What do I need to learn?

Content
The following key terms: Id, Ego, Superego, oral, anal, phallic, latency (latent), genital, repression, Oedipus complex, defence mechanisms, conscious, preconscious, unconscious Describe and evaluate the key study Freud, Little Hans (1909)

Number marks

of

2 marks you should define the term and elaborate or give an example Description 8, evaluation 6-8 8,

Describe and evaluate another case study: Description Axline, Dibs (1947) evaluation 6

Describe and evaluate Freuds theory including The role of the Unconscious Mind The Psyche (Structure of Personality) Stages of Psychosexual Development Defence Mechanisms

Description 6, evaluation 4-6 for each section of Freuds theory

General evaluation of Freud's theory A description of how Freud would explain gender development and an evaluation of this explanation (Oedipus/ Electra Complex) Describe and evaluate one contemporary issue from the Psychodynamic Approach: The debate over whether or not psychoanalysis is effective in treating normal and abnormal patients Describe and evaluate Case studies of patients in therapy Describe and evaluate Cross sectional and longitudinal techniques as applied to research methods Describe and evaluate Correlational research

Evaluation 8 Description 4, Evaluation 4 Outline of issue 4 Application of theories/ studies/ evaluation 6 Description 4 Evaluation 4 Description Evaluation 4 Description 4 Evaluation 4 Description 2 Evaluation 2 for each technique

Describe and evaluate Sampling techniques

Content
Evidence of practice the correlational study you carried out in class. You must be able to: Outline the theory upon which your practical is based State your alternative and null hypothesis State the variables (operationalised) Describe the ethical problems you encountered and how you overcame them Describe the research method used and why Describe the target population, how you selected the sample and the justification for this Describe how you decided what questions to use and why those questions were chosen Describe how you carried out the study and how the data was analysed Describe the conclusions you made from the study Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of your study

There is a lot to learn, but it is not impossible! Use your knowledge from the Cognitive Approach to help you revise:
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o o

Revise in chunks do not try to learn too much at once it is easy to get confused Deep processing is best do not simply read the information, do something with it. Spider diagrams, flash cards, post-it notes for definitions are all helpful. If you know something well enough to explain it to someone else without notes then you will be fine in the exam Use cues to help you remember such as mnemonics or includes pictures on your spider diagrams which can act as a visual cue in the exam Test yourself especially with past exam questions, you know the style of question that will be asked so make them up, you have my email address so you can email me questions that you complete and I will mark them and send them back to you with comments (jkirk@pensbyhigh.wirral.sch.uk)

Use the Learning Environment there is extra information on there, including podcasts for auditory learners. I have also set up a revision forum where you can post questions/ share your frustrations and I and you can answer any questions Follow PensbyPsycho on Twitter I will share tips in the run up to the exam

o It sounds obvious but read the question! If it asks for a theory do not describe a study you will get no marks o If you are asked to describe, do not evaluate and vice versa o Remember to PEE!! Make your point and provide an example or further explanation o When evaluating make sure the points you make are specific to that study e.g. lots of studies lack ecological validity you need to say what this is and explain how the study you are evaluating lacks ecological validity (if this is the point you are making) o When describing a study remember Nasty Awful Mothers Ruin Children (Name Aim Method Results Conclusion). This should be the first thing you write on your question paper as a cue to help you remember as you will not have time to plan any answers except possibly the 12 mark essay question o Watch out with the multiple choice questions they are not as easy as they look and can often catch people out o Always write in full sentences never ever ever use bullet points even for evaluating and do not divide evaluation into sub headings such as strengths and weaknesses I have done this here to make it easier for you to read (and also because a question could only ask for strengths etc..) o Use the language of the mark scheme to answer your question. When describing a study use word such as the aim of the study was to, the results of the study were o Use connectives in your writing One strength of Freuds study of Little Hans is In addition to this, the study has been praised because of o You will be given marks for spelling, punctuation and grammar in the essay question so take care on this question especially o If you are asked to compare, refer to both things you are comparing in each sentence. o If a question asks you to assess something you need to weigh up the strengths and weaknesses o If a question asks you to describe something for a parent for example, you should use laymens terms (language which a non-psychologist would understand).

