Groundwater

HYDROLOGY
Groundwater Hydrology
Introduction
[11-1] to [11-10]
Mohammad N. Almasri
1 [11] Fall 2007 Groundwater Hydrology Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD An-Najah National University
What is Groundwater?
Groundwater is the water that occurs in the tiny spaces (called pores or voids) between the underground soil particles or in the cracks, much like sponge holds water The substantial quantities of groundwater are found in aquifers. These aquifers are the source of water for wells and springs
[11] Fall 2007 Groundwater Hydrology Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD
An-Najah National University
Groundwater Occurrence
Void space
Soil particles
Vertical Distribution of Subsurface Water
Saturated Zone
All pores are filled up with water Extends from the upper surface of saturation down to underlying impermeable rock Generally, the water table forms the upper surface and it is the level at which water stands in a well penetrating the aquifer
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Land Surface Unsaturated Zone (Zone of Aeration) Rooting Depth Soil Water
Vadose Water
Water Table Saturated Zone
Capillary Water
Groundwater (Phreatic Water)
Soil Zone
NOT all the pores are fully filled out with water
Unsaturated Zone (Zone of Aeration) Rooting Depth Land Surface Soil Water
Extends from the ground surface down through the major root zone The water content vary from near saturation to nearly air-dry conditions Important in supplying moisture to roots
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Vadose Water
Water Table Saturated Zone
Capillary Water
Groundwater (Phreatic Water)
Capillary Zone
Water at the water table is subject to an upward attraction due to surface tension Water will rise until the balance occurs between the upward forces and the weight of water The water is under tension and thus the pressure will be negative
Intermediate Vadose Zone

Extends from the lower edge of the soil-water zone to the upper limit of the capillary zone The thickness may vary from zero to more than 100 m under deep water table conditions The zone serves primarily as a region connecting the zone near ground surface with that near the water table through which water moving vertically downward must pass
What is an Aquifer?
Aquifer. A formation that contains sufficient saturated permeable material to yield significant quantities of water to wells and springs. This implies an ability to store and transmit water The terms groundwater reservoir, groundwater basins, and water-bearing formation are frequently used to refer to aquifers
Confining Beds and Covers

Aquifers are bounded by confining beds which are relatively impermeable Aquiclude: is a saturated but relatively impermeable formation that does not yield appreciable quantities of water to wells. Clay Aquifuge: is a relatively impermeable formation neither containing nor transmitting water. Granite Aquitard: is a saturated but poorly permeable formation, does not yield water freely to wells but that may transmit appreciable water to or from adjacent aquifers and may constitute an important groundwater storage zone. Sandy clay
Confined Aquifers
Groundwater is confined under pressure by overlying a relatively impermeable formation In a well penetrating such an aquifer, the water level will rise above the bottom of the confining bed. This defines the elevation of the piezometric surface at that point The piezometric surface of a confined aquifer is an imaginary surface Should the piezometric surface lie above ground surface, a flowing well result
Confined Aquifers
Water enters a confined aquifer in an area where the confining bed ends (called recharge area) or by leakage through the confining bed
Unconfined Aquifers
This aquifer does not have a confining bed (cover) above it The aquifer can be directly recharged by rainfall or irrigation return flow Water table is the elevation in wells that tap the aquifer
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Unconfined Aquifers
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HYDROLOGY
Aquifer General Properties
[11-2]
Mohammad N. Almasri
Permeability
The permeability of a soil defines its ability to transmit a fluid This is a property of the medium only and is independent of fluid properties It has units of L2 1 Darcy = 10-8 cm2
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Hydraulic Conductivity
Hydraulic conductivity measures the ability of the soil to transmit water The hydraulic conductivity is a function of properties of both the porous medium and the fluid passing through it The units are (LT-1)
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Hydraulic Conductivity and Permeability
is the dynamic viscosity (M/LT) is the density of the fluid (M/L3) k is permeability (L2) K is hydraulic conductivity (L/T)
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Permeability
Low Permeability
High Permeability
0.01mm
0.1mm
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Soil Structure and Permeability
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Example
hydraulic conductivity of a silty sand was measured and found to be 1.3610-5 cm/s at 25C. What is the intrinsic permeability in cm2?
We need to find (dynamic viscosity) and (density) at 25C
k=
0.89 103 K= 1.36 105 10 2 = 1.237 108 m 2 g 997 9.81
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Transmissivity
Transmissivity is the rate at which water is transmitted through a unit width of aquifer under a unit hydraulic gradient
Transmissivity = (Hydraulic conductivity) (aquifer thickness) Confined aquifers T = K b where b is saturated thickness below the confining bed Unconfined aquifer T = K h where h is water table elevation
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Transmissivity
T = K h1
T = K h2
T=Kb
Apparently, transmissivity varies in unconfined aquifers while it is constant in confined aquifers

