The Importance of Software Testing

The Importance of Software Testing
1. Software Testing Techniques
The importance of software testing and its impact on software cannot be underestimated. Software testing
is a fundamental component of software quality assurance and represents a review of specification, design
and coding. The greater visibility of software systems and the cost associated with software failure are
motivating factors for planning, through testing. It is not uncommon for a software organisation to spent
40% of its effort on testing.
1.1 Software Testing Fundamentals
During testing the software engineering produces a series of test cases that are used to “rip apart” the
software they have produced. Testing is the one step in the software process that can be seen by the
developer as destructive instead of constructive. Software engineers are typically constructive people and
testing requires them to overcome preconceived concepts of correctness and deal with conflicts when
errors are identified.
1.1.1 Testing objectives
A number of rules that act as testing objectives are:
• Testing is a process of executing a program with the aim of finding errors.
• A good test case will have a good chance of finding an undiscovered error.
• A successful test case uncovers a new error.

1.1.2 Test information flow
Information flow for testing follows the pattern shown in the figure below. Two types of input are given to
the test process:
(1) A software configuration
(2) A test configuration

Tests are performed and all outcomes considered test results are compared with expected results. When
erroneous data is identified error is implied and debugging begins. The debugging procedure is the most
unpredictable element of the testing procedure. An “error” that indicates a discrepancy of 0.01 percent
between the expected and the actual results can take hours, days or months to identify and correct. It is
the uncertainty in debugging that causes testing to be difficult to schedule reliability.

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(cc) Jan Erik Finlander
Software
Evaluation
configuration Errors
Test Results
Debug
Testing Error rate
data
Corrections
Test configuration Reliability
Expected results
Model
Predicted
reliability
Test information flow
1.1.3 Test case design
The design of software testing can be a challenging process. However software engineers often see testing
as an afterthought, producing test cases that feel right but have little assurance that they are complete.
The objective of testing is to have the highest likelihood of finding the most errors with a minimum amount
of timing and effort. A large number of test case design methods have been developed that offer the
developer with a systematic approach to testing. Methods offer an approach that can ensure the
completeness of tests and offer the highest likelihood for uncovering errors in software.
Any engineering product can be tested in two ways:
(1) Knowing the specified functions that the product has been designed to perform, tests can be
performed that show that each function is fully operational
(2) Knowing the internal workings of a product, tests can be performed to see if they jell.

The first test approach is known as a black box testing and the second white box testing.
Black box testing relates to the tests that are performed at the software interface. Although they are
designed identify errors, black box tests are used to demonstrate that software functions are operational;
that inputs are correctly accepted and the output is correctly produced. A black box test considers
elements of the system with little interest in the internal logical arrangement of the software. White box
testing of software involves a closer examination of procedural detail. Logical paths through the software
are considered by providing test cases that exercise particular sets of conditions and/or loops. The status
of the system can be identified at diverse points to establish if the expected status matches the actual
status.
1.2 White Box Testing
White box testing is a test case design approach that employs the control architecture of the procedural 2
design to produce test cases. Using white box testing approaches, the software engineering can produce
test cases, that:
(1) Guarantee that all independent paths in a module have been exercised at least once
(2) Exercise all logical decisions
(3) Execute all loops at their boundaries and in their operational bounds
(4) Exercise internal data structures to maintain their validity

1.3 Basis Path Testing
Basic path testing is a white box testing techniques that allows the test case designer to produce a logical
complexity measure of procedural design and use this measure as an approach for outlining a basic set of
execution paths. Test cases produced to exercise each statement in the program at least one time during
testing.
1.3.1 Flow Graphs
The flow graph can be used to represent the logical flow control and therefore all the execution paths that
need testing. To illustrate the use of flow graphs consider the procedural design depicted in the flow chart
below. This is mapped into the flow graph below where the circles are nodes that represent one or more
procedural statements and the arrow in the flow graph called edges represent the flow control. Each node
that includes a condition is known as a predicate node, and has two or more edges coming from it.