The main terms are here, however, others are mentioned during discussion of the theories. Id: The part of the Psyche/ personality you are born with, it is biological and instinctive. The id is dominated by desires and wish fulfillment, in particular libido and thanatos. The id is demanding and acts on the pleasure principle. Ego: The part of the Psyche which develops due to the frustration of being weaned onto solid food as a baby. It is the reality part of the Psyche, it is rational and seeks to balance out the demands of the id and the control of the superego. Superego: This is the part of the Psyche which develops after successful completion of the Oedipus/ Electra complex. It is controlling and acts on the morality principle. It is based on societies rules and morals from parents. Oral: The first stage of psychosexual development between the ages of 0-1. The childs source of pleasure/ libido is focused upon the mouth and the child enjoys sucking and placing things in the mouth. A key feature of this stage is breastfeeding. If a child is underindulged at this stage the child may become fixated and as an adult show character traits such as pen-chewing and envious. Over-indulging can led to character traits such as gullible. Anal: The second stage of psychosexual development between the ages of 2-3. The childs source of pleasure is the anus and a key feature is toilet training. Too strict toilet training can lead to an anally retentive personality where the adult is excessively tidy. Too lax toilet training can lead to an anally expulsive personality where the adult is messy and disorganized. Phallic: The third stage of psychosexual development between the ages of 3-5. Here pleasure is focused on the penis or clitoris. A key feature is the Oedipus or Electra complex and castration anxiety or penis envy. This conflict is resolved when the child identifies with their same sex parent, so they learn their gender. Oedipus Complex: This is where during the phallic stage of development boys desire their mother and feel anger towards their father because he possesses the mother. He is also scared that if the father finds out about this desire he will castrate him. To cope with this the boy indentifies with his father, becoming his father, so that he can have the desired relationship with his mother and not feel guilty about this. The boy therefore adopts his fathers, morals values and his gender behaviour. Girls go through a similar process known as the Electra Complex. Defence mechanisms: This is what the ego uses to protect us from shameful or upsetting experiences or to stop unconscious wishes or desires from rising to the surface. Defence mechanisms include repression, reaction formation, denial and displacement. People tend to rely on one or two defence mechanisms.

You need to also revise your research methods from Unit 1 e.g. writing hypotheses, IVs and DVs, Sampling techniques, Qualitative and Quantitative data etc

Case Studies Case studies involve studying one unique individual (or small group or particular programme) and gathering in-depth, detailed and rich data about that individual. Within a case study, many research methods are used, such as observations, questionnaires, interviews, experiments and case histories. Case histories gather qualitative data, and find out the story of the individual. As much other data as is suitable and possible is then gathered, to achieve the required depth. Triangulation is used, which means pooling all the data from the various research methods, and looking for common themes and trends. Freud's Style Of Case Study Freud used case studies to gather in-depth, detailed data about an individual, and to tis extent he used case studies in a standard way. He used methods such as free association, dream analysis and slips of the tongue to try to uncover unconscious wishes and desires. Freud used his case studies not only as a research method, but also as a therapy, as he used psychoanalysis to help his patients (analysands) to uncover their repressed memories. Research Methods In Freud's Case Studies One method Freud used was free association, which is where the analysand allows a stream of consciousness out, and the analyst listens to find connections with the aim of uncovering unconscious wishes Freud also used dream and symbol analysis. This is where the analysand describes a dream, and the analyst looks for meaning in the dream. The manifest content of the dream is the description of the dream itself, and the latent content of the dream is the underlying unconscious thoughts that are revealed through the manifest content by analysis of symbols. The analyst interprets the symbols to find the latent content. A third method used by Freud is analysis of slips of the tongue, which is where the analysand uses the wrong word for something. Freud thought these mistakes revealed unconscious desires. Much of Freud's analysis of symbols consists of sexual analysis Evaluation Of Case Studies Strengths; Useful, because they are often the only way of studying a particular phenomenon They can gather data that cannot be obtained by other means Produce valid data - data comes fairly directly from the people concerned, and is usually gathered in their natural surroundings