Storage Coefficient in Aquifers

Storage coefficient: indicates the amount of water released (pumped) from or stored (injected) in the aquifer due to the unit decline/increase in the potentiometric head Mathematically; Vreleased = S A h S: storage coefficient [storativity] (L0) A: aquifer surface area (L2) h: drop in potentiometric head (L)
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Storage Coefficient in Aquifers

In the first case, no soil media exists and thus all the released water is related to the decline in head (one-to-one relationship) In the second case, soil particles are large and all the pores contribute water (relationship with n) In the third case, soil particles are very fine. Thus, portion of water is held and not released (relationship with S)
Vreleased Vreleased Vreleased
[3]
[1] h [2]
[2]
[1] h [2]
[1]
[1] h A [2]
Vreleased = S A h
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Vreleased = n A h
Vreleased = 1 A h
Storage Coefficient in Unconfined Aquifers

In unconfined aquifers, water comes from: The gravity drainage of pores in the aquifer through which the water table is falling Expansion of the water Compression of the grains
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For an unconfined aquifer, the storage coefficient is computed using the following formula:
The above equation accounts for water coming due to compressibility of water and porous medium as well as drainage by gravity

The storativity (storage coefficient) under unconfined conditions is referred to as the specific yield (Sy) Specific yield is the water released from the medium by gravity drainage The specific yield is expressed as the ratio of the volume of water yielded by gravity drainage to the total volume of the soil
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Specific retention (Sr) is the ratio of the volume of water the aquifer retains against the force of gravity to the total aquifer volume
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Specific Yield and Specific Retention
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Confined versus Unconfined
An unconfined aquifer releases much more water from storage than a confined aquifer
HYDROLOGY
Springs - Overview
[11-3]
Mohammad N. Almasri
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Springs
A spring is a concentrated discharge of groundwater appearing at the ground surface as a current of flowing water
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Types of Springs
Depression The ground surface intersects the water table
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Types of Springs
Contact Created by a permeable waterbearing formation overlying a less permeable formation that intersects the ground surface
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Types of Springs
Fracture artesian Resulting from releases of water under pressure from confined aquifers through an opening in the confining bed that intersects with ground surface
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Types of Springs
Tubular Occurring in tubular channels or fractures of impervious rock
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Classification of Springs
Magnitude First Second Third Fourth Fifth Sixth Seventh Eighth
38 [11] Fall 2007 Groundwater Hydrology Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD
Mean discharge > 10 m3/s 1 10 m3/s 0.1 1 m3/s 10 100 l/s 1 10 l/s 0.1 1 l/s 10 100 ml/s < 10 ml/s
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Emerging of Springs
Vaseys Paradise
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HYDROLOGY
Darcys Law and Groundwater Movement
[11-4]
Mohammad N. Almasri
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Hydraulic Head
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Hydraulic Head
Total head at a point is the summation of the pressure head and elevation head Total head also equals the distance between ground surface and the datum minus the depth to water in the well
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Hydraulic Head
Groundwater moves in the direction of decreasing total head, which may or may not be in the direction of decreasing pressure head
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Hydraulic Head
Example
In an aquifer, the ground surface is at 1,000 m above sea level, the depth to the water table is 25 m, and the water table height above the measurement point is 50 m. Calculate: 1. The total hydraulic head at the point of measurement The pressure head, and The elevation head
2. 3.
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Example Solution
Hydraulic head = distance from the water table to the mean sea level = 1,000 25 = 975 m Pressure head = distance from the water table to the point of measurement = 50 m Elevation head = ground surface elevation depth to water table pressure head = 1,000 25 50 = 925 m
Hydraulic Head
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Hydraulic Gradient
l
A h1
Wa
ter
tab
le
Q
Datum
h2
The hydraulic gradient is the change in head over a distance in a given direction
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Hydraulic Gradient
Simple Example
Water table elevation was measured at two locations with a distance of 1,000 ft. If the measured elevations were 100 and 99 ft, then what is the direction of the groundwater flow and what is the hydraulic gradient?
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Hydraulic Gradient
Simple Example
Groundwater flows in the direction of decreasing head
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Hydraulic Head and Gradient