1

2

3

6 4

Flow chart 5
7 8
9
10
11
3
1
Node
Edges
2,3
Predicate
N d
6
7 8 4,5
9
Region
10
11
Flow graph
1.3.2 Cyclomatic Complexity

Cyclomatic complexity is a software‐metric that offers an indication of the logical complexity of a program.
When used in the context of the basis path testing approach, the value is determined for cyclomatic
complexity defines the number of independent paths in the basis set of a program and offer upper bounds
for number of tests that ensures all statements have been executed at least once. An independent path is
any path through the program that introduces at least one new group of processing statements or new
condition. A set of independent paths for the example flow graph are:
Path 1: 1‐11
Path 2: 1‐2‐3‐4‐5‐10‐1‐11
Path 3: 1‐2‐3‐6‐8‐9‐10‐11
1.3.3 Deriving Test Cases

The basis path testing method can be applied to a detailed procedural design or to source code. Basis path
testing can be seen as a set of steps.
• Using the design or code as the basis, draw an appropriate flow graph.
• Determine the cyclomatic complexity of the resultant flow graph.
• Determine a basis set of linear independent paths
4
• Prepare test cases that will force execution of each path in the basis set.

Date should be selected so that conditions at the predicate nodes are tested. Each test case is
executed and contrasted with the expected result. Once all test cases have been completed, the
tester can ensure that all statements in the program are executed at least once.

1.3.4 Graphical Matrices
The procedure involved in producing the flow graph and establishing a set of basis paths can be
mechanised. To produce a software tool that helps in basis path testing, a data structure, called a graph
matrix, can be quite helpful. A graph matrix is a square matrix whose size is the same as the identified
nodes, and matrix entries match the edges between nodes. A basic flow graph and its associated graph
matrix are shown below.

1

a
2

b
E
5 3
f

c d

g
4 Flow graph

Connection to node
Node 1 2 3 4 5
1 a
2 b
3 d, c f
4
5 e g
Graph Matrix
5
In the graph and matrix each node is represented with a number and each edge a letter. A letter is entered
into the matrix related to connection between the two nodes. By adding a link weight for each matrix entry
the graph matrix can be used to examine program control structure during testing. In its basic form the link
weight is 1 or 0.
The link weights can be given more interesting characteristics:
• The probability that a link will be executed.
• The processing time expanded during traversal of a link
• The memory required during traversal of a link

Represented in this form the graph matrix is called a connection matrix.
Connection to node
Node 1 2 3 4 5 Connections
1 1 1‐1=0
2 1 1‐1=0
3 1,1 1 3‐1=2
4 0
5 1 1 2‐1=1
Cyclomatic complexity is 2+1=3
Graph matrix
1.4 Control Structure Testing

Although basis path testing is simple and highly effective, it is not enough in itself. Next we consider
variations on control structure testing that broaden testing coverage and improve the quality of white box
testing.
1.4.1 Condition Testing
Condition testing is a test case design approach that exercises the logical conditions contained in a program
module. A simple condition is a Boolean variable or a relational expression, possibly with one NOT
operator. A relational expression takes the form
E1 < relational- operator>E 2
where E 1 and E 2 are arithmetic expressions and relational operator is one of the following <, =, ≠, ≤,