Weaknesses; Not replicable because the situation is unique - cannot be tested for reliability. It is hard to use the results and say they are true of other situations. This concerns generalisability - if results come from one unique individual or small group, the findings cannot be generalised. Evaluation Of Freud's Case Studies Strengths; They can be used to help the patient as well as to gather data. They are therapeutic, and have a practical application They use special means to uncover unconscious thoughts that cannot otherwise be accessed, and Freud had to develop special ways of gathering data from such a complex situation Weaknesses; The analyst has to do a lot of interpretation so could be subjective, whereas scientific study requires objectivity The concepts, such as the unconscious, are not measurable, and so are hard to test in a scientific way. This means that conclusions might be drawn, but there can never really be any proof Qualitative Data:

The following information is meant to be a reminder of the strengths and weaknesses of qualitative data something Freud used in his case studies, however, you need to revise the sections on qualitative and quantitative data in your revision guide for the Social Approach

Evaluating Qualitative Data Strengths; Tends to be valid - It is in-depth, rich and detailed, and so 'real life' Using qualitative data is sometimes the only way to study the required area, as Freud found Weaknesses; Qualitative data is hard to generalise to other situations, because the depth and detail of the data is gathered in a specific situation, often by one individual, and can be affected by subjectivity Qualitative data is unreliable due to the subjective nature involved in the interpretation of the data Freud's Case Studies & Credibility Freud's work has been criticised for being incredible - literally unbelievable. His explanations for neuroses were based very strongly on interpretations of unconscious desires, and he saw these as sexual. Many people do not find his ideas credible - for example the idea that around five years old a boy has a sexual desire for his mother and a fear of his father (The Oedipus Complex).

Masson (1989) went further, and criticised psychoanalysis in three ways:- The interpretation of the analyst can push the patient towards certain values and goals that may not be their own, so there is an issue of the power of the analyst over the analysand - There is gender bias in Freud's work. For example, boys are focused on more than girls girls are held to have a less strong identification, and so weaker moral development - There is undue emphasis on sexual matters, particularly where transference occurs, which is about the patient having feelings for the analyst. This is ethically very sensitive Correlation Designs Freud's theories are difficult to test, but one way of testing them is to use a correlation design and self-report data. Freud did not use this methodology, but it is useful for testing his ideas. Self-Report Data - The data the participant provides about themselves e.g. a questionnaire. It is usual, when gathering self-report data, to include rating scales e.g. a likert scale. Rating scales give Ordinal Data. In a correlation design, it is not suggested that one variable causes the other, just that they are related. In a correlation, it is not a difference between two variables (the IV and DV) that is looked for, but a relationship between them. Positive & Negative Correlations Correlation - A relationship between two variables measured on a scale, and where both measures come from one individual. Positive Correlation - Both variables rise, e.g. IQ rises, income rises. Negative Correlation - One variable rises and the other falls, e.g higher the IQ, less likeliness of mental health problems. Inferential Statistics are statistical tests that can do more than describe the data (e.g. the mean median and mode are called descriptive statistics), they can suggest how strong the difference or relationship is. Correlational design with ordinal data requires the Spearman's Rank Correlation Coefficient Test (Spearman's Rho). This test relies on the ranking of the scores to see if they co-vary (are related) closely enough to draw firm conclusions. A perfect positive correlation gives a result of +1 and a perfect negative correlation gives a result of -1. No correlation at all gives a result of 0. The closer the test result is to 1 (+ or - ), the stronger the correlation.

The Spearman's Test looks at the rankings for the two sets of scores, and carries out a test to see if the ranks for each score for the same person are similar enough or different. If they are similar enough, then it can be said that there is a correlation. A Spearman's Test is carried out if:- What is being tested is a relationship, not a difference, between two scores. - The level of measurement is ordinal or interval/ratio. - The type of design is a correlation, meaning the same participant gives both scores.

Evaluation Of Correlation Designs Strengths; There is little manipulation of variables. Measures are often taken of existing situations with few controls needed - which can make for a straight forward design. The two measures are taken, and the scores tested to see if there is a relationship. This is quite straight forward compared with some experiments, observations and surveys Correlations can show relationships that might not be expected, and so can be used to point towards new areas for research Weaknesses; A relationship is found, but without finding out whether the two variables are causally or chance related. When looking to build a scientific body of knowledge, it is usual to claim cause and effect relationships between things you cannot do this with correlational designs Correlational designs tend to lack validity, because at least one of the variables often has to be operationalised, which tends to make it unnatural. Whenever a score is manufactured, there is always the chance that it is not really measuring anything useful.