Confined Aquifers
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Hydraulic Head and Gradient

Unconfined Aquifers
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Example
Three piezometers monitor water levels in a confined aquifer. Piezometer A is located 3,000 ft due south of piezometer B Piezometer C is located 2,000 ft due west of piezometer B The surface elevations of A, B, and C are 480, 610 and 545 ft, respectively The depth to water in A is 40 ft, in B is 140 ft, and in C is 85 ft
Determine the direction of groundwater flow through the triangle ABC and calculate the hydraulic gradient
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Solution
Compute potentiometric head at each observation well
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Solution
Show schematically the direction of groundwater flow
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Solution
Compute the hydraulic gradient between each two wells in x and y
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Solution
Compute the direction of the overall gradient (resultant)
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Darcys Law
Q: Total flow (L3/T) q: (Q/A) Darcy flux (L/T) A: Cross-sectional area of the flow (L2) K: Hydraulic conductivity (L/T) dh: Head difference (L) dl: Increment distance (L) dh/dl: Hydraulic gradient (L/L)
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Velocity
Since the flow occurs across the pores that can transmit water and part of the pore space is occupied by stagnant water, then velocity equals the specific discharge divided by the effective porosity
v: velocity (L/T) ne: is the effective porosity
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Darcys Law
Solved Example Unconfined
Find q, Q, v, T?
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Darcys Law
We have K = 10 m/day, h1 = 20 m, h2 = 19 m, L = 1,000 m Then q = - (10) [(20-19)/(1,000)] = - 0.01 m/day
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q is negative and in the opposite direction of x!! This is correct since the flow is in the direction of decreasing head or the direction of hydraulic gradient or from high to low head
Darcys Law
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Q=qA What is the area of the flow? The area is the saturated thickness. This thickness varies from point to point Take the average height [A = 0.5 (h1 + h2) W] where W is the width of the aquifer (assume unit width if not given; W = 1 m) Then A = 0.5(20 + 19) (1) = 19.5 m2
Darcys Law

Then Q = 0.01 x 19.5 = 0.195 m3/day For the velocity We know that v = q/ne = 0.01 /0.2 = 0.05 m/day
Darcys Law
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We know that transmissivity (T) is: Hydraulic conductivity x aquifer thickness = 10 X 19.5 = 195 m2/day
Darcys Law
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Solved Example Confined

Find q, Q, v, T?
Darcys Law
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q = - (10) [(20-19)/(1,000)] = - 0.01 m/day Q=qA What is the area perpendicular to the flow? The area is the thickness of the aquifer which is b. This thickness is constant as far as the aquifer is totally saturated. A = b W where W is the width of the aquifer (assume unit width if not given; W = 1 m) Then A = 10 x 1 = 10 m2
Darcys Law
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Then Q = 0.01 x 10 = 0.1 m3/day For the velocity We know that v = q/ne = 0.01 /0.2 = 0.05 m/day
Darcys Law
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We know that transmissivity (T) is: Hydraulic conductivity x aquifer thickness = 10 X 10 = 100 m2/day
Darcys Law
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HYDROLOGY
Flow Nets
[11-5]
Mohammad N. Almasri
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Flow Nets
Flow nets are nets of equipotential lines (lines with constant head values) for an aquifer with flow lines perpendicular to them
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Head Contour Maps

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Head Contour Maps and Groundwater

Flow Direction
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2 4
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How to Construct a Flow Net?

