MCR3U Exam Review 1

Polynomials

A polynomial is an algebraic expression with real coefficients and non-negative integer exponents.

A polynomial with 1 term is called a monomial, 7 x .

A polynomial with 2 terms is called a binomial, 3 x 2 − 9 .
A polynomial with 3 terms is called a trinomial, 3 x 2 + 7 x − 9 .

The degree of the polynomial is determined by the value of the highest exponent of the variable in the
polynomial.
e.g. 3 x 2 + 7 x − 9 , degree is 2.

For polynomials with one variable, if the degree is 0, then it is called a constant.
If the degree is 1, then it is called linear.
If the degree is 2, then it is called quadratic.
If the degree is 3, then it is called cubic.

We can add and subtract polynomials by collecting like terms.

e.g. Simplify.
( ) (
5 x 4 − x 2 − 2 − x 4 − 2 x 3 + 3x 2 − 5 )
The negative in front of the brackets
applies to every term inside the brackets.
= 5x − x − 2 − x + 2 x − 3x + 5
4 2 4 3 2 That is, you multiply each term by –1.

= 5 x 4 − x 4 + 2 x 3 − x 2 − 3x 2 − 2 + 5
= 4 x 4 + 2 x3 − 4 x 2 + 3

To multiply polynomials, multiply each term in the first polynomial by each term in the second.

e.g. Expand and simplify.

(x 2
)(
+ 4 x2 − 2x + 3 )
= x 4 − 2 x 3 + 3x 2 + 4 x 2 − 8 x + 12
= x 4 − 2 x 3 + 7 x 2 − 8 x + 12

Factoring Polynomials

To expand means to write a product of polynomials as a sum or a difference of terms.

To factor means to write a sum or a difference of terms as a product of polynomials.

Factoring is the inverse operation of expanding.

Expanding 
( 2 x + 3)( 3x − 7 ) = 6 x 2 − 5 x − 21
 Factoring
Sum or
Product of difference of
polynomials terms
MCR3U Exam Review 2

Types of factoring:

Common Factors: factors that are common among each term.

e.g. Factor,
35m3n3 − 21m 2 n 2 + 56m 2 n Each term is divisible by .

(
= 7 m 2 n 5mn 2 − 3n + 8 )
Factor by grouping: group terms to help in the factoring process.
1+6x+9x2 is a perfect
e.g. Factor, Group 4mx – 4nx and square trinomial
A : 4mx + ny − 4nx − my ny – my, factor each B : 1+ 6x + 9x2 − 4 y2
group
= 4mx − 4nx + ny − my = (1 + 3 x) 2 − 4 y 2 Difference of squares
= 4 x( m − n ) + y ( n − m ) Recall n – m = –(m – n) = [(1 + 3 x) + 2 y ][(1 + 3 x) − 2 y ]
= 4 x( m − n ) − y ( m − n ) = (1 + 3 x + 2 y )(1 + 3 x − 2 y )
Common factor
= ( 4 x − y )( m − n )

Factoring ax 2 + bx + c
Find the product of ac. Find two numbers that multiply to ac and add to b.
e.g. Factor,
A : y 2 + 9 y + 14 Product = 14 = 2(7)
B : 3x 2 − 7 xy − 6 y 2 Product = 3(–6) = –18 = –9(2)
Sum = – 7 = –9 + 2
= y + 7 y + 2 y + 14 Sum = 9 = 2 + 7
2
= 3 x − 9 xy + 2 xy − 6 y
2 2
Decompose middle term –
= y ( y + 7) + 2( y + 7) = 3 x( x − 3 y ) + 2 y ( x − 3 y ) 7xy into –9xy + 2xy.
Factor by grouping.
= ( y + 2)( y + 7) = (3 x + 2 y )( x − 3 y )

Sometimes polynomials can be factored using special patterns.