Longitudinal Studies Longitudinal Studies are those that follow one set of participants over time, using research methods such as experiment, survey or observation. The important points about longitudinal studies are that the participants are the same, and that measures are taken over time, so that comparisons can be made. A study can last months or years.

Evaluation Of Longitudinal Studies Strengths; Useful for looking at developmental trends. They are the main way to see how an individual's development affects certain characteristics They use the same participants, which means that participant variables (variables between the individuals taking part) will not give bias in the results Weaknesses; In practice, it can be difficult to keep all the participants for each of the measures, and people can drop out. This means the sample can become biased if it systematically excludes certain people (such as those who move house a lot, or those who are shy) The researchers may themselves change over time, due to moving on or losing funding. This can affect the study, as relationships with the participants may differ

Cross-sectional Studies This technique is also used in developmental studies. But unlike longitudinal techniques which study one group of people over a long period of time, cross-sectional studies compare groups of people of different ages

Evaluation of Cross-Sectional Studies Strengths; Cheap and easier to carry out, they take less time so results can be analysed earlier More ethical as they put less demand on the participants in the study Weaknesses; They are snapshots that gather data from one moment in time at some other time the participants may have responded differently Participants variables are not controlled as different groups of people are used even with matched pairs the groups will not be exact matches

Levels of Measurement this refers to how the dependent variable is measured There are three main levels of measurement:Nominal Data - Categories are recorded, such as 'yes/no' answers or gender (male/female). Ordinal Data - Ranked data, such as when someone rates something on a scale. E.g. most to least attractive Interval/Ratio Data - Data where there is a real measurement, such as height or time. You need to know your levels of measurement and also be able to identify the design of a study in order to decide which statistical test to choose. You therefore need to memorise the following table: How to Choose a Statistical Test Independent Groups Nominal Level of measure Ordinal ment Interval X2 Mann Whitney Unrelated T-Test Research Design Repeated Measures Binominal Sign Test Wilcoxon Related T-Test Spearmans rank Pearsons Product Moment Correlation coefficient Correlational

The shaded area indicate that in this case the calculated value (the number produced from carrying out the statistical test) needs to be lower than the critical value (the value in the statistical table) to be significant. You can remember this because the shaded area produces a backwards L (for lower). For the other tests it needs to be higher.

Freud's Theory Of Personality Freud suggested that there are three aspects to the personality - the id, the ego and the superego. The personality develops through the first five years of childhood. The id is the first part to develop, and is the instructive part. The ego then develops, which is the rational part of the personality, and it is through the ego that the id gets what it wants. The superego is the third aspect of the personality, and acts on the morality principle, developing last in the first five years of childhood. As the superego develops, the ego has not only to seek to satisfy the id, but also satisfy the superego as well.

For the adult, the personality should be balanced, with the ego successfully managing the needs of both the id and the superego. It is when this balance is lost, such as when the id or the superego is more in control, that neuroses occur, and the individual has problems. One way of maintaining a balance between the id, the ego and the superego is to stop some thoughts and desires becoming conscious - defence mechanisms perform this function. The personality develops through psychosexual stages. Evaluation of Freuds Theory of the Psyche Strengths It has face validity as we have experienced where we feel pulled in different directions when making a decision The idea that we gain our morals from our parents has a lot of general support

Weaknesses The theory is unscientific the id ego and superego are psychological constructs which cannot be observed and measured According to this theory, people who do not go through the Oedipus complex will not develop a superego. However, Golomobok studied children raised by one parent and found no deficit in their development The Role Of The Unconscious One of Freud's main assumptions was the power of the unconscious mind, which he claimed was by far the largest part of the mind, and was inaccessible by normal means. He also suggested we have the conscious mind, which contains what we know about, the preconscious mind, which we don't know about but can access (such as memories), and the unconscious, which we cannot access. As well as being filled with instincts and energy, and being what could be called to biological aspect of the mind, the unconscious holds material from a person's everyday experiences. Some thoughts and wishes are kept in the unconscious, and not made conscious. The means by which people avoid allowing (though not consciously) threatening wishes and thoughts to become conscious is by means of defence mechanisms. The unconscious mind also contains traumatic and shameful experiences. Evaluation of Freuds Explanation of the Role of the Unconscious Mind Strengths The idea of the unconscious mind has face validity and is something which has been adopted into everyday language There is evidence from therapy that people do block traumatic and shameful experiences into their unconscious mind Weaknesses To say that our behaviour is controlled by our unconscious takes away responsibility for our actions Eysenck would argue that the explanation is unscientific as you cannot observe the unconscious mind or test it empirically. For example you could not give someone a traumatic experience then see whether it is pushed into the unconscious mind
The conscious. The small amount of mental activity we know about.

