Content analysis in communication research

*Dr Amit k
Singh
**Mili Singh

Study of communication as subject is new in comparison to other

subject of social sciences and natural sciences. The study of
communication is generally branched under social sciences. So
the methods of communication research are adopted from social
research. Communications research undertakes the scientific
study of communication process. It is objective, deterministic and
parsimonious. The study of communication is multidisciplinary so
its research method can be also adopted from behavioral science,
natural science and management keeping its root with social
sciences. Media is emerging as industry and its products are
available with the price tag attached with them and its audience
as market leading to the use of market research methods for
media studies. In short communication research adopted its
methods from various disciplines.
Areas of communication research- communication research
deals with the study of communication process so it working
areas are “the elements of communication process”.
1. Sender /communicator /source research
2. Message /text research
3. Channel/media research
4. Receiver/ audience research
5. Effect Research
The above macro elements of communication process provide the
wide area for research. These macro elements are analyzed in
micro elements which provide selected field for communication
studies. Berlo’s SMCR model analyzed these macro element in
micro elements.
1. Source/communicator research- source has been analyzed
as
 a) Communication skill
b) Attitude
c) Knowledge
d) Social system
e) Culture

To understand the nature of particular communicator these micro

elements can provide the area of study to the communication
researcher. For example if the research look for the essential
characteristics of good reporter, editor or other media personnel
he can study these above elements. Also other characteristics
such as credibility, expertise, intent and attractiveness can also
be judged.
Yale communication research group of USA Hovland and
Weiss conducted an experiment in which they presented an
identical communication to two groups. But the message was
attributed to high and low credibilility sources. It was considered
to be more biased and unfair when it was attributed to low
credibility source. The high credibility source has greater
immediate effect on opinion of the audience than low credibility
source.
Message M is tagged with low credibility source as Ml
Message M is tagged with high credibility source as Mh
M

ML Mh
 CONSIDERED CONSIDERED FAIR
BAISED AND UNFAIR

Thus the same message attributed to different credibility source

produce different reactions.

2. Message /content /text research- message is analyzed as

a) Element
b) Structure
c) Content
d) Treatment
e) Code
Message is most important element which has the above micro
element which provides the basic field for research work.

3. Channel/media research- though SMCR has analyzed the

channel having following microelements:-

a) Seeing
b) Hearing
c) Touching
d) Smelling
e) Tasting

Based on the reception patterns of above senses media is divided

into visual, audio and audio-visual. These media are the field of
investigation and their effectiveness for particular campaign.

4. Receiver / audience research-This micro element of

communication is studied maximum for market purpose.
Advertisers are manufactures find their prospective customer of
their product out of media audience so they encourage and fund
the audience research. Receiver perceives the message send by
the source using the following microelements.
 a) Communication skill
b) Attitude
c) Knowledge
d) Social system
e) Culture
5. Effect research-SMCR model does not describe the effect
element of communication. But it is one of the most sought offer
research field in communication research. Sociologist,
Psychologist, Advertisers Parents all are worried about the effect
of media on the adoption of culture, behavior, attitude formation,
buying pattern etc of audience.
Content Analysis in Communication Research- After knowing
the basic fields/areas of communication research we try to find
out how content analysis is used in these areas. According to
Bernard Berelson content analysis is “a research technique for
objective, systematic and quantitative description of the manifest
content of communication.”
According to Klaus Krippendorff in his book ‘Content Analysis: An
introduction to its Methodology’
‘In any single written message one can count letters, words or
sentences. One can categorize phrases, describe the logical
structure of expressions, ascertain association, connotation,
denotation, elocutionary forces and one can also offer
psychiatric, sociological or political interpretations. All of these
may be simultaneously valid. In short, a message may convey a
multitude of contents even to a single receiver.’
Content analysis follows a systematic process for coding and
drawing inferences from the texts. It starts by determining which
units of data will be analyzed. In written or verbal texts, data,
units are of four types.
1. Syntactical units- these units can be words, phrase,
sentences or paragraphs. Words are the smallest and reliable
data unit.
 2. Referential units are described by words, phrases and
sentences; they may be objects, events, persons to which
the text refers.
3. Propositional units are assertions about an object, event,
person and so on
4. Thematic units are topic contained within text; they
represent higher level abstractions inferred from the text and
its context.
Use of content analysis to study the source- content analysis
of an informal interview conducted to the employees of
newspaper. The main question asked ‘How might the newspaper
house increase its circulation?’
The sample of response yielded as follows.
♦ We should keep readers priority over advertiser’s priority.
♦ We should switch to new printing technology.