(nonequality) >, or ≥. A compound condition is made up of two or more simple conditions, Boolean
operators, and parentheses. We assume that Boolean operators allowed in a compound condition include 6
OR, AND and NOT.
The condition testing method concentrates on testing each condition in a program. The purpose of
condition testing is to determine not only errors in the conditions of a program but also other errors in the
program. A number of condition testing approaches have been identified. Branch testing is the most basic.
For a compound condition, C, the true and false branches of C and each simple condition in C must be
executed at least once.
Domain testing needs three and four tests to be produced for a relational expression. For a relational
expression of the form
E 1 < relational - operator >E 2
Three tests are required the make the value of E 1 greater than, equal to and less than E 2 , respectively.
1.4.2 Data Flow Testing
The data flow testing method chooses test paths of a program based on the locations of definitions and
uses of variables in the program. Various data flow testing approaches have been examined. For data flow
testing each statement in program is allocated a unique s6atement number and that each function does
not alter its parameters or global variables. For a statement with S as its statement number,
DEF(S) = {X| statement S contains a definition of X}
USE(S) = {X| statement S contains a use of X}
If statement S is an if or loop statement, ifs DEF set is left empty and its USE set is founded on the condition
of statement S. The definition of a variable X at statement S is live at statement S’ if there is a path from
statement S to S’ which does not contain any condition of X.
A definition‐use chain (or DU chain) of variable X is of the type [X,S,S’] where S and S’ are statement
numbers, X is in DEF(S), USE(S’), and the definition of X in statement S is live at statement S’.
One basic data flow testing strategy is that each DU chain be covered at least once. Data flow testing
strategies are helpful for choosing test paths of a program including nested if and loop statements.
1.4.3 Loop Testing
Loops are the basis of most algorithms implemented using software. However, often we do consider them
when conducting testing. Loop testing is a white box testing approach that concentrates on the validity of
loop constructs. Four loops can be defined: simple loops, concatenate loops, nested loops, and
unstructured loops.
Simple loops: The follow group of tests should be used on simple loops, where n is the maximum number
of allowable passes through the loop:
• Skip the loop entirely.
• Only one pass‐through the loop. 7
• Two passes through the loop.
• M passes through the loop where m<n.
• n‐1, n, n+1 passes through the loop.
Simple loop
Nested loop: For the nested loop the number of possible tests increases as the level of nesting grows. This
would result in an impractical number of tests. An approach that will help to limit the number of tests:
• Start at the innermost loop. Set all other loops to minimum values.
• Conduct simple loop tests for the innermost loop while holding the outer loop at their minimum
iteration parameter value.
• Work outward, performing tests for the next loop, but keeping all other outer loops at minimum
values and other nested loops to “typical” values.
• Continue until all loops have been tested.

Nested loop
8
Concatenated loops: Concatenated loops can be tested using the techniques outlined for simple loops, if
each of the loops is independent of the other. When the loops are not independent the approach applied
to nested loops is recommended.
Concatenated loops
Unstructured loops: This class of loop should be redesigned to reflect the use of the structured
programming constructs.
1.5 Black Box Testing
Black box testing approaches concentrate on the fundamental requirements of the software. Black box
testing allows the software engineer to produce groups of input situations that will fully exercise all
functional requirements for a program. Black box testing is not an alternative to white box techniques. It is
a complementary approach that is likely to uncover a different type of errors that the white box
approaches.
Black box testing tries to find errors in the following categories:
• Incorrect or missing functions
• Interface errors
• Errors in data structures or external database access
• Performance errors
• Initialisation and termination errors

By applying black box approaches we produce a set of test cases that fulfil requirements:
• test cases that reduce the number of test cases to achieve reasonable testing
• test cases that tell us something about the presence or absence of classes of errors

1.5.1 Equivalent Partitioning 9

Equivalence partitioning is a black box testing approach that splits the input domain of a program into
classes of data from which test cases can be produced. An ideal test case uncovers a class of errors that
may otherwise before the error is detected. Equivalence partitioning tries to outline a test case that
identifies classes of errors.
Test case design for equivalent partitioning is founded on an evaluation of equivalence classes for an input
condition. An equivalence class depicts a set of valid or invalid states for the input condition.
Equivalence classes can be defined based on the following:
• If an input condition specifies a range, one valid and two invalid equivalence classes are defined.
• If an input condition needs a specific value, one valid and two invalid equivalence classes are
defined.
• If an input condition specifies a member of a set, one valid and one invalid equivalence class is
defined.
• If an input condition is Boolean, one valid and invalid class are outlined.

1.5.2 Boundary Value Analysis
A great many errors happen at the boundaries of the input domain and for this reason boundary value
analysis was developed. Boundary value analysis is test case design approach that complements
equivalence partitioning. BVA produces test cases from the output domain also.
Guidelines for BVA are close to those for equivalence partitioning:
• If an input condition specifies a range bounded by values A and B, test cases should be produced
with values A and B, just above and just below a and b, respectively.
• If an input condition specifies various values, test cases should be produced to exercise the
minimum and maximum numbers.
• Apply guidelines above to output conditions.
• If internal program data structures have prescribed boundaries, produce test cases to exercise that
data structure at its boundary.