The preconscious. Things we could be aware of if we wanted or tried.

Bad Worse

The unconscious. Things we are unaware of and can not become aware of.

Really Bad

Thoughts Perceptions Memories Stored knowledge Fears Unacceptable sexual desires Violent motives Irrational wishes Immoral urges Selfish needs Shameful experiences Traumatic experiences

Defence Mechanisms Defence mechanisms are ways of protecting the ego when there is a conflict between the demands of the id and the superego, when the id itself makes conflicting demands, or when the ego is under threat from some outside force. They are sometimes called ego defence mechanisms because their role is to enable the ego to keep the peace between the demands of the id and the superego. If a person overuses defence mechanisms, they can lose touch with reality, such as if denial is overused. Repression - Not remembering something because it cannot be accessed, needing to remain in the unconscious to protect the personality. It is sometimes called motivated forgetting even though the forgetting is not done consciously. An example of this could be an adult not remembering they were abused as a child. Bateman and Holmes 1995 gave the example of a man who came for therapy for depression and during the therapy he remembered for the first time as an adult that his mother committed suicide when he was a child. Denial - Refusing to acknowledge threatening thoughts altogether. This is often how people respond to bad news. Willick 1995 talked of the example of a woman whose husband died of a heart attack yet she refused to acknowledge he had died. Denial is often used against aggressive or sexual instincts, Griffith 1999 analysed case records of adolescent criminals for examples of denial and found this was far more common when their crime was a sexual offence. Reaction This is an extreme form of denial where you adopt the opposite attitude to your real feelings. The classic example of this is homophobia where people who worry they may be gay adopt a harsh anti-homosexual attitude. Adams et al 1996 conducted a study where they found 80% of homophobic men were aroused by gay pornography as opposed to 30% of non-homophobic men. Another example is where a religious person may show an atheist attitude when a loved one dies. Evaluation of Freuds Explanation of Defence Mechanisms Strengths There is evidence from therapy that defence mechanisms do exist e.g Bateman and Holmes 1995 above It is the most widely accepted part of Freuds theory There is also some empirical evidence to support this theory Koelher et al found that participants asked to revise a list of words were able to recall more of the nonemotive words than the emotive words they argued the emotive words (e.g. death, cancer) had been repressed Weaknesses While there is empirical evidence to support the existence of defence mechanisms, there is a lot of contradictory empirical evidence. For example, studies have found that emotive words are more likely to be recalled than non-emotive words The stimuli used to test whether defence mechanisms exist lack ecological validity (e.g. lists of emotive words) this is because it would be unethical to expose someone to a truly traumatic experience to see whether this would be repressed Freud's Five Stages Of Psychosexual Development According to Freud, there are five stages that everyone passes through - oral, anal, phallic,

latency and genital. The first three are focused on more, as they are the ones that span those important first five years. At each stage, the libido (sexual pleasure drive) is focused on this one area. If a stage is not resolved there is fixation, which occurs when there is frustration or overindulgence. Frustration is when needs are not met, and overindulgence is where needs are met too much, so that the child does not move on. Either frustration or overindulgence will lock the libido in that stage, causing fixation. If fixations occurs then the child will want to gain satisfaction from that stage when an adult.
Stage age
Oral 0-1

& Source of libido & pleasure

The mouth. The child enjoys feeding, sucking, swallowing, putting things in mouth etc. The anus. The child derives pleasure from expelling or withholding faeces.