Perfect square trinomial a 2 + 2ab + b 2 = (a + b)(a + b) or a 2 − 2ab + b 2 = (a − b)(a − b)

e.g. Factor,
A : 4 p 2 + 12 p + 9 B : 100 x 2 − 80 xy + 16 y 2
= (2 p + 3) 2 = 4(25 x 2 − 20 xy + 4 y 2 )
= 4(5 x − 2 y )(5 x − 2 y )

Difference of squares a 2 − b 2 = (a + b)(a − b)

e.g. Factor, 9 x 2 − 4 y 2 = (3 x + 2 y )(3 x − 2 y )

Things to think about when factoring:

• Is there a common factor?
• Can I factor by grouping?
• Are there any special patterns?
• Check, can I factor x 2 + bx + c ?
• Check, can I factor ax 2 + bx + c ?
MCR3U Exam Review 3

Rational Expressions
F
For polynomials F and G, a rational expression is formed when , G ≠ 0.
G
3x + 7
e.g.
21x + 14 x + 9
2

Simplifying Rational Expressions

e.g. Simplify and state the restrictions.
m2 − 9 ( m + 3)(m − 3)
= Factor the numerator and denominator.
m + 6m + 9 (m + 3)(m + 3)
2
Note the restrictions.
(m + 3)(m − 3)
= Simplify.
(m + 3)(m + 3)
m−3
= , m ≠ −3 State the restrictions.
m+3

Multiplying and Dividing Rational Expressions

e.g. Simplify and state the restrictions.
x2 − 9 x2 − 4x + 3
x2 + 7 x x 2 + 3x + 2 B: 2 ÷ 2
A: 2 × x + 5x + 4 x + 5x + 4
x − 1 x 2 + 14 x + 49
Factor. ( x + 3)( x − 3) ( x − 1)( x − 3) Factor.
x ( x + 7) ( x + 1)( x + 2) Note restrictions. = ÷
= × ( x + 4)( x + 1) ( x + 4)( x + 1) Note restrictions.
( x + 1)( x − 1) ( x + 7)( x + 7)
( x + 3)( x − 3) ( x + 4)( x + 1) Invert and multiply.
x ( x + 7) ( x + 1)( x + 2) Simplify. = ×
= × ( x + 4)( x + 1) ( x − 1)( x − 3) Note any new restrictions.
( x + 1)( x − 1) ( x + 7)( x + 7)
( x + 3)( x − 3) ( x + 4)( x + 1)
x( x + 2) State restrictions. = × Simplify.
= , x ≠ ±1, − 7 ( x + 4)( x + 1) ( x − 1)( x − 3)
( x − 1)( x + 7)
( x + 3)
= , x ≠ −4, ± 1, 3 State restrictions.
( x − 1)

Adding and Subtracting Rational Expressions

e.g. Simplify and state the restrictions.
3 5 Factor.
A: 2 + Factor.
Note restrictions.
x −4 x+2 Note restrictions. 2 3
Simplify if possible. B: − Simplify if possible.
3 5 x − xy xy − y 2
2
= +
( x − 2)( x + 2) x + 2 2 3 Find LCD.
Find LCD. = −
3 5( x − 2) x( x − y ) y ( x − y ) Write all terms
= + Write all terms using LCD.
( x − 2)( x + 2) ( x + 2)( x − 2) using LCD. 2y 3x
= −
3 + 5 x − 10 xy ( x − y ) xy ( x − y )
= Add.
( x + 2)( x − 2) 2 y − 3x Subtract.
= , x ≠ 0, y, y ≠ 0 State restrictions.
5x − 7 xy ( x − y )
= , x ≠ ±2 State restrictions.
( x + 2)( x − 2)

Note that after addition or subtraction it may be possible to factor the numerator and simplify the
expression further. Always reduce the answer to lowest terms.
 MCR3U Exam Review 4

Radicals

e.g. n
a, is called the radical sign, n is the index of the radical, and a is called the radicand.
3 is said to be a radical of order 2. 3
8 is a radical of order 3.