1.5.3 Cause‐Effect Graphing Techniques

In too many instances, an attempt to translate a policy or procedure stated in a natural language into a
software causes frustration and problems. Cause‐effect graphing is a test case design approach that offers
a concise depiction of logical conditions and associated actions. The approach has four stages:
• Cause (input conditions) and effects (actions) are listed for a module and an identifier is allocated
to each.
• A cause‐effect graph is created.
• The graph is altered into a decision table.
• Decision table rules are modified to test cases.

A simplified version of cause‐effect graph symbology is shown below. The left hand column of the figure 10
gives the various logical associations among causes c i and effects, e i . The dashed notation in the right‐
hand columns indicates potentials constraining associations that might apply to either causes or effects.
Symbology
Constraints

c1
e1 a
a
Identity a

c1 I
e1 E
b O
“Not” b
b

C

Cause‐effect graphing
c1
v
e1 or Exclusive Inclusive Only one
c2
c1 a a
^ and
e1 R M
b b
c2
Require Masks

1.5.4 Comparison Testing

Under certain situations the reliability of the software is critical. In these situations redundant software
and hardware is often used to ensure continuing functionality. When redundant software is produced
separate software engineering teams produce independent versions of an application using the same 11
applications. In this context each version can be tested with the same test data to ensure they produce the
same output. These independent versions are the basis of a black box testing technique known as
comparison testing. Other black box testing techniques are performed on the separate versions and it is
assumed if they produce the same output they are assumed to be identical. However, if this is not the case
then they are examined further.
1.6 Testing for Real‐Time Systems

The specific characteristics of real‐time systems make them a major challenge when testing. The time‐
dependent nature of real‐time applications adds a new difficult element to testing. Not only does the
developer have to look at black and white box testing, but also the timing of the data and the parallelism of
the tasks. In many situation test data for real‐time system may produce errors when the system is in one
state but to in others. Comprehensive test cases design methods for real‐time systems have not evolved
yet. However, a four‐stage approach can be put forward:
Task testing: The first stage is to test independently the tasks of the real‐time software.
Behavioural testing: Using system models produced with CASE tools the behaviour of the
real‐time system and examines its actions as a result of external events.
Intertask testing: Once errors in individual tasks and in system behaviour have been
observed testing passes to time‐related external events.
Systems testing: Software and hardware are integrated and a full set of systems tests are
introduced to uncover errors at the software and hardware interface.
1.7 Automated Testing Tools

As testing can be 40% of the all effort expanded on the software development process tools that can assist
by reducing the time involved is useful. As a response to this various researchers have produced sets of
testing tools.
Miller described various categories for test tools:
• Static analysers: this program‐analysis support “proving” of static allegations‐weak statements
about program architecture and format.
• Code auditors: These special‐purpose filters are used to examine the quality of software to ensure
that it meets the minimum coding standards.
• Assertion processors: These systems tell whether the programmer‐supplied assertions about the
program are actually met.
• Test data generators: These processors assist the user with selecting the appropriate test data.
• Output comparators: This tool allows us to contrast one set of outputs from a program with
another set to determine the difference among them.

Dunn also identified additional categories of automated tools including:
• Symbolic execution systems: This tool performs program testing using algebraic input, instead of
numeric data values. 12
• Environmental simulators: This tool is a specialised computer‐based system that allows the tester
to model the external environment of real‐time software and simulate operating conditions.
• Data flow analysers: This tool tracks the flow of data through the system and tries to identify data
related errors.