Important influences

Consequences fixation

of

Anal 1-3

The child equates its mother and feeding with love, so deprivation or forceful feeding can lead to later problems. In the latter half of this stage, the child is weaned onto solid food and starts having to wait to be fed. This causes frustration and aggression. In order to deal with these, the child develops an ego, and starts to differentiate itself from the people around it (especially the mother). Toilet training. The child is expected to expel faeces only at the appropriate times and locations. It realises that its parents approval/love depends on this, the first sign that love is not unconditional. However, it also realises that it can control its parents by controlling its bowel movements. Toilet training that is too harsh or too lax can lead to problems.

Smoking, chewing pens & fingernails etc. Overeating & drinking. Sarcasm and verbal hostility.

Phallic 3-5

The penis or clitoris. The child derives pleasure from masturbation. Sexual drives are repressed.

At this point, girls and boys diverge as the Oedipus complex begins (see below). If the Oedipus complex is successfully negotiated, then the child develops a superego by incorporating the morals and values of their same-sex parent.

Latent 5-puberty

Genital Pubertydeath

The genitals. The adult derives pleasure from masturbation and sexual intercourse.

During this stage the child represses all of what has happened previously. It focuses on adjusting to its environment and acquiring the knowledge and skills it will need as an adult. At puberty, the sexual drives from the id are reawoken, and the remainder of adult life is dedicated to the pursuit of sex and sexual relationships.

Anal retentive: obsessive tidiness, neatness. Intolerance, meanness and passive aggression. Anal expulsive: sloppiness, disorganization, untidiness. Defiance, recklessness and excessive generosity. Men: feelings of anxiety and guilt about sex. Fear of castration. Possibly vanity, self obsession and narcissism. Women: feelings of inferiority and envy. Fixation does not happen in this stage.

Fixation at this stage is what should happen, and indicates a well-adjusted adult.

Evaluation of Freuds Stages of Psychosexual Development Strengths It is correct to say that our early years and early relationships have a crucial impact on our development. The themes during childhood of dependency, separation and rivalry seem plausible as features of development There is a lot of support for the existence of anal personality types. Maltby and Price (1999) assessed anality and political conservatism in 238 students and found a tendency for anal students to be conservative in their political views ONeill et al (1992) assessed 40 women for their personality types and their response to toilet humour. They found a positive correlation between anal personality types and enjoyment of toilet humour Weaknesses Brown and Pedder argue the stages of oral, anal and phallic are two narrow (1991). They see the oral stage as a time of total dependency on the caregiver, the anal stage as a period of separation and the phallic stage as a time of passionate emotions. Here rivalry may occur between the child and same-sex parent for the affection of the opposite parent There is disagreement over the importance of the Oedipus complex. Golombok (2000) studied the development of children in single-sex families. He found no deficit in their development despite the fact that their family structure means Oedipal conflict cannot take place Some psychologists argue Freud overemphasised the importance of body parts, libido and the sexual nature of childrens development Freud's Explanation Of Gender Development Freud thought that gender behaviour is learnt during the phallic stage, which starts at around three years old, and where the erogenous zone is the genital area for both boys and girls. In this stage, the superego develops, and with it, gender behaviour. The Oedipus complex is the key to gender development for boys, and the Electra Complex is the key for girls. The Oedipus Complex The Oedipus Complex comes from the boy's natural love for his mother. The libido focuses on the genital area, and so this natural love becomes sexual. Freud held that the father then stands in the way of the boy's feelings, because of the father's relationship with the mother, so the boy feels aggression towards the father, and love for the mother. All this is at an unconscious level. Freud also felt that, as parents tell a son off for masturbating, this causes anxiety and fear. A boy at this age will notice that women don't have a penis, and the fear is focused on castration fear, as the boy fears his father will castrate him. Castration fear is stronger than the desire to possess the mother, so the desire is repressed. Freud thought that unconsciously the boy wishes to kill his father in order to possess and marry his mother. This conflict has to be resolved by the ego to satisfy the demands of the id, and the love and fear can be reconciled if th eboy identifies with his father, as if 'becoming' the father. In this way, the castration fear is removed, and the boy can in some way possess the mother as he wishes to. The boy, therefore, does what his father does, and in absorbing his father's approach to social rules, the boy develops the superego. The boy

