine-tune their forecasts. An important advancement has been made in model displays the output used to be on black and white maps. Now forecasters can look at the output on their computer workstations and use different colors to understand more clearly what is happening. What we do: NSSL leads the NOAA research program, Warn-on-Forecast, tasked to increase tornado, severe thunderstorm and flash flood warning lead times. Current warnings are largely based on observations, but this

new effort will develop the ability to issue a warning based on a computer forecast. These new guidance tools will offer detailed information on the type, severity and probability of the weather threat before it is detected. NSSL develops ensembles for very short-range (0 to 1 hour) forecasts of severe weather events. These ensembles ingest Doppler radar data into cloud-scale numerical models to provide improved predictions of thunderstorms and their associated severe weather. NSSL scientists are collaborating on an advanced numerical weather prediction model (the Weather Research and Forecasting Model, or WRF), testing new approaches that add physical processes to existing models to improve model performance and accuracy. NSSL scientists are working to incorporate high-resolution radar observations into computer models to improve the short-term prediction of thunderstorms. NSSL researchers and partners are working on models that predict individual thunderstorms. They use data from past tornado events, such as the Greensburg, Kansas tornado in 2007, to see if they can recreate the storm in a computer model so it produces a tornado. They hope someday to be able to create models forecast individual tornadoes.

Frequently asked questions about Tornadoes

If your question is not answered below, check this excellent, comprehensive list of tornado FAQs from the NOAA Storm Prediction Center. Where do tornadoes come from? Tornadoes come from the energy released in a thunderstorm. As powerful as they are, tornadoes account for only a tiny fraction of the energy in a thunderstorm. What makes them dangerous is that their energy is concentrated in a small area, perhaps only a hundred yards across. Not all tornadoes are the same, of course, and science does not yet completely understand how part of a thunderstorm's energy sometimes gets focused into something as small as a tornado. Where do tornadoes occur? Whenever and wherever conditions are right, tornadoes are possible. In the U.S. they are most common in the central plains of North America, east of the Rocky Mountains and west of the Appalachian Mountains. They occur mostly during the spring and summer; the tornado season comes early in the south and later in the north because spring comes later in the year as one moves northward. They usually occur during the late afternoon and early evening. However, they have been known to occur in every state in the United States, on any day of the year, and at any hour. They also occur in many other parts of the world, including Australia, Europe, Africa, Asia, and South America. What type of damage can tornadoes do? The damage from tornadoes comes from the strong winds they contain. It is generally believed that tornadic wind speeds can be as high as 300 mph in the most violent tornadoes. Wind speeds that high can cause automobiles to become airborne, rip ordinary homes to shreds, and turn broken glass and other debris into lethal missiles. The biggest threat to living creatures (including humans) from tornadoes is from flying debris and

from being tossed about in the wind. It used to be believed that the low pressure in a tornado contributed to the damage by making buildings explode but this is no longer believed to be true. How are tornadoes detected? Today, the development of Doppler radar has made it possible, under certain circumstances, to detect a tornado's winds with a radar (see our section on Tornado - detection). However, human beings remain an important part of the system to detect tornadoes, because not all tornadoes occur in situations where the radar can see them. Ordinary citizen volunteers make up what is called the SKYWARN network of storm spotters, who work with their local communities to watch for approaching tornadoes, so those communities can take appropriate action in the event of a tornado. Spotter information is relayed to the National Weather Service. You can be a storm spotter too! Visit www.skywarn.org. On this site there is a link to local SKYWARN groups. If your area is not listed, contact your local National Weather Service Office. Can tornadoes be predicted? Yes, but only to a limited extent. Although the process by which tornadoes form is not completely understood, scientific research has revealed that tornadoes usually form under certain types of atmospheric conditions. When forecasters see those conditions, they can predict that tornadoes are likely to occur. However, it is not yet possible to predict in advance exactly when and where they will develop, how strong they will be, or precisely what path they will follow. Once a tornado is formed and has been detected, warnings can be issued based on the path of the storm producing the tornado, but even these cannot be perfectly precise about who will or will not be struck. How fast can a tornado go? We're not really sure what the highest wind speed might be inside a tornado, since strong and violent tornadoes destroy weather instruments. We really only have measurements of the winds inside weaker tornadoes. Mobile Doppler radars can measure wind speeds in a tornado above ground level, and the strongest was 318 mph measured on May 3, 1999 near Bridge Creek/Moore, Oklahoma. What are the people called who study tornadoes? People who study tornadoes are just research meteorologists or atmospheric scientists. You may have heard another termstorm chaserbut that really refers to people who chase tornadoes for a hobby. Research meteorologists do science. They have to come up with questions they think they can answer by taking certain measurements. How fast do tornadoes move? We don't have detailed statistics about this. Movement can range from almost stationary to more than 60 mph. A typical tornado travels at around 1020 miles per hour. How long is a tornado usually on the ground? Detailed statistics about the time a tornado is on the ground are not available. This time can range from an instant to several hours. The average is about five minutes. Does NSSL do things like they showed in the movie Twister? The movie Twister was based upon work NSSL did in the mid-1980s using a 55-gallon drum outfitted with various meteorological sensors. It was called TOTO (TOtable Tornado Observatory). NSSL tried for several

