Topic: Fiber Fineness

Definition Fibers exhibit variety of cross sectional shapes and they also vary in section along their length and vary from fiber to fiber. Fiber fineness denotes the size of the cross sectional dimensions of the fibers. As the cross sectional features are irregular, direct determination of the area of cross section is difficult and often laborious. Some dimensional features such as swollen diameter, ribbon width etc. can be determined directly and sometimes used to specify the fineness of cotton fiber. The linear density or weight per unit length of the fiber is the more commonly used index of fineness. In England, the linear density is called either the fiber weight per centimeter or hair weight per centimeter and is usually expressed in units of 10-8 g/cm or 10-5 mg/cm. the unit commonly used in America is micrograms per inch (10-6). In Tex system, the linear density of cotton fibers is expressed in terms of milli Tex which is the weight in milligrams of one kilometer length of fiber. It should be noted that it is quite possible to have fibers with identical linear densities but different cross sectional areas. For example, a fiber with a high density will have a smaller cross sectional area than a fiber of low density.

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Fig: Wool Fiber cross sections at high magnification illustrating the range of shapes that occur

Micronaire is common measurement that is used as a reflection of fiber fineness and maturity. This is originally developed to estimate the fiber fineness in terms of micrograms per inch for cotton, the value do not signify only the fineness value. It is integrated value of both fineness and maturity when used for cotton fiber. Fiber length and strength relate directly and indirectly with fiber maturity and fineness. From the spinners perspective, both fiber maturity and fineness are key parameters with sometimes opposing effects on mill productivity and yarn quality. For example, yarn is specified in terms of its weight per unit length and fiber fineness determines the number of fibers in a given yarn cross section. If fibers are finer, more fibers can be accommodated in the cross section of a given yarn, which improves spinning efficiency and yarn evenness. Spinning larger numbers of finer fibers together results in stronger, more uniform yarns than if they had been made up of fewer, thicker fibers. Fiber Fineness: Bradford Count and Micron Count International Fleeces uses both the Bradford Count and Micron Count whenever possible when describing their fibers. These are terms that refer to the fineness of the fiber. Having a numerical idea of what project a fiber might be suited for may help a spinner select an appropriate fiber. Of course, we are artists and may want to leave the numbers to the mathematicians. Fiber Fineness: Bradford Count and Micron Count International Fleeces uses both the Bradford Count and Micron Count whenever possible when describing our fibers. These are terms that refer to the fineness of the fiber. Having a numerical idea of what project a fiber might be suited for may help a spinner select an appropriate fiber. Of course, we are artists and may want to leave the numbers to the mathematicians. Bradford Count
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The Bradford count was developed in England in the town of Bradford as a way to determine the fineness of fleeces when all people had to rely on was their eyes. The Bradford count refers to how many 560 yard skeins can be produced from one pound of combed top. Micron Count A micron is actually a micrometer, which is one millionth of a meter. This measurement is used to describe the diameter of a single fiber of wool. A small sample of wool is analyzed in a Laserscan or some such device. As this is a physical measurement, the results should be very accurate.

Fiber Fineness Table by Bradford Count and Micron Count Fineness Fine Wool Medium Wool Coarse Wool Very Coarse Wool Micron Count 17-20 22-29 31-34 36-40 Bradford Count 64s 62s-50s 48s-44s 40s-36s

Other Fibers Fineness Table by Micron Count

Fibers
Alpaca Angora Bombyx Silk Camel Cashmere Cotton Guanaco Hemp Linen Llama Mohair Quiviut Tussah Silk Vicuna

Microns
17-35 12-16 10-13 15-22 14-18.5 13-21 14-18 18-23 15-17 22-29 25-45 14-19 28-30 13-16
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Yak