learns to be male by identifying with his father and 'becoming' him. Once the Oedipus Complex is resolved, the latency period begins. The Electra Complex In a similar way, girls learn their gender behaviour by identifying with their mothers, but Freud was more vague about the conflict for girls, which is called the Electra Complex. Freud thought that, at around the same age, girls find out that women have no penis. This is penis envy, which is similar to the castration fear experienced by boys. The girl identifies with her mother, and learns her gender role in that way, because she can then possess her father. However, Freud thought that this process is never complete, and is not resolved as the Oedipus Complex is resolved for boys. Freud believed that a girl always remains a little fixated in the phallic stage, though she does pass into the latency period once she has identified with her mother, and she develops the superego in the phallic stage, as a boy does. Evaluation of Freuds Explanation of Gender Development General Evaluation Of Freud's Theory Strengths; - A completely novel approach to explaining mental disorders. In Freud's time, treatment was very limited, if there was any at all - His methods were unique, and developed specifically for his own purpose, to which they were well suited Weaknesses; - Lack of evidence that could be called scientific; because Freud's methods required subjective interpretation. - Freud drew his ideas from his own experiences - cannot be generalised. Freud was brought up in a Jewish patriarchal family structure where the presence of the father is overwhelming. He therefore could have based his theory upon his own experience and thus it is unwise to generalise this to all childrens development. - Concepts are not measurable. The id, ego and superego are not 'real' in the sense that they can be assessed and measured. - Freud used case studies, so it is hard to show reliability since a case study cannot be repeated to test for reliability. Case studies are unique, and Freud's case studies were supposed to be cathartic, so that the same problems would not occur again. - Freud drew his conclusions from a small sample of case studies, mainly of middle-class Viennese women. - His sample was biased in terms of gender, as he studied few men, and did not really study children. - No range of different classes or types of people. - Patients were mainly middle-class, and might have had specific neuroses (mental health problems). Simply because of that - it is hard to generalise from a biased sample, to say that ideas are true of a whole population.

Freud's Case Study Of Little Hans (1909) Aim:- To understand the five year old boy's phobia of horses and to treat it. Method:- Freud used a case study, including dream analysis, to research the case of Little Hans. His information came from Hans's father, not from Hans himself, as the father was a follower of Freud's work. Freud met Hans twice, and the study arose from Hans's mother and father documenting his development to test Freud's ideas. Max Graf (Hans father) asked leading questions when the horse fell did you think of Daddy? and also asked him about his dreams and fantasies Description Of Themes - Little Hans had an interest in his 'widdler' (his penis). He dreamt about widdlers, and about wiping children's bottoms. Hans denied this interest and said it was only in his dreams. When younger, Hans had played with his 'widdler', and his mother had told him off for it saying she would get a doctor to cut it off. - Hans seemed to want his father to 'go away' on business, and when the family moved house so that his father was away less often, Hans wanted his father dead. Hans was also jealous of his sister, who was born when he was three and a half. The father reported that Hans was afraid of falling under the water when in the bath. Eventually, Freud and Hans's father suggested to Hans that, when watching his mother bathe his sister, he wished she would let his sister's head go under the water. Hans agreed this was true. - Hans said he was afraid that a white horse would bite him. It appeared that he had heard the father of a girl staying with them tell her not to 'put her finger on' the white horse that was drawing the cart to take her to the station. Hans also said that he was afraid of black on horses' mouths and things in front of their eyes. Once, when walking with his mother, he had seen a horse fall down when drawing a bus. - Hans enjoyed playing with dolls and 'having children'. His father commented that a boy cannot have children, and Hans said mummy is the children's mummy, Hans is their daddy and Han's father is the grandfather. Case Study Analysis This is how Freud interpreted Hans's thoughts and reactions:- When Hans denied interest in 'widdlers' except in dreams, this was evidence of repression, pushing unwanted desires into his unconscious. - Hans dreamt about wiping bottoms because he had enjoyed having this done to him, which showed pleasure at the anal stage. - Hans wanted his father to go away or die because he enjoyed being with his mother and