♦ We should change our newspaper’s layout and give it a

new look.
♦ We should increase the reader’s involvement by
encouraging feedback.
♦ We should invite reader’s suggestion for ‘what they want
to read’?
♦ We should provide training to the cub journalist and
refresher programs for the old employee.
♦ Freedom should be given to sales department for
promotional campaign.
The first step in analysis requires that the units selected or
developed help to answer the research question. In our example
the research question is concerned with the learning what the
employees think is the source for increasing circulation. The 1st
pas through the data produces the few general categories in one
concept dimension: source of responsibility is shown in table. The
response can be categories as

Locus of responsibility Frequency(n=100)

Human relation 30
Training 10
Technology 10
Strategic planning 40
Other areas of action 10

Thus the above table can be analyzed to give the result of the
particular research. Using content analysis the communication
contents like speech, written text, interviews, images, cartoon,
and movies can be coded. These coding leads the communication
content in the form of machine readable text, the input is
analysed for frequencies and coded into the categories for
building up inferences. The methods of coding show high
reliability. Many software are available for coding, the research
can spend much less time coding the text. What used to take the
coding staff several days may now be done in few hours. Content
analysis software applies statistical algorithms to open-ended
question responses. This permit stemming, aliasing and exclusion
process. Stemming uses derivations of common root words to
create aliases (e.g. using searching, searches, searched for
search). Aliasing searches for synonym (wise or smart for
intelligent). Exclusion filters out trivial words (be, is, the, of) in
search for meaning.
Use of content analysis for message research- early content
analysis was limited to the measuring of space provided by the
newspaper/ magazine on particular topic i.e. coverage given to an
event. The comparative study of regional and national daily on
the coverage and importance they give to a particular event.
Using content analysis biasness in coverage and slant in the view
can also be inferred. Content analysis is done to show how women
are represented in media. Content analysis methodology was
adopted to show in Indian television women are stereotyped as
house wife. If working they are shown working as secretaries,
airhostesses, school teacher, receptionist etc.
Use of content analysis in Channel /media research-content
analysis of channel/ media is done to study their effectiveness of
a particular campaign. Advertisers do media research for best
suited medium for their campaign before putting their
advertisement in particular media. Many research works had done
using content analysis to study television violence. A content
analysis conducted by a team lead by Professor George Gerbner
of University of Pennsylvania in 1976, found that around 80% of
all program contained one or two violent incidence. The violence
shown was far from realistic. For example, televisions beating
produce little visible pain; the details of injury were shown in 14%
of all programs. Such portrayal made it difficult for viewers to
appreciate the downside of violent behavior. Violence rather than
the rule of law was depicted as the solution to the problem in 80%
of the cases.
In investigating the actual world of violence, the commission
found that only tiny percentage of population had any real
experience with the violence as victim, assailant or observer.
From this the research concluded that violence was depicted
unrealistically on TV when compare to real life.

Use of content analysis in audience and effect research-

audience research is very important for manufacturers,
advertisers, media and politicians. Sociologist and psychologist
are also worried about the shaping of media audience and effect
of media on them.
Dr. Fredic Wertham’s ,a psychiatrist in 1950’s conducted a
content analysis that documented a gory details found in comics.
He reproduced the cover of one comic, which depicted two men
tied up and dragged, face down, behind a speeding car. There
were two hoodlums in the car, with their dialogue in the balloons.
The driver says, ’these -%*@^# gravel roads are tough on tires!’
The other says, “but ya gotta admit, there is nothing like’ em for
ERASING FACES!”
Wertham provided examples of what he said were the many way
comics taught kids techniques for committing crime. Wertham’s
research later considered unscientific but extremely influential in
1950s.

Conclusion-content analysis provides a strong instrument to

learn and understand all the aspects of communication process. It
not only provides with the tool for quantitative study of media
contents but also qualitative study. Content analysis consists with
the research and investigative question that we select and want
to export to a data file or in tab-delimited format. The table and
plots, serves as the modules for final report. With the advent of
software coding techniques the work of coding becomes easy and
more reliable making the study more scientific.

References
B.Berelson, Content Analysis in Communication Research, Free
Press, New York,1952.
Klaus Krippenendorff, Content Analysis : An Introduction to its
Methodology, Sage Publication, Beverly Hill, CA,1980.
Cooper Donald R. and Schindler Pamela S, Bussiness Research
Methods, McGraw-Hill/Irwin,NY,2006.
Rodman George, Making Sense of Media: An Introduction to Mass
Communication, Allyn & Bacon, Needham Heights, MA,2001
Gupta Baldev Raj, Modern Journalism and Mass Communication,
Vishwavidyalaya Prakashan, Varansi,1997
Cothari C R, Research Methodology,Wishwa Prakashan ,New Delhi
,2002.
John W.Best and James V.Kahn, “Research in Education”, Prentice-
Hall of India Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi,1986.

*lecturer in Department of Management Mizoram University

**Research Scholar in Mahamana Malaviya Institute of Hindi Journalism, Mahatma
Gandhi Kashi Vidyapeeth, varansi.