2. Software Testing Strategies
A strategy for software testing integrates software test case design techniques into a well‐planned set of
steps that cause the production of software. A software test strategy provides a road map for the software
developer, the quality assurance organisation, and the customer. Any testing strategy needs to include test
planning, test case design, test execution, and the resultant data collection evaluation. A software test
strategy should be flexible enough to promote the creativity and customisation that are required to
adequately test all large software‐based systems.
2.1 A Strategic Approach to Software Testing

Testing is a group of activities that can be planned in advance and performed systematically. For this
reason a set of stages that we can place particular tests case design techniques and test approaches should
be developed for the software engineering procedure. A number of testing strategies have been identified,
which provide a template for testing and all have the following features:
• Testing starts at the modular level and works outward towards the integration of the complete
system.
• Diverse testing techniques are appropriate at diverse points in time.
• Testing is performed by the developer of the software and an independent test group.
• Testing and debugging ate diverse activities, but debugging must be included in any testing
strategy.

A strategy for testing must include low‐level tests that are required to verify that a small source code
segment has been implemented correctly as well as high‐level tests that that validate major system
functions based on customer requirements.
2.1.1 Verifications and Validations

Software testing is one type of a broader domain that is known as verification and validation (V&V).
Verification related to a set of operations that the software correctly implements a particular function.
Validation related to a different set of activities that ensures that the software that has been produced is
traceable to customer needs.
2.1.2 Organising for Software Testing

For each software project, there is an inherent that happens as testing starts. The people who produce the
software are required to test the software. Unfortunately, these developers have an interest in showing
that the program is error free, it matches the customer’s needs and was completed on‐time and within
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budget. The role of an independent test group (ITG) is to take out the inherent difficulty associated with
allowing the builder to test the things that are built. The ITG works with the developer throughout the
project to ensure that the testing carried out is at the correct level. The ITG is part of the software
development process in that it becomes involved during the specification stage and stays throughout the
project.
2.1.3 A Software Testing Strategy

The software engineering procedure can be seen as a spiral. Initially the systems engineering states the role
of the software and lead the software requirement analysis where the information domain, function,
behaviour, performance and validation criteria for the software are identified. Moving inwards along the
spiral, we come to design and finally coding.
A strategy for software testing may be to move upward along the spiral. Unit testing happens at the vortex
of the spiral and concentrates on each unit of the software as implemented by the source code. Testing
happens upwards along the spiral to integration testing, where the focus is on design and the production of
the software architecture. Finally we perform system testing, where software and other system elements
are tested together.
2.1.4 Criteria for Completion Testing

A fundamental question in software testing is how do we know when testing is complete. Software
engineers need to have rigorous criteria for establishing when testing is complete. Musa and Ackerman put
forward an approach based on statistical response that states that we can predict how long a program will
go before failing with a stated probability using a certain model. Using statistical modelling and software
reliability theory, models of software failure as a test of execution time can be produced. A version of
failure model, known as logarithmic Poisson execution‐time model, takes the form:
1
f (t) = ln[l 0 pt + 1]
p
where f(t) = cumulative number of failures that are anticipated to happen once the software has been
tested for a particular amount of execution time t
l 0 = the initial failure intensity at the start of testing
p = the exponential reduction in failure intensity as errors are discovered and repairs produced.
The instantaneous failure intensity, l(t) can be derived by taking the derivative of f(t):
l0
l( t ) =
l 0 pt + 1
(a)
Using the relationship noted in equation (a), testers can estimate the drop off of errors as testing
progresses. The actual error intensity can be plotted against the estimated curve. If the actual data gained
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during testing and the Logarithmic Poisson execution‐time model are reasonably close to another over a
number of data points, the model can be used to estimate the total test time required to produce
acceptably low failure intensity.
2.2 Unit Testing
Unit testing concentrates verification on the smallest element of the program – the module. Using the
detailed design description important control paths are tested to establish errors within the bounds of the
module.
2.2.1 Unit test considerations

The tests that are performed as part of unit testing are shown in the figure below. The module interface is
tested to ensure that information properly flows into and out of the program unit being tested. The local
data structure is considered to ensure that data stored temporarily maintains its integrity for all stages in
an algorithm’s execution. Boundary conditions are tested to ensure that the modules perform correctly at
boundaries created to limit or restrict processing. All independent paths through the control structure are
exercised to ensure that all statements in been executed once. Finally, all error‐handling paths are
examined.