Install piezometers in the aquifer of interest Start a monitoring activity of water table elevations for unconfined aquifers or potentiometric heads for confined ones Piezometers should be well distributed Write down for each (x, y) the h Construct the head contours (preferably using a computer software)
Flow Nets
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Flow Nets
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2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Use Surfer to construct the contour map

The Surfer Software

Get a free software demo at: http://www.goldensoftware.com/demo.shtml
Flow Nets
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Show the Groundwater Flow Directions?
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Groundwater Flow Direction
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Why to delineate the groundwater flow directions?
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Flow Nets
Example
Unconfined aquifer and K = 10 m/day I. What is the total flow across the rectangular (150 m 200 m)? II. What is the discharge at A
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Flow Nets
Example
I.
Q = K A dh/dx = K W b dh/dx = 10x200x[(19+18.5)/2]x[(19-18.5)/150]= 125 m3/day QA = KWAbA(dh/dx)A = 10x1x [(13+12.5)/2]x [(1312.5)/100] = 0.6375 m3/day-m width
II.
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HYDROLOGY
[11-6]
Determining hydraulic conductivity, heterogeneity and anisotropy

Mohammad N. Almasri
Flow through Multiple Layer Systems

You need to find out the total travel time across layers 1 and 2 Assume continuity of flow and head Q1
Darcys Law
h1
Q2
h2
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Flow through Multiple-Layer Systems

Continuity of flow (Q1 = Q2) Continuity of head (head at interface is constant)
Darcys Law
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Homogeneous Aquifers
In a homogeneous aquifer: Same properties at all locations The values of the hydraulic conductivity would be about the same wherever present The grain sizes and porosity are variable only within small limits
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Heterogeneity
In heterogeneous aquifers, hydraulic properties change spatially In reality, aquifers are always heterogeneous Values of hydraulic conductivity may vary by orders of magnitude
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Homogeneous Versus Heterogeneous

Symbolically
Consider two locations (x1, y1) and (x2, y2), then a homogeneous aquifer implies: Kx at (x1, y1) = Kx at (x2, y2) and Ky at (x1, y1) = Ky at (x2, y2)
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Anisotropy
When hydraulic properties such as hydraulic conductivity, vary with direction at a given location, then the particular property is considered anisotropic Otherwise, it is considered to be isotropic
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Anisotropy
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Isotropic Versus Anisotropic Symbolically
Consider two locations (x1, y1) and (x2, y2), then An isotropic aquifer implies: Kx at (x1, y1) = Ky at (x1, y1) and Kx at (x2, y2) = Ky at (x2, y2)
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Guess!
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Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity

In layered heterogeneous aquifers, it can be shown that there are equivalent horizontal and vertical hydraulic conductivities such that the entire system acts like a single homogeneous anisotropic layer
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Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity Averaging
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Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity Vertical

For vertical flow, Darcy flux q is constant (continuity in flow) and the total head loss is the summation of head loss across all the layers
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Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity Horizontal

For horizontal flow, total flow equals the summation of flow rates in all the layers and the head loss over a horizontal distance is constant across all the layers
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Equivalent Hydraulic Conductivity Horizontal and Vertical

Always, Kx > Kz for all possible sets of values of K1, K2,.., Kn. Ratios of Kx/Kz usually fall in the range of 2 to 10 for alluvium, but values up to 100 or more occur where clay layers are present
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Example
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Example
Kx =
Ky =
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(Past Exam)
Find: The headloss in each layer of this aquifer between the observation wells If the headloss in each layer between the wells were to be equal, what would be the length of each layer
Example
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(Past Exam)
Find the equivalent hydraulic conductivity. Since the flow is perpendicular to the layering of the aquifers then:
Example
K=
d1 + d 2 + d 3 500 + 1,100 + 400 m = = 14.85 . 500 1,100 400 d1 d 2 d 3 d + + + + 10 50 K 1 K 2 K 3 300
We know that q = KI thus the flux across the entire system equals:
14.85
66.4 60.6 m = 0.043 . 500 + 1,100 + 400 d
Yet, we know that this flux is constant across all the aquifers which means that:
q = K1
h 3 h 1 h 2 = K2 = K3 = 0.043 d1 d2 d3
Substituting gives: h1 = 0.716 m, h2 = 4.73 m, and h3 = 0.344 m.