years to put it in the path of an oncoming tornado, but had minimal success. It did not have the sensors that fly up into the tornado, like in the movie. However, that is not a bad idea and with all the advances being made in computer technology, we might be able to do that someday. Has every state had a tornado? Yes, although some states have many more tornadoes than others. Are there tornadoes in the Arctic Circle? We are not aware of any tornadoes occurring in the Arctic Circle. Tornadoes need moisture and warm air to form, which is unusual at that latitude. Plus tornadoes or their evidence have to be observed by someone, and the Arctic Circle has few residents! Do tornadoes really stay away from gullies, rivers and mountains? A gully could actually make a tornado more intense, just as an ice skater spins faster when he or she stands up tall and stretches their arms up straight over their heads. Every major river east of the Rockies has been crossed by a significant tornado, and high elevations in the Appalachians, Rockies, and Sierra Nevada have all experienced tornadoes. A violent tornado crossed the Continental Divide in Yellowstone National Park. Do tornadoes always come from a wall cloud? A wall cloud is not always present. It is also possible that you cannot see a wall cloud because of your viewing angle. What does a tornado sound like? People who have been in a tornado say it sounds like a jet engine or a freight train and is very loud. They said it hurt their ears, but they were more worried about what might happen to them than they were about the pain in their ears. Can tornadoes be stopped? You have to consider that the tornado is part of something bigger: the supercell thunderstorm. Unless you disrupt the supercell thunderstorm itself, you would likely have another tornado, even if you were able to destroy the first. The thunderstorm's energy is much greater than the tornado. No one has tried to disrupt the tornado because the methods to do so could likely cause even more damage than the tornado. Detonating a hydrogen bomb, for example, to disrupt a tornado would be even more deadly and destructive than the tornado itself. Lesser things (like huge piles of dry ice or smaller conventional weaponry) would be too hard to deploy in the right place fast enough, and would likely not have enough impact to affect the tornado much anyway. What is the difference between a tornado watch and a tornado warning? A tornado watch defines an area where tornadoes and other kinds of severe weather are possible in the next several hours. It means that you need to be alert, and be prepared to go to safe shelter if tornadoes happen or a warning is issued. If you have a NOAA Weather Radio and have it set up correctly it will alert you to the watch. Tune in to local TV, radio or internet for more information. A tornado warning means that a tornado has been spotted, or that Doppler radar shows a thunderstorm circulation which can spawn a tornado. When a tornado warning is issued for your area, seek safe shelter immediately. The Storm Prediction Center issues tornado and severe thunderstorm watches. Your local National Weather Service offices issue tornado warnings. Can a tornado dig up the ground?