Interface
Module
Local data structures

Boundary Conditions

Test cases Unit test
2.2.2 Unit test procedures

Unit testing is typically seen as an adjunct to the coding step. Once source code has been produced,
reviewed, and verified for correct syntax, unit test case design can start. A review of design information
offers assistance for determining test cases that should uncover errors. Each test case should be linked
with a set of anticipated results. As a module is not a stand‐alone program, driver and/stub software must
be produced for each test units. In most situations a driver is a “main program” that receives test case
data, passes this to the module being tested and prints the results. Stubs act as the sub‐modules called by
the test modules. Unit testing is made easy if a module has cohesion.
2.3 Integration Testing
Once all the individual units have been tested there is a need to test how they were put together to ensure
no data is lost across interface, one module does not have an adverse impact on another and a function is 15
not performed correctly. Integration testing is a systematic approach that produces the program structure
while at the same time producing tests to identify errors associated with interfacing.
2.3.1 Top‐Down integration
Top‐down integration is an incremental approach to the production of program structure. Modules are
integrated by moving downwards through the control hierarchy, starting with the main control module.
Modules subordinate to the main control module are included into the structure in either a depth‐first or
breadth‐first manner. Relating to the figure below depth‐first integration would integrate the modules on
a major control path of the structure. Selection of a major path is arbitrary and relies on application
particular features. For instance, selecting the left‐hand path, modules M1, M2, M5 would be integrated
first. Next M8 or M6 would be integrated. Then the central and right‐hand control paths are produced.
Breath‐first integration includes all modules directly subordinate at each level, moving across the structure
horizontally. From the figure modules M2, M3 and M4 would be integrated first. The next control level,
M5, M6 etc., follows.

M1

M2 M3 M4

M5 M6 M7

M8
The integration process is performed in a series of five stages:
1. The main control module is used as a test driver and stubs are substituted for all modules directly
subordinate to the main control module.
2. Depending on the integration technique chosen, subordinate stubs are replaced one at a time with
actual modules.
3. Tests are conducted as each module is integrated.
4. On the completion of each group of tests, another stub is replaced with the real module.
5. Regression testing may be performed to ensure that new errors have been introduced.

2.3.2 Bottom‐up Integration

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Bottom‐up integration testing, begins testing with the modules at the lowest level (atomic modules). As
modules are integrated bottom up, processing required for modules subordinates to a given level is always
available and the need for stubs is eliminated.
A bottom‐up integration strategy may be implemented with the following steps:
1. Low‐level modules are combined into clusters that perform a particular software sub function.
2. A driver is written to coordinate test cases input and output.
3. The cluster is tested.
4. Drivers are removed and clusters are combined moving upward in the program structure.

2.3.3 Comments on Integration Testing

There has been much discussion on the advantages and disadvantages of bottom‐up and top‐down
integration testing. Typically a disadvantage is one is an advantage of the other approach. The major
disadvantage of top‐down approaches is the need for stubs and the difficulties that are linked with them.
Problems linked with stubs may be offset by the advantage of testing major control functions early. The
major drawback of bottom‐up integration is that the program does not exist until the last module is
included.
2.4 Validation Testing

As a culmination of testing, software is completely assembled as a package, interfacing errors have been
identified and corrected, and a final set of software tests validation testing are started. Validation can be
defined in various ways, but a basic one is valid succeeds when the software functions in a fashion that can
reasonably expected by the customer.
2.4.1 Validation test criteria

Software validation is achieved through a series of black box tests that show conformity with requirements.
A test plan provides the classes of tests to be performed and a test procedure sets out particular test cases
that are to be used to show conformity with requirements.
2.4.2 Configuration review