(Past Exam)
Total headloss across all the aquifers = 66.4 60.6 = 5.8 m Equal headloss in each aquifer yields a 1.93 m headloss Again, we have a constant flux which is 0.043 m/d. Thus
Example
q = K1
h 1 h 1.93 or d1 = K 1 1 = 30 = 1,346 m. d1 q 0.043
The same for the other two aquifers yields d2 = 448 m and d3 = 2,244 m
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HYDROLOGY
Applications
[11-7]
Mohammad N. Almasri
Confined Aquifers
Steady state analysis Homogeneous Flow area (A) is constant (bW) Total flow (Q) is constant in the aquifer If Q and A are constant then gradient is constant
Applications
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Confined Aquifers
Applications
Unconfined Aquifers
Steady state analysis Flow area (A) is NOT constant (hW) Total flow (Q) is constant in the aquifer If Q is constant but A is not, then gradient is NOT constant
Applications
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Unconfined Aquifers
Applications
Unconfined Aquifers with Recharge

Water Divide
Applications
The change in flow equals the recharge (w) This implies that:
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At the water divide, flow equals zero When departing from the water divide, there is a flow at both side The flow increases with distance from the water divide
Q1=Wdx1
Applications
dx1 dx2 Q2=Wdx2
Applications
Upon integration
We get the head distribution across the aquifer:
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Applying Darcys law, we get the flow per unit width
Applications
There is a water divide at which the flow is zero and the water table is at the maximum value

Two rivers are located 1,000 m apart and fully penetrate an unconfined aquifer of K=0.5 m/day. The mean annual rainfall and evaporation are 15 cm/yr and 10 cm/yr, respectively. The water elevations in rivers 1 and 2 are 20 and 18 m, respectively a) Determine the location and height of the water divide b) Determine the flow across the aquifer at river locations per m width of each river
Example [1]
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w=15-10=5 cm/yr 20 m 18 m K=0.5 m/d 1,000 m
Example [1]
Example [1]
Location of water divide = 361.2 m
Height of water divide = 20.9 m
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Example [1]
Left river x = 0 and Q = -0.0495 m2/d Right river x = 1,000 and Q = 0.08745 m2/d

w=15-10=5 cm/yr 20 m 18 m -0.0495 m2/d hmax=20.9 m 1,000 m 0.08745 m2/d
Example [1]
361.2 m
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Example [2]
The figure shows an unconfined aquifer with a hydraulic conductivity K (m/year) and an effective porosity ne (-) The aquifer is bounded by two rivers with a distance L (m). If the travel time between the two rivers is t1 where hB > hA, what would be the travel time t2 if the distance is doubled?
River A hA
River B
hB
L
Example [2]
Travel time t 1 = n L2 distance L L = = = e velocity v K h Kh L ne
When distance is doubled
n e ( 2 L) 2 4n e L2 Travel time t 2 = = Kh Kh
From the two equations
t 2 = 4t1
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Example [3]
Consider flow in an unconfined aquifer. The aquifer is recharged at a rate and its hydraulic conductivity is 20 m/day. Answer the following: Estimate the critical recharge rate 1 in m/day for which the spring in the figure starts flowing
Example [3]
First of all, find the analytical expression that provides the value of recharge in terms of the remainder of the parameters. Thus:
2 h = h1 2 ( h1 h2 2) x + ( L x )x L K
2 2 2 2 = K( h1 L + xh1 xh 2 + h L)
xL( L x )
In order for the spring to start flowing, the water table elevation at the spring location should hit the ground surface. Thus, h = 60 m, x = 1,000 m and the remainder of the parameters are as in the figure and question Plug in and 1 > 0.007375 m/d
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Example [3]
If the head in River 2 became 50 m, then what would be the critical recharge rate 2 in m/day for which the spring starts flowing Again, from the above equation, we get 2 > 0.0055 m/d
Example [3]
If the recharge was set to zero, then what would be the head in River 1 for which the spring starts flowing given that the head in River 2 is 25 m For the water table elevation with no recharge, the analytical expression is given below:
2 h = h1
2 h2 ( h1 2) x L
h1 =
2 ( L x )( xh 2 2 + h L) Lx Thus h1 = 65.907 m
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Example [4]
The figure depicts a cross-sectional view of an unconfined aquifer of length 1,350 m
Example [4]
The figure depicts the distributions of water table elevation and flow per unit width across the aquifer. Negative flows indicate a flow in the negative direction of x (flow toward River 1). For this aquifer, answer the following:
27 24
h (m) and Q' (m2/day
21 18 15 12 9 6 3 0 -3 0 -6 150 300 450 600 750 900 1050 1200 1350 h (m) Q' (m2/day)
x (m) from River 1