Like radicals: 5, 2 5, − 3 5 Unlike radicals: 5, 3 5, 3

Same order, like radicands
Different order Different radicands
Entire radicals: 8 , 16 , 29
Mixed radicals: 4 2 , 2 3 , 5 7

A radical in simplest form meets the following conditions:

For a radical of order The radicand contains The radicand contains The index of a radical
n, the radicand has no no fractions. no factors with must be as small as
factor that is the nth 3 3 2 negative exponents. possible.
power of an integer. = × 1
2 2 2 a −1 = 4
32 = 32
8 = 4× 2 a
Not 6 = 3
= 1 a
simplest = 2 ×2 2
22 = ×
form Simplest form
a a
=2 2 6
= a
Simplest form 22 =
Simplest a2
6 Simplest
= form
a
2 = form
a
Addition and Subtraction of Radicals
To add or subtract radicals, you add or subtract the coefficients of each radical.

e.g. Simplify.
2 12 − 5 27 + 3 40 = 2 4 × 3 − 5 9 × 3 + 3 4 × 10 Express each radical in simplest form.

( ) ( ) (
= 2 2 3 − 5 3 3 + 3 2 10 )
= 4 3 − 15 3 + 6 10 Collect like radicals. Add and subtract.

= −11 3 + 6 10

Multiplying Radicals

a × b = ab , a ≥ 0, b ≥ 0

e.g. Simplify.
( )(
2 +2 3 2 −3 3 = ) ( 2 )( 2 ) − ( 2 )(3 3 ) + (2 3 )( 2 ) − (2 3 )(3 3 ) Use the distributive property to expand

= 2 − 3 6 + 2 6 − 6( 3)
Multiply coefficients together. Multiply radicands together.
= 2 − 18 − 3 6 + 2 6
= −16 − 6 Collect like terms. Express in simplest form.
MCR3U Exam Review 5

Conjugates Opposite signs

(a ) ( )
b + c d and a b − c d are called conjugates.
Same terms Same terms

When conjugates are multiplied the result is a rational expression (no radicals).
e.g. Find the product.
( 5 +3 2 )( ) ( ) (
5 −3 2 = 5 − 3 2
2
) 2

= 5 − 9(2)
= 5 − 18
= −13

Dividing Radicals

e.g. Simplify.
a a
= , a, b∈ R, a ≥ 0, b ≥ 0 2 10 + 3 30 2 10 3 30
b b = +
5 5 5
10 30
=2 +3
5 5
= 2 2 +3 6

Prime Factorization
e.g. 180
Factor a number into its prime 3 60
factors using the tree diagram
method. 6 10
2 3 2 5

Exponent Rules

Rule Description Example

Product a m × a n = a m+ n 4 2 × 45 = 47
Quotient a m ÷ a n = a m−n 54 ÷ 52 = 52
Power of a power (a ) m n
= a m× n (3 )
2 4
= 38
Power of a quotient a
n
an 3 3
5 5

  = ,b ≠ 0   = 5
b bn 4 4
Zero as an exponent a0 = 1 70 = 1
Negative exponents 1 1
a −m = m , a ≠ 0 9 −2 = 2
a 9
Rational Exponents
( a) ( )
m 4
m 4
a n = n am = n
27 3 = 3 27 4 = 3
27
MCR3U Exam Review 6

e.g. Evaluate. e.g. Simplify.

−2
 b3  b3( −2)
(30
+3 )
2 −2
= (1 + 9 )
−2
Follow the order  −3  =
(2a −3 ) −2
Power of a quotient.
−2 of operations.  2a 
= 10 Evaluate
b −6
1 brackets first. = Power of a product.
= 2 2 −2 a −3( −2)
10
2 2 b −6
1 =
= a6
100
4
= 6 6
ab

Solving Exponential Equations

e.g. Solve for x.
9 x−2 − 8 = 73 Add 8 to both sides. x−2 = 2 When the bases are LS = 9 x−2 − 8 RS = 73
Simplify. x = 2+2 the same, equate the
9 x−2 = 73 + 8 exponents.
= 9 4− 2 − 8
9 x−2 = 81 Note LS and RS are powers of x=4 Solve for x. = 81 − 8
9, so rewrite them as powers
9 x −2 = 9 2 using the same base. Don’t forget to check your solution!
= 73 = RS x = 4 checks

Functions

A relation is a relationship between two sets. Relations can be described using:

an equation an arrow diagram a graph a table
y = 3x − 7
2 g x y
1 2
2

8 -1
in words 0 7 2 3
“output is three more than input” 6 -3 3 4
3 -5 -2 4 3
a set of ordered pairs
{(1, 2), (0, 3), (4, 8)}

function notation
f ( x) = x 2 − 3 x

The domain of a relation is the set of possible input values (x values).