18-20

Importance of fiber fineness

Fiber fineness is another important quality characteristic which plays a prominent part in determining the spinning value of cottons. If the same count of yarn is spun from two varieties of cotton, the yarn spun from the variety having finer fibres will have a larger number of fibres in its crosssection and hence it will be more even and strong than that spun from the sample with coarser fibres. In general fiber fineness is important due to the following factors: It affects the Stiffness of the Fabric As the fiber fineness increases, resistance to bending decreases. It means the fabric made from yarn of finer fiber is less stiff in feel. It also drapes better. It Affects the Torsional Rigidity of the Yarn Torsional rigidity means ability to twist. As fiber fineness increases, torsional rigidity of the yarn reduces proportionally. Thus fibers can be twisted easily during spinning operation. Also there will be less snarling and kink formation in the yarn when the fine fibers are used. Reflection of Light Finer fibers also determine the luster of the fabric. It is so because they there are so many number of fibers per unit area that they produce a soft sheen. This is different from hard glitter produced by the coarser fibers. Also the apparent depth of the shade will be lighter in case of fabrics made with finer fibers than in case of coarser fibers. Lower Irregularity of Yarn The irregularity in the yarn depends upon the average number of the fiber in the cross section. With a greater number of fibers in the cross section,
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the basic irregularity is reduced. The average number of fibers in the cross section for given count of yarn will depend upon the fiber fineness.

Absorption of Dyes The amount of dye absorbed depends upon the amount of surface area accessible for dye out of a given volume of fibers. Thus finer fibers lead to quicker exhaustion of dyes than coarser fibers. Ease In Spinning Process Finer fibers lead to more fiber cohesion because the number of surfaces is more so cohesion due to friction is higher. Also finer fibers lead to less amount of twist because of the same increased force of friction. Which means yarns can be spun finer with the same amount of twist as compared to coarser fibers. This also means that the yarns will be softer. Uniformity of Yarn and Hence Uniformity in the Fabric Uniformity of yarn is directly proportional to the number of fibers in the cross fibers. Hence finer the fiber, the more uniform is the yarn. When the yarn in uniform it leads to other desirable properties such as better tensile strength, extensibility and luster. It also leads to fewer breakages in spinning and weaving. Uniformity of Strength If the given count is spun, from a fine fibers produced more uniform and stronger yarn compare with coarse fibers Uniformity of Count IF the fibers are fine the numbers of fibers in the cross section is more and irregularity is less, yarn counts are more uniform. Less Twist Broadly speaking the finer fiber, the greater or total surface area available for inter fiber contact and accordingly less twist is needed to provide the
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necessary inter fiber friction. This is reflected in the twist factors used for spinning different types of material. Less Neps From the finer fibers produced yarns appears less neps and good look

Principle of fiber fineness measurement For Cotton:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Gravimetric method Optical method Air flow method Uni-dimensional method Bi-dimensional method Vibrating String Method

For Wool:
1. Direct measurement 2. Optical microscopy: The projection microscope is the only primary reference method for determination of the diameter distribution characteristics of wool. It is the reference method against which all other methods are now calibrated. However due to the tediousness of the technique and the high cost incurred in achieving an acceptable precision, more rapid and cost effective instrument is increasingly being used for routine measurements. 3. Gravimetry: The method relies on weighing a definite number of fibers cut to a certain length and expressing the mean diameter in terms of the weight of a standard length at a standard regain. Subsequent applications of the gravimetric method use the relationship between mass, volume and density to define the fiber fineness in terms of cross-sectional area. Its basic limitation rests with the measuring or the length of the individual fibers. 4. Optical diffraction

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5. Porosity: The flow of air through a bulk assembly of wool fibers with a standardized mass and volume is related to the average diameter of the fibers. This fact is the basis of the Airflow Instrument. Porosity of bulk assemblies of fibers is actually related to the surface area of the fibers. For a given mass, fine fibers have a larger surface area than coarser fibers. 6. Harmonics: Standing waves can be generated in a string by placing the string in the path of an oscillating sound source. If the string is maintained at a constant tension and length and the frequency of the sound source is varied the string will be observed to vibrate, with a standing waveform observed along the fiber at specific frequencies, depending upon the diameter, density ,tension and the length. The principle was first applied to the measurement of wool fiber diameter in 1947. Its major limitation is that it is restricted to single fiber measurement and consequently has found little favor since. 7. Radiometry: Radioactive instruments utilize the phenomenon associated with the decay of radioactive substances, and the emissions of sub atomic particles that is associated with this process to monitor either rates of decay or the concentration of the source of the emissions. In measurement the diameter of wool fibers this technology relies upon the adsorption of radioactive isotopes on the surface of wool fibers, then measuring the concentration of these isotopes in a solution in which the wool is subsequently dissolved. Thus it is actually measuring the surface area of the fibers. 8. Conductometry: Conductometry is a general term, encompassing a range of measurement systems, which utilize the phenomenon of the electrical conductivity of solids and liquids. A Coulter Counter uses conductance to measure particle size. A suspension of particles, suspended in a conducting liquid, which is inert with respect to the particle, is metered through a small orifice. Electrodes are located on each side of the opening, and the electrical resistance of the path from one electrode to the other varies proportionality to the volume of the particle passing through the orifice. More exactly the resistance changes proportionality to volume of conducting liquid displaced by the particle while it is passing through the resistance path.