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Example [4]
Find the distance d at which a water divide exists Water divide occurs at Q = 0. Therefore, from the provided figure, the maximum water table is when Q intersects the x-axis or at d = 640 m
Example [4]
What is the recharge rate in m/day? Recharge (w) equals the total baseflow to the rivers. Thus, from the figure, at x = 0, Q = 6 m2/day and when x = 1,350 m then Q = 7 m2/day Therefore, total baseflow = 6 + 7 = 13 m2/day and recharge is w 1,350 = 13 and w = 0.00963 m/d
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Example [4]
What is the approximate hydraulic conductivity? From Darcys law, we know that:
Q' = Kh
h x
At x = 0, then h = 15 m, and the gradient in the vicinity of river 1 computed at some distance is:
17 15 = 0.04 50 Plug this in the above equation, -6 = K 15 0.04

K = 10 m/day
Example [5]
A rectangular unconfined aquifer has a length of 2,500 m and a width of 1,000 m. The area receives an annual uniformly distributed recharge of R The aquifer has particle and bulk densities of 2,600 and 1,800 kg/m3, respectively The aquifer is bounded by two rivers; River [1] at x=0 (left) and River [2] at x=2,500. River stages are 10 and 8 m for River [1] and River [2], respectively and aquifer hydraulic conductivity is 18 m/day Water divide is at 1,205 m. The hydraulic gradient at River [1] is 0.02 m/m. For this scenario, answer the following questions:
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Example [5]
Compute the recharge (R) From Darcy's law we have Q = K A I thus the flow at x = 0 is 18(101,000) (0.02) = 3,600 m3/day. From the mass balance we know that flow at x = 0 comes from recharge to the left of the water divide or RAs = 3,600 where As is the surface area perpendicular to the recharge. Thus:
R=
3,600 m = 0.003 1,205 1,000 day

Example [5]
What is the maximum head in the aquifer?
2 h max = h 1 2 (h 1 h2 R 2) d + ( L d )d = L K
10 2
0.003 10 2 8 2 1,205 + (2,500 1,205) 1,205 = 18.5 m 2,500 18
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Example [5]
What is the approximate travel time between a location at x=1,500 m and River [2] assuming that the effective porosity equals the total porosity
HYDROLOGY
[11-8]
Well Hydraulics Unsteady State Analysis

Mohammad N. Almasri
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Introduction
What is well hydraulics? Concentrates on understanding the processes in effect when one or more wells are pumping from an aquifer. This for instance considers the analysis of drawdown due to pumping with time and distance Importance of well hydraulics Groundwater withdrawal from aquifers are important to meet the water demand. Therefore, we need to understand well hydraulics to design a pumping strategy that is sufficient to furnish the adequate amounts of water
Basic Assumptions
The potentiometric surface of the aquifer is horizontal prior to start of pumping The aquifer is homogeneous and isotropic All flow is radial toward the well Groundwater flow is horizontal The pumping well fully penetrates the aquifer
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Steady versus Transient

Steady state implies that the drawdown in head is a function of location only Transient state implies that the drawdown in head is a function of location and time Thus h = f(r) in case of steady state h = f(r,t) in case of transient state
Radial Flow to a Well in Confined Aquifers
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Unsteady Radial Flow in a Confined Aquifer

Solution to Thies equation Well function
Propagation of Cone of Depression with Time