having his mother's attention. His jealousy of his sister was evidence of the same desire for his mother. - Hans's fear of a white horse represented a fear of his father. Freud thought that the fear of black around the horses' mouths and of things in front of their eyes represented adult men with moustaches and glasses on, reinforcing the idea of Hans being afraid of his father. - When the girl was told not to 'put her finger on' the horse, this reminded Hans of when he was told off for playing with his 'widdler', which Freud interpreted as castration fear. - When Hans said about the doll that mummy is the mother, Hans is the father and his own father the grandfather, it showed that Hans was now cured, as this was the resolution of the Oedipus Complex. Conclusion:- Freud thought that his study of Little Hans offered evidence for his psychosexual stages, and theory of how gender develops. Evaluation Strengths; Freud gathered information from Hans's father rather than from Hans directly. However, he did try to work on information gained directly from the little boy, when Hans talked freely about his problems (even though to his father), so the data was valid to that extent. The data was comprehensive, covering dreams, events, ideas and feelings Freud's focus on sexual matters and unconscious processes has led to psychoanalysis and other psychotherapies being developed. The ideas of the 'talking cure' and the 'listening cure' have been built upon, as is evident in modern counselling techniques. Weaknesses; Writing out a case study is likely to involve subjective interpretation. If data is interpreted subjectively, it may be interpreted differently by another analyst or researcher, so would not be reliable The parents followed Freud's teachings, so the data may be biased Max Graf was a follower of Freud and may have wanted to please him There are other explanations. One comes from ideas from Bowlby (1973), who said that a child needs their mother as an attachment figure in their early years, of their later development if affected. Perhaps Hans clung to his mother because she has threatened to leave the family (which it appeared was the case). In addition his fear of horses could have been due to classical conditioning (seeing the horse fall in the street) Freud's methods are said to be not scientific because his concepts, such as the unconscious and castration fear, are not testable. Conclusions are not scientifically shown and not easily repeated, so are unlikely to be reliable.

Dibs: Personality Development In Play Therapy (Axline, 1964) Aim: Axline, a clinical psychologist, aimed to help Dibs, a five year old boy, to unlock whatever was troubling him. It was clear that there was a problem because he would not speak or interact with others, and could be aggressive if challenged. Method: She wrote up a case study about Dibs and his play therapy sessions. Dibs's teachers thought they were failing him, so they asked Axline to help. At that stage, nobody really knew the story behind Dibs's silence. They just knew that his mother used to pick him up from school, they did not see his father, and he did not want to go home. The case study was a description rather than an explanation. Axline tried not to interpret what Dibs said and did. Dibs parents believed he was brain damaged Description Of Themes Dibs showed that he was actually a gifted child who could red, spell and understand complex concepts. He used dolls and toy soldiers in the play therapy room to act out situations with his family. He showed hatred for his father by burying a toy soldier he called 'Papa' in the sand (though he did eventually dig him up again). He said he did not like locked rooms or walls and would close the doors on a dolls house in the play therapy room. He was angry with his family and in particular his father. During the therapy his behaviour gradually got better, he spoke to his teachers and began to show some interest in the other children. He was heard to speak into a Dictaphone an imaginary conversation with his father where his father begged forgiveness. Dibs IQ was tested and it was 168 (top 1% of the population). Case Study Analysis Dibs worked out his anger through play, and seemed happier because of this. Axline did not analyse the case study using theory, but Freud's personality theory helps to explain Dibs's behaviour. One explanation is that he had an overcontrolling superego, and his ego did not manage to balance the demands of his id and superego. His father used to lock him in his room, which probably explained his dislike of walls and locked doors. His mother had pushed and tested him alot when he was younger, and he had more stimulation than emotional support. This might have led to his reaction to the testing, which was to maintain silence. He displaced his anger towards his father onto other children. Conclusion:- Play therapy allowed Dibs's feelings to be worked through, and allowed him to find himself. The overcontrolling superego would mean he had no balanced personality; play therapy allowed a balance to be found. Evaluation: Strengths Axline achieved her aim, which was to treat Dibss anger problems The therapy was in depth, each session was carefully recorded and detailed notes were taken by Axline and others ensuring greater validity Triangulation was achieved as Axline compared her observations with information from his teachers and parents

Weaknesses Axline was a participant observer so her presence could have affected his play. It would have been impossible to repeat the study with another observer therefore the findings cannot be assessed for reliability Although Dibs did get better it is possible that this would have happened anyway without the play therapy. Key Issue - Using Psychoanalysis With Abnormal & Normal Clients

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The issue is whether such analysis is suitable for normal clients, abnormal clients, or those who have certain abnormalities only. Evidence of Practice Correlational study looking at the relationship between parental strictness and tidiness

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