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9. Sedimentomentry: Sedimentometry is the measurement of rates of settlement of particles or fibers in a fluid, where the differential setting of the particles or fibers is a function of their dimensional characteristics.
10. Photometry

Air-Flow Method (Micronaire Instrument) The resistance offered to the flow of air through a plug of fibers is dependent upon the specific surface area of the fibers. Fineness tester has been evolved on this principle for determining fineness of cotton. The specific surface area which determines the flow of air through a cotton plug is dependent not only upon the linear density of the fibers in the sample but also upon their maturity. Hence the micronaire readings have to be treated with caution particularly when testing samples varying widely in maturity. In the micronaire instrument, a weighed quantity of 3.24 gm of well opened cotton sample is compressed into a cylindrical container of fixed dimensions. Compressed air is forced through the sample, at a definite pressure and the volume-rate of flow of air is measured by a meter type flow meter. The sample for Micronaire test should be well opened cleaned and thoroughly mixed (by hand fluffing and opening method). Out of the various air-flow instruments, the Micronaire is robust in construction, easy to operate and presents little difficulty as regards its maintenance.

Measurement of fiber fineness by vibroscope Several instrument known as vibroscope have been designed to measure the linear density of fibers and have been described in various journals. A schematic diagram of the instrument is shown in the figure.

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The weighted specimen is clamped to the vibrator at A and passes over the knife edge K. The clamp and knife edge are connected to a 150V source so that the specimen is electrically charged. Transverse vibration of the specimen will therefore induce a charge in a brass screw S situated midway between the clamp and the knife edge and spaced 1mm from the specimen. The screw thus acts as a transducer; if the signal from it is amplified suitably and fed back to the vibrator, an oscillatory loop is formed, thus causing the specimen to vibrate at its resonant frequency. The voltage across the vibrator can then be fed into the frequency measuring circuit and the frequency oof the oscillation indicated on the meter. It would be possible to calibrate the meter directly in denier instead of frequency, but to do so would restrict the range of the instrument. To ensure that a range from 0. 4 to 450 denier can be accommodated several weights are used, the meter scale from 0 to 100, and a calibration chart for each weight, the curves being plotted from equation.

M=Wg/2f2 9 105 [
Where, R= radius of specimen l= length E= Youngs modulus

( )]

PHOTOMETRY
Measurement of Wool Fineness Principle
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Photometry is the analytical use of light (luminous) intensity to measure the physical and chemical properties of solids, liquids and gases, and mixtures or solutions and the measurement of fiber fineness. Wavelengths in the infrared, visible and ultra-violet portions of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum are commonly used in photometric measurements. Photometry is probably the most extensively used of all analytical technologies. In principle the application of photometry to the measurement of wool fineness is very simple. Photometers consist of a source of light of constant radiance, a sample cell and a photo-detector. In the specific case of wool the measurement of fineness is based on the principle of light scattering and presumes that the wool fibre is opaque. The impact of the light beam on the photo-detector in the absence of any interference will generate a detectable electrical signal. If a fibre at right angles to the beam intersects the beam the fibre will project a shadow onto the photo-detector, due to the light incident on the fiber being scattered. The shadow of the fibre will reduce the signal from the photo-detector by an amount that is proportional to the projected area of the fiber. If the length of the fibre intersecting the beam is constant then the output from the photo-detector will be proportional to the transverse dimension of the fibre. When measuring wool fibre diameter the critical step required for photometric instruments is a technique for aligning the fibres so that they are always at right angles or near right angles to the beam of light, and of ensuring that the orientations of the individual fibres across the beam are similar. There is an extensive literature describing aspects of photometric techniques for the measurement of the diameter distribution characteristics of wool i.e. Mean Fibre Diameter (MFD); Standard Deviation of Diameter (SD); and Coefficient of Variation of Diameter (CVD). The earliest development of a photometric instrument began in the United States. The issue of aligning the fibres appropriately was resolved in this instrument by incorporating a device for aligning fibres on a microscope slide called the Fibroalineator.