0 0.0 2.5 s (m) 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 17.5 20.0 Distance from well (m) 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
t=0.0001 days t=0.001 days t=0.01 days t=0.1 days t=1 days t=10 days
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Propagation of Cone of Depression with Distance from Well

30 25 Drawdown (m) 20 15 10 5 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Time (days)
Unsteady Radial Flow in a Confined Aquifer Example

A well is pumping from a confined aquifer at a rate of 10,000 m3/day. T and S of the aquifer are 1,000 m2/day and 0.0001, respectively. Find the drawdown at t = 10 days at a location 100 from the well
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Unsteady Radial Flow in a Confined Aquifer Example

Compute u = (100 100 0.0001)/(4 1,000 10) = 2.5 10-5 Compute the well function W(u) = -0.5772 ln (2.5 10-5) = 10 Compute the drawdown s = [10,000/(4 3.14 1,000)] 10 = 7.95 m
HYDROLOGY
[11-9]
Well Hydraulics Method of Superposition

Mohammad N. Almasri
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Method of Superposition
The principle of superposition can be used in multiple well systems and in situations of multiple pumping rates By applying the superposition method, the outcome from the entire system is characterized by the summation of the outcomes from the different systems comprising the entire system
Multiple Well System
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Multiple Well System

Where the cones of depression of two nearby pumping wells overlap, one well is said to interfere with another From the principle of superposition, the drawdown at any point in the area of influence caused by the discharge of several wells is equal to the sum of the drawdowns caused by each well individually
Multiple Well System Example

Four wells are used to depressurize a confined aquifer underlying an excavation for a building project The wells are located 60 m from the center of the excavation at corners of a square The radius of each well is 0.3 m, the transmissivity of the aquifer is 50 m2/d, and the storage coefficient is 0.001 What discharge from each well is required if the piezometric head is to be lowered 20 m at the center of the excavation within 30 days? What will be the drawdown at each well?
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The drawdown at the center equals the summation of drawdowns at the center due to each pumping well s (center, t) = s1(center, t) + s2(center, t) + s3(center, t) + s4(center, t) or Using Theis solution s (center, t) = Q1 W(u1)/4T + Q2 W(u2)/4T + Q3 W(u3)/4T + Q4 W(u4)/4T
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From Theis solution for confined aquifers under transient conditions of pumping, we have For r=60 m, t=30 days, and T=50 m2/day we get u=0.0006 and W(u)=6.84. Total drawdown caused by the four wells = 20 m. Therefore, each well brings about a drawdown of s = 20/4=5 m Thus, Q = 459.34 m3/day
HYDROLOGY
Capture Zone Analysis
Mohammad N. Almasri
[11-10]
74
What is a Capture Zone?

A capture zone is the area contributing flow to a particular well
600 500 400 y (m)
Stagnation point
300 200 100 0 -200 -100 0 -100 -200 -300 -400 -500 -600 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Capture zone width
Well
x (m)

A prior knowledge of the capture zones is essential to understand the potential impacts to a drinking water well in the event of a contamination inside the capture zone. Thus, this analysis is part of the wellhead protection plan This analysis reveals the area where it is necessary to restrict land use within a capture zone of a water supply well Capture zone analysis is also important in aquifer remediation using pump-and-treat systems (containment)
75
Capture Zone Analysis The Use in Plume Containment

Extract the contaminated groundwater, do treatment to reduce pollutant levels, and inject water back into the aquifer or release to surface area Possible questions in this regard are the following: Optimum number of pumping wells Well location Optimum pumping rate for each well Where to inject the treated groundwater into the aquifer
76

Steady-State
Stagnation point
B is the aquifer thickness xL is the location of the stagnation point and yL is the maximum width
Q is the pumping rate i is the gradient U is Darcy flux

77

Steady-State Example
Q variable, K = 5.7 m/d, i = 0.001, B = 10 m
450
y (m)
350 250 150 50

x (m)
Q=50 m3/d Q=40 m3/d Q=30 m3/d
-50 -200 0 -150 -250 -350 -450
200
400
600
800
1,000
1,200
1,400
Capture Zone Analysis Example [2]