An important element of the validation process is a configuration review. The role of the review is to
ensure that all the components of the software configuration have been properly developed, are
catalogued and have the required detail to support the maintenance phase of the software lifecycle.
2.4.3 Alpha and Beta testing
It is virtually impossible for develop to determine how the customer will actually use the program. When
custom software is produced for customer a set of acceptance tests are performed to allow the user to 17
check all requirements. Conducted by the end user instead of the developer, an acceptance test can range
from an informal test drive to rigorous set of tests. Most developers use alpha and beta testing to identify
errors that only users seem to be able to find. Alpha testing is performed at the developer’s sites, with the
developer checking over the customers shoulder as they use the system to determine errors. Beta testing
is conducted at more than one customer locations with the developer not being present. The customer
reports any problems they have to allow the developer to modify the system.
2.5 System Testing
Ultimately, software is included with other system components and a set of system validation and
integration tests are performed. Steps performed during software design and testing can greatly improve
the probability of successful software integration in the larger system. System testing is a series of
different tests whose main aim is to fully exercise the computer‐based system. Although each test has a
different role, all work should verify that all system elements have been properly integrated and form
allocated functions. Below we consider various system tests for computer‐based systems.
2.5.1 Recovery Testing

Many computer‐based systems need to recover from faults and resume processing within a particular time.
In certain cases, a system needs to be fault‐tolerant. In other cases, a system failure must be corrected
within a specified period of time or severe economic damage will happen. Recovery testing is a system test
that forces the software to fail in various ways and verifies the recovery is performed correctly.
2.5.2 Security Testing
Any computer‐based system that manages sensitive information or produces operations that can
improperly harm individuals is a target for improper or illegal penetration. Security testing tries to verify
that protection approaches built into a system will protect it from improper penetration. During security
testing, the tester plays the role of the individual who wants to enter the system. The tester may try to get
passwords through external clerical approaches; may attack the system with customised software,
purposely produce errors and hope to find the key to system entry. The role of the designer is to make
entry to the system more expensive than that which can be gained.
2.5.3 Stress Testing
Stress testing executes a system in the demands resources in abnormal quantity, frequently or volume. A
variation of stress testing is an approach called sensitivity testing in some situation a very small range of
data contained with the bounds of valid data for a program may cause extreme and even erroneous
processing or profound performance degradation.
2.6 The Art of Debugging
Debugging happens as a result of testing. When a test case uncovers an error, debugging is the process
that causes the removal of that error.
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2.6.1 The Debugging Process
Debugging is not testing, but always happens as a response of testing. The debugging process will have one
of two outcomes:
(1) The cause will be found, corrected and removed, or
(2) The cause will not be found. Why is debugging difficult?
• The symptom and the cause are geographically remote.
• The symptom may disappear when another error is corrected.
• The symptom may actually be the result of no errors (e.g. round off in accuracies).
• The symptom may be caused by a human error that is not easy to find.
• The symptom may be intermittent.
• The symptom might be due to the causes that are distributed across various tasks on diverse
processes.

2.6.2 Psychological Considerations

There is evidence that debugging is an innate human trait. Some people are good at it and others not.
Although experimental evidence on debugging can be considered in many ways large variations in
debugging ability has been identified in software engineering of the same experience.
2.6.3 Debugging Approaches
Regardless of the approach that is used, debugging has one main aim: to determine and correct errors. The
aim is achieved by using systematic evaluation, intuition, and good fortune. In general three kinds of
debugging approaches have been put forward: Brute force, Back Tracking and Cause elimination.
Brute force is probably the most popular despite being the least successful. We apply brute force
debugging methods when all else fails. Using a “let the computer find the error” technique, memory
dumps are taken, run‐time traces are invoked, and the program is loaded with WRITE statements.
Backtracking is a common debugging method that can be used successfully in small programs. Beginning at
the site where a symptom has been uncovered, the source code is traced backwards till the error is found.
In cause elimination a list of possible causes of an error are identified and tests are conducted until each
one is eliminated.
2.7 Conclusion

Software testing accounts for a large percentage of effort in the software development process, but we
have only recently begun to understand the subtleties of systematic planning, execution and control.
Compiled by Jan‐Erik Finlander
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E1 < relational- operator>E 2

where E 1 and E 2 are arithmetic expressions and relational operator is one of the following <, =, ≠, ≤,

E 1 < relational - operator >E 2

Three tests are required the make the value of E 1 greater than, equal to and less than E 2 , respectively.

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