The range is the set of possible output values (y values).

e.g. State the domain and range.

A: {(1, 2), (0, 3), (4, 8)} B: 4
Looking at the graph we C: y = x − 5
Domain = {0, 1, 4} can see that y does not go What value of x will
Range = {2, 3, 8} 2
below 0. Thus, make x – 5 = 0? x = 5
Domain = R The radicand cannot be less
Range = than zero, so
Domain = {x | x ≥ 5, x ∈ R}
Range = { y | y ≥ 0, y ∈ R}
MCR3U Exam Review 7

A function is a special type of relation in which every element of the domain corresponds to exactly
one element of the range.
y = x − 7 and y = x 2 + 15 are examples of functions. y = ± x is not a function because for every
value of x there are two values of y.

The vertical line test is used to determine if a graph of a relation is a function. If a vertical line can be
passed along the entire length of the graph and it never touches more than one point at a time, then the
relation is a function.
e.g. A: B: The line passes through more
4
This passes the 4

vertical line than one point, so this relation

2 test, so it is a 2 fails the vertical line test. It is
function. not a function.

Inverse Functions
The inverse, f −1 , of a relation, f , maps each output of the original relation back onto the
corresponding input value. The domain of the inverse is the range of the function, and the range of the
inverse is the domain of the function. That is, if (a, b) ∈ f , then (b, a) ∈ f −1 . The graph of y = f −1 ( x)
is the reflection of the graph y = f (x) in the line y = x .

3x − 1
e.g. Given f ( x) = .
5
Evaluate f (−3) . Evaluate 3 f (2) + 1
3(−3) − 1  3(2) − 1 You want to find the value of
f ( −3) = 3 f (2) + 1 = 3 +1
 5 
Replace all the expression 3 f ( 2) + 1 . You
5 x’s with –3.
− 9 −1 Evaluate.  6 − 1 are not solving for f (2) .
f ( −3) = = 3 +1
5  5 
− 10 5
f ( −3) = = 3  + 1
5 5
f ( −3) = −2 = 3(1) + 1
3 f (2) + 1 = 4
Determine f −1 ( x) . Evaluate f −1 (2)
3x − 1
y= 3x − 1 5x + 1 If you have not already determined
5 Rewrite f (x) as y = f −1 ( x) =
5 3 f −1 ( x) do so.
3y −1
x= Interchange x and y. 5 ( 2 ) +1 Using f −1 ( x) , replace all x’s with 2.
5 Solve for y. f −1 (2) =
3 Evaluate.
5x = 3 y − 1
10 + 1
3 y = 5x + 1 =
3
5x + 1 11
y= f −1 (2) =
3 3
5x + 1
∴ f −1 ( x) =
3
MCR3U Exam Review 8

e.g. Sketch the graph of the inverse of the given function y = f (x) .
4 4 4

−1
2 2
y = f ( x) 2

Draw the Reflect the

line y = x. graph in the
line y = x.

y = f (x)
-2 -2 -2

-4 -4 -4

The inverse of a function is not necessarily going to be a function. If you would like the inverse to also
be a function, you may have to restrict the domain or range of the original function. For the example
above, the inverse will only be a function if we restrict the domain to {x | x ≥ 0, x ∈ R} or
{x | x ≤ 0, x ∈ R} .

Transformations of Functions
To graph y = af [ k ( x − p )] + q from the graph y = f (x) consider:
a – determines the vertical stretch. The graph y = f (x) is stretched vertically by a factor of a. If a < 0
then the graph is reflected in the x-axis, as well.
1
k – determines the horizontal stretch. The graph y = f (x) is stretched horizontally by a factor of . If
k
k < 0 then the graph is also reflected in the y-axis.
p – determines the horizontal translation. If p > 0 the graph shifts to the right by p units. If p < 0 then
the graph shifts left by p units.
q – determines the vertical translation. If q > 0 the graph shifts up by q units. If q < 0 then the graph
shifts down by q units.
4

When applying transformations to a graph the stretches and reflections should be

applied before any translations. 2

e.g. The graph of y = f (x) is e.g. Given the graph of y = f (x) sketch the
transformed into graph of y = 2 f ( − ( x − 2) ) + 1 -2

y = 3 f (2 x − 4) . Describe the 4
4
y = f (x)
transformations.
-4

Stretch vertically Reflect in y-axis.