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Fibroalineator was an extension of a technique first reported by Larose (1947), for aligning fibres on a microscope slide by applying an electric field across the slide. In 1957 the Sheep and Fur Animal Branch, Animal Husbandry Research Division, ARS, USDA in Beltsville Maryland commenced work on a prototype photometric instrument, which incorporated the Fibroalineator. The instrument became known as the Electronic Fibre Fineness Indicator (EFFI).

A=lamp B=condensing lens C=polarizing filter D=electrodes E= stage drive motor F= H.V transformer G= microscope H=polarized filter I=slit J & K & L=prism M=photomultiplier

Fig: Diagram of the optical system of the EFFI

The instrument was an optical, mechanical and electronic system designed to automatically scan a microscope slide on which cut wool fibres had been mounted. The prepared slide was placed on a movable microscope stage equipped with high voltage electrodes, which by means of electrostatic forces caused the fibres to align parallel to the electrostatic field the principle of the Fibroalineator. A beam of light from an incandescent lamp
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passed through a condensing lens and then a polarizing filter. The polarized light then passed through the wool fibres on the slide on which the fibres were aligned by the electrostatic field. The wool fibres being bifringent rotate the light that passes through them. A microscope was located below the slide and magnified the image of the fibre before the light beam passed through a second polarizing filter located below the microscope. This filter was mounted at right angles to the first, and blocked the unrotated light, allowing the rotated light to pass. Thus the microscope projected an image of the fibres against a black background onto a slit. Leaping Forward with Laser Optics Lynch and Michie (1976) described the design principles, construction and operation of an instrument designed for the rapid automatic measurement of fibre fineness distribution, and of course mean diameter. The instrument was based on the electro-optical measurement of the amount of light scattered from a directed beam generated by a laser by fibre snippets. The fibre snippets were transported through the beam dispersed in a moving liquid.

Schematic of the method of fibre snippet presentation for measurement. The snippets are transported in a liquid through a glass conduit of square section through which the light beam passes.

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Fig: Sirolan laser Scan

The instrument utilized the unique correlation between the amount of light scattered from a directed light beam by a fibre and the fineness of the fibre. By using a very low angle of detection, the instrument avoided any problems arising from the fact that wool fibre is non-absorbing of light and is irregular in geometrical and material properties. Explaining Differences between Laser scan and Airflow For more than 25 years the Airflow had been the industrys accepted baseline for commercial and technical evaluation of wool fibre fineness. This has been in the full knowledge that the Airflow does not closely emulate the Projection Microscope in all instances. Airflow contains several clauses detailing instances where measurements provided by the instrument may not be reliable. Notwithstanding this research continued, directed and developing a better understanding of the differences observed, particularly for ultrafine wool. Sommerville (1997) investigated differences between Airflow and Laser scan for superfine and ultra-fine wool. He confirmed that small differences existed, but the magnitude was diameter dependent, and for the wools examined the Laser scan gave a coarser result. Sommerville (1998) repeated his earlier experiments using this new calibration function developed by Irvine & Barry (1997) and showed that
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differences from Laser scan still existed, but for wool less than about 15.5 microns the Laser scan was now finer than the Airflow.

Determining the Fineness of Bast Fibres like Flax or Hemp For processing flax or hemp fibres the properties of the raw material like the fineness have to be known. Since the use of bast fibres is rapidly increasing e.g. for technical textiles, fast, objective and reliable methods for measurement have to be found. The complexity of the structure of bast fibres is unique. As can be seen in the first figure typical bast fibre consists of several cemented elementary fibres, so that there is no uniform shape of the cross-section.