There have been reports of tornadoes blowing dirt and creating a trench 3 feet deep, but it is very uncommon. Tornadoes have been known to strip asphalt pavement. What would it be like to be in the eye of a tornado? The very center of the tornado is probably almost calm, but may have some downward motion in it. There have not been any direct measurements of the winds because the instruments used to measure wind speed can't survive long enough to measure the eye. How many tornadoes hit the US each year? About 1200. How is the strength of a tornado determined? The most common and practical way to determine the strength of a tornado is to look at the damage it caused. From the damage, we can estimate the wind speeds. An Enhanced Fujita Scale was implemented by the National Weather Service in 2007 to rate tornadoes in a more consistent and accurate manner. The EF-Scale takes into account more variables than the original Fujita Scale (F-Scale) when assigning a wind speed rating to a tornado, incorporating 28 damage indicators such as building type, structures and trees. For each damage indicator, there are 8 degrees of damage ranging from the beginning of visible damage to complete destruction of the damage indicator. The original F scale did not take these details into account. The original F Scale historical data base will not change. An F5 tornado rated years ago is still an F5, but the wind speed associated with the tornado may have been somewhat less than previously estimated. Do tornadoes target mobile home parks? While it may appear tornadoes target mobile home parks, they actually do not. An EF1 tornado might do significant damage to a mobile home, and cause minor damage to a site built home, looking like the tornado skipped the house. Mobile homes are, in general, much easier for a tornado to damage and destroy than wellbuilt houses and office buildings. A mobile home, or manufactured home, by definition, is built at a factory and taken to the place they will occupy, so they are much more affordable than a house built on-site. They are often built with lighter-weight materials, which do not hold up well in tornadic winds. Straight-line winds can also destroy a mobile home as easily as a tornado, especially one that is not anchored. Any wind gust that is sustained for 3 seconds over 50 mph can cause damage to mobile homes. These websites may be of interest to you: Mobile Home Danger (NOAA Storm Prediction Center) Mobile Homes and Severe Windstorms (AMS) Mobile Homes and Weather: Left to the Elements (WeatherZine) Some states are beginning to require storm shelters for their residents. The problem of warning and sheltering mobile home residents has become the biggest obstacle to continuing to reduce death tolls from tornadoes. Do wider tornadoes cause more damage? There is a statistical trend toward wide tornadoes having higher EF-scale damage. This can be because of more strength or because of greater opportunity for targets to damage, or a combination of both. However, the size or shape of any particular tornado does not say anything conclusive about its strength. Some small tornadoes can still do very violent damage of EF4 or EF5. And, some very large tornadoes over a quarter-mile wide have produced only weak damage.

What is the difference between a tornado and a cyclone? A tornado is a small-scale cyclonic circulation, and in the past, has been referred to as a cyclone. The term cyclone was used to describe anything that rotated counterclockwise, so often tornado (a small-scale cyclonic circulation) and cyclone were interchangeable. However, modern meteorology now restricts the use of the term, cyclone, to the larger-scale circulationsusually also accompanied by low pressure and bad weather. However, people still use it both ways. Are there electromagnetic or magnetohydrodynamic explanations for the development of tornadoes? As far as scientists understand, tornadoes are formed and sustained by a purely thermodynamic process. As a result, their research efforts are towards that end. They have spent a lot of time modeling the formation of a tornado and measuring many parameters in and around a tornado when it is forming and going through its life cycle. They have not seen any evidence to support magnetism or electricity playing a role. Can my TV signal detect tornadoes? You may have read about a technique called the Weller Method of tornado detection. The idea was to be able to use your TV as a lightning detector to detect the radio waves emitted by a lightning flash, with the assumption that tornadic thunderstorms were very active lightning producers. But, not all tornadic storms produce large amounts of lightning. Also, TVs are all different and have different sensitivities, and some are even made to filter out lightning signals. Plus, if you are connected to cable, it won't work. The method was found to be completely unreliable and it has mostly been abandoned. Do tornadoes occur when it is cold? There is no particular temperature at which tornadoes form. It is more about what the surface temperature is in relation to the temperature higher up in the atmosphere. Even if it is cold near the surface, as long as it is colder higher up, the winds are right to set up low-level wind shear, along with other necessary ingredients, a tornado is possible. What direction do tornadoes spin? More tornadoes in the Northern Hemisphere spin counterclockwise than clockwise. Do rocks, hills, or trees increase or decrease the wind speeds in a tornado? Unfortunately, there is no clear answer. Both observations (of real tornadoes), computer simulations, and laboratory studies (in tornado vortex chambers) have shown that the surface roughness, i.e., the measure of how disrupted the wind near the ground is by objects such as dirt, rocks, hills, trees, and even houses, can either increase or decrease the wind speeds in a tornado. How can trees increase the wind speeds? Well, the strongest winds in a tornado occur when air from outside the tornado can flow closest to the center of the vortex. The conservation of angular momentum, e.g., the rotation in the air, requires that as the air flows toward the center of the tornado (as it spirals in) its rotation must increase. Depending on the configuration of the airflow outside of the tornado, sometimes there is not ENOUGH inflow toward the center, and so blobs of air outside the tornado do not get very close to the center of rotation before they are lifted upward off the ground. In this case, INCREASING the surface roughness helps get these blobs of air closer to the center of the tornado, where they rotate even faster than before. So occasionally we see in tornado videos the vortex increasing in intensity when it travels from one type of ground surface (say a field) into a grove of trees or a housing subdivision. It does not always happen, but often enough that we are aware of it. This is a case where friction, which people normally think of slowing things down, actually speeds them up! Where is tornado alley?

Tornado Alley is a just a nickname made up by the media for an area of relatively high tornado occurrence; it is not a clearly defined area. Is tornado alley the area with the most violent tornadoes, or is it the area with the most tornado-related deaths, or the highest frequency or tornadoes? It depends on what kind of information you want!