Shown in the Figure is a contamination plume present in a shallow confined aquifer having a thickness of 10 m, a hydraulic conductivity of 10-4 m/sec, an effective porosity of 0.2, and a storativity of 310-5 The hydraulic gradient for the regional flow system is 0.002 The maximum allowable drawdown for wells in the aquifer is 7 m Given this information, design an optimum pumping system
78

Values of B and U are required for the calculation. B is given as 10 m, but U needs to be calculated from the Darcy equation: U = l0-40.002 = 210-7 m/sec Now we are ready to work with the type curves. Superposition of the type curve for one well on the plume (see the figure) provides a Q/BU curve of about 2,500. Using this number and the values of B and U, the single-well pumping rate is: Q = BU(Q/BU) = 10210-72,500 = 510-3 m3/sec

A check is required to determine whether this pumping rate can be supported for the aquifer. The Cooper-Jacob equation provides the drawdown at the well assuming r = 0.2 m and the pumping period is one year. Now, drawdown is 9.85 m Even without accounting for well loss, the calculated drawdown exceeds the 7 m available Thus a multiple well system is necessary
79

Superposing the plume on the two-well-type curve provides a Q/BU value of 1,200, which in turn gives a Q for each of the two wells of 10(210-7)1200 or 2.410-3 m3/sec The optimum distance between wells is Q/(BU) or 2.410-3/[10(210-7)] = 382 m We check the predicted drawdown at each well. Because of the symmetry, the drawdown in each well is the same

The total drawdown at one of the wells includes the contribution of that well pumping plus the second one 382 m away
The calculated drawdown s is 6.57 m, which is less than the available drawdown However, well loss should be considered, which makes the two-well scheme unacceptable
80

Moving to a three-well scheme, Q/BU is 800 (see the figure), which translates to a pumping rate of 1.610-3 m3/sec for each well Carrying out the drawdown calculation for three wells located 1.26Q/(BU) or 320 m apart provides an estimate of 5.7 m for the center well, which is comfortably less than the available drawdown Thus we have been able to ascertain the need for three wells, located 320 m apart, and each pumped at 1.610-3 m3/sec
81

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HYDROLOGY

[11] Fall 2007 Groundwater Hydrology Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

[11] Fall 2007 Groundwater Hydrology Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

Vertical Distribution of Subsurface Water

[11] Fall 2007 Groundwater Hydrology Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

Water Table Saturated Zone

Groundwater (Phreatic Water)

[11] Fall 2007 Groundwater Hydrology Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

Water Table Saturated Zone

Groundwater (Phreatic Water)

[11] Fall 2007 Groundwater Hydrology Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

Intermediate Vadose Zone

[11] Fall 2007 Groundwater Hydrology Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

Confining Beds and Covers

[11] Fall 2007 Groundwater Hydrology Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

[11] Fall 2007 Groundwater Hydrology Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

[11] Fall 2007 Groundwater Hydrology Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

[11] Fall 2007 Groundwater Hydrology Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

Hydraulic Conductivity and Permeability

[11] Fall 2007 Groundwater Hydrology Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

[11] Fall 2007 Groundwater Hydrology Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

Soil Structure and Permeability

[11] Fall 2007 Groundwater Hydrology Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

We need to find (dynamic viscosity) and (density) at 25C

0.89 103 K= 1.36 105 10 2 = 1.237 108 m 2 g 997 9.81

[11] Fall 2007 Groundwater Hydrology Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

Apparently, transmissivity varies in unconfined aquifers while it is constant in confined aquifers

Storage Coefficient in Aquifers

Storage Coefficient in Aquifers

[11] Fall 2007 Groundwater Hydrology Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

Storage Coefficient in Unconfined Aquifers

[11] Fall 2007 Groundwater Hydrology Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

Storage Coefficient in Unconfined Aquifers

Storage Coefficient in Unconfined Aquifers

Storage Coefficient in Unconfined Aquifers

[11] Fall 2007 Groundwater Hydrology Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

Specific Yield and Specific Retention

[11] Fall 2007 Groundwater Hydrology Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

Confined versus Unconfined

[11] Fall 2007 Groundwater Hydrology Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

[11] Fall 2007 Groundwater Hydrology Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University

[11] Fall 2007 Groundwater Hydrology Mohammad N. Almasri, PhD

An-Najah National University