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Fig. 1: Cross sections of retted hemp

Different methods are typically used for the determination of flax or hemp fibre fineness: Gravimetric measurement Airflow methods Image analysis on cross sections With the OFDA, developed for fineness measurement on wool tops, another possible instrument for the measurement of the fineness distribution of bast fibres is given. Advantages of this instrument are: The entire distribution and not only the average fineness can be measured A very high number of fibres can be measured in a short time The influence of the technician on the results is minor because measurements are done automatically

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Instruments for measuring fiber fineness

The Arealometer A sample of raw cotton is prepared in the form of a cylindrical plug and its resistance to air flow is determined at two degrees of compression. Two measures of specific surface are obtained, and from them estimates of mean specific surface, mean fiber weight, and maturity are derived. The arealometer is a portable and self contained instrument with which it is possible, in about 15 min, to measure the specific surface, the hair weight and the maturity of a sample of raw cotton. For reasons which remain to be more fully investigated, it is not suitable for maturity tests on material that has been processed or mechanically handled. Mean specific surface and mean hair weight are determined with an accuracy that is probably not exceeded by any other method, however laborious. A geometric measure of maturity is obtained which, though not claimed to be as accurately determined as hair weight and specific surface, seems to be no less reliable than that obtained by the much more subjective method of deconvolution counts.
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The Speedar This is an American instrument and is designed to measure the specific surface quickly. Any weight of sample between 5 and 10 g may be tested. Adjustment to a fixed weight is not required; therefore an increase in the speed of testing is achieved. The information produced by the Speeder is similar to that furnished by the W.I.R.A and Micronaire. The Port- Ar A portable instrument testing an 8 g sample and producing micronaire value and equivalent fiber thickness. The latter is defined as H=2000/A where, H=equivalent fiber thickness A= Specific surface in mm2 per mm3

The CottonScan Instrument This approach to measuring fibre fineness on a Cottonscan instrument is based on the direct method of measuring the total length of a known mass of fibre snippets to directly calculate the mass per unit length. The fibre snippets prepared and weighed are suspended in an aqueous medium within the instrument before introducing them into the measurement cell. The suspended snippets are then imaged, and image analysis is used to determine the total snippet length within the image. It is more reliable to measure the suspension of the sub-sample than the total volume in order to determine the length of fibre snippets within the sample. The average fibre fineness (linear density), Tt, of the cotton sample is calculated by an equation considering the device constants: Tt = M*(v/V)/l A technical requirement for the snippet preparation device is its ability to deliver snippets that can be mixed into a uniform suspension within the

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CottonScan instrument. The CottonScan instrument with the snippet preparation device should be both easy to operate and user-friendly. A sample (approximately 10 g) of lint is manually inserted into the chamber. The movement of the piston at a fixed pressure compresses the lint sample, and then in the second action cylindrical cutters (each approximately 2 mm in diameter) extend from the face of the piston to collect a core of snippets from the cotton lint sample. A set of 8 cylindrical cutters are arranged in the piston assembly so that the total mass of snippets collected from one cycle of the preparer is approximately 80-100 mg i.e. adequate for the CottonScan instrument. The snippet preparation module is driven by an external compressed air supply. One additional feature of the CottonScan instrument is that if the Micronaire value of a cotton sample is known and inputted into the instrument with the sample details, the software automatically calculates the maturity of the sample on the basis of the fibre fineness and Micronaire values measured.

Assessment of cotton fibre fineness by improved version of Statex Finemat and Uster - AFIS

Principle

Fig: Statex - Finemat

The samples were conditioned in standard atmospheric condition for 24 hours before testing to avoid moisture variation.
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Statex Finemat
In this technique, the proven double compression method is used with advanced sensor and special software to predict the degree of fibre wall thickness and from that fineness and maturity parameters were estimated

Uster - AFIS
In this instrument cotton sample are scanned for estimating fineness and maturity by using the optical measurement technique to assess the degree of wall thickening

Results and Discussion

Fineness values estimated by different instruments have been discussed and highlighted.

Fineness In these figures the shape of the curve is same for all the three instrumental evaluation viz:- Shirley FMT, Uster- AFIS and Statex Finemat. This clearly indicates the high correlation among different instruments. In the case of position of the curve, the fineness estimated by AFIS and improved version of Finemat are close to each other while the fineness estimated by Shirley FMT are away from AFIS and Statex Finemat. The results clearly suggest that one can use Finemat for faster estimation of fineness of bulk sample combined with HVI or separately and the estimated results are close to AFIS Selection of instrument for estimating fineness and maturity should be based on the requirement of the industry. There is not much variation in fineness and maturity estimated on single fibre by AFIS and one estimated on bulk sample by the
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improved version of Statex -Finemat. Statex-Finemat can be used for faster estimation of fineness and maturity of all species of cotton and their hybrids (from low to high maturity )

Difference between the two methods of estimation of fibre fineness and maturity Estimation by AFIS Fineness and maturity are estimated for single fibre from the degree of wall thickening by optical measurement technique. Estimation by Statex Finemat In this technique, the proven double compression method is used with advanced sensor and special software to predict the degree of fibre wall thickness and from that fineness and maturity parameters were estimated. Fineness and maturity distribution There is no possibility of of a sample are possible. distribution of fineness /maturity in this instrument because the estimation is made on bulk sample. Trash and foreign matter present in The degree of opening and trash the sample will be removed before content present in the sample has an estimation by the saw tooth opening influence in measurement of roller provided in this instrument. fineness and maturity. For higher accuracy, trash separator is required to clean and open the sample before estimation. The fineness and maturity Fineness and maturity estimation estimation are rather slow are made at a faster rate and can be compared to air flow technique. so combined with HVI for faster only few samples can be tested in a estimation with other fibre day properties Over estimation of maturity in the Even hybrid cotton possessing low case of hybrid cotton (particularly maturity can be estimated correctly low maturity). Not suitable for estimation of Suitable for estimation of fineness fineness and maturity of colored and maturity of colored cotton cotton since optical measurement samples since color pigment in the technique will affect the light sample will not affect the air flow
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scattering angles due to selective absorption of light by color pigment present in the sample. Fineness and maturity estimated on single fibre are of more use to cotton breeder for selection of materials.

measurement For the mills the estimation made on bulk samples reported by this instrument will be more representative instead of individual fibre measurement

Other Fiber Fineness testing instruments

FIBER FINENESS TESTER:

Fiber fineness is exactly measured in terms of micronaire value. Measuring range: 2.2 to 8.0 micronaire from 3.24 / 5 grams of sample. This is based on airflow principle, measured by rotometer. Micro-filtered airflow and inbuilt calibration system ensures accuracy in results. Compact tabletop, portable design with auto ejection of tested sample. Cottonscope:

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Cottonscope is a fully automated microscope that captures colour images of cotton snippets in water. Maturity ratio and fibre fineness is measured in 25 seconds. It combines the unique technologies of SiroMat and OFDA.

Wool Fibre Fineness (Projection Microscope):

The principle of the method is the projection onto a screen of a lengthwise image of short pieces of fibre and the measurement and recording of the widths of these images by a graduated scale. The magnification used is 500x, the stage has motor driven controls for moving the slide linearly in two directions at right angles in a plane perpendicular to the optical axis. Calibration of the projection microscope is undertaken periodically with a certified micrometer scale, the method is applicable to woolen and worsted products at all stages from raw materials to yarns. The measurements from the test are input into a specially developed computer program to
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calculate the mean fibre diameter in microns, the standard deviation, coefficient of variation and confidence limits, a printout is supplied with the test report together with a fibre diagram. Micronaire Tester/Cotton Fineness Meter

KFY-1021 Vibration Fiber Fineness Tester Vibration Fiber Fineness Tester works based on the string vibration principle. First, it measures the natural vibration frequency of the fiber with known vibration fiber length and tensile force, then automatically calculates the linear density of the single fiber. The fineness measurement range is 0.6-40dtex.

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Fig: Vibration Fiber Fineness Tester

Technical Data (a) Fineness measurement range: (b) Fineness error: (c) Vibrating fiber length: (d) Length error: (e) Pretension clamp precision: (f) Frequency error: (g) Power: (h) Weight: (i) Size: 0.8 ~ 40 dtex; 2%; 20mm; 1%; 0.5%; 0.5%; 220V10%; about 10 kg; 393300320 (mm).

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