2
2

by a factor of 2.
First, factor inside the
brackets to determine the
values of k and p. -2 -2

y = 3 f ( 2( x − 2 ) ) -4 -4

a = 3, k = 2, p = 2
4

There is a vertical stretch of 4

Shift to the Shift up by 1.

3. 2
right by 2. 2

1
A horizontal stretch of .
2
The graph will be shifted 2
This is the graph of
-2
-2

units to the right. y = 2 f ( − ( x − 2) ) + 1

-4 -4
 4

Quadratic Functions 2 a>0

The graph of the quadratic function, f ( x) = ax 2 + bx + c , is a parabola. -5

minimum 5

When a > 0 the parabola opens up. When a < 0 the parabola opens down.
maximum
-2

Vertex Form: f ( x ) = a ( x − h) + k 2

a<0
The vertex is (h, k ) . The maximum or minimum value is k.
-4

The axis of symmetry is y = h.

Factored Form: f ( x ) = a ( x − p)( x − q ) Standard Form: f ( x ) = ax 2 + bx + c
The zeroes are x = p and x = q . The y-intercept is c.

Complete the square to change the standard form to vertex form.

e.g.
f ( x) = −2 x 2 − 12 x + 7 Factor the coefficient of x2 form the terms with x2 and x.
( )
f ( x ) = −2 x 2 + 6 x + 7 Divide the coefficient of x by 2. Square this number. Add and subtract it.
f ( x) = −2( x 2
+ 6x + 3 − 3 + 7
2 2
) Bring the last term inside the bracket outside the brackets.
f ( x) = −2( x 2
)
+ 6 x + 32 − 2(−32 ) + 7
Factor the perfect square trinomial inside the brackets.
f ( x) = −2( x + 3) 2 − 2(−9) + 7
Simplify.
f ( x) = −2( x + 3) 2 + 25

Maximum and Minimum Values

Vertex form, maximum/minimum value is k.
Factored form:
e.g. Determine the maximum or minimum value of f ( x) = ( x − 1)( x − 7) .
The zeroes of f (x) are equidistant from the axis of symmetry. The zeroes are x = 1 and x = 7 .
1+ 7
x= The axis of symmetry is x = 4. The axis of symmetry passes through the
2 vertex.
x=4 The x-coordinate of the vertex is 4. To find the y-coordinate of the
vertex, evaluate f (4) .
f (4) = (4 − 1)(4 − 7)
f (4) = 3(−3) The vertex is (4, − 9) . Because a is positive ( a = 1 ), the graph
f (4) = −9 opens up.
The minimum value is –9.

Standard form:
e.g. Determine the maximum or minimum value of f ( x) = −2 x 2 − 10 x + 10 without completing the square.
g ( x) = −2 x 2 − 10 x is a vertical translation of f ( x) = −2 x 2 − 10 x + 10 with y-intercept of 0.
g ( x) = −2 x( x + 5) x = 0, − 5 are the zeroes. Factor g ( x) = −2 x 2 − 10 x to determine
0−5
x= = −2.5 x = −2.5 is the x-coordinate of vertex. zeroes, then find the axis of symmetry. Both
2 f (x) and g (x) will have the same x-
f ( −2.5) = −2( −2.5)2 − 10(−2.5) + 10
coordinates for the vertex. To find the y-
f ( −2.5) = 22.5 coordinate for f(x) simply evaluate f(x) using
the same x-coordinate.
 The y-coordinate of vertex is 22.5. It is a maximum because
the graph opens down.
Zeroes
To determine the number of zeroes of a quadratic function consider the form of the function.
Vertex form: If a and k have opposite signs there are 2 zeroes (2 roots).
If a and k have the same sign there are no zeroes (0 roots).
If k = 0 there is one zero (1 root).
Factored form: f ( x ) = a ( x − p)( x − q ) → 2 zeroes. The zeroes are x = p and x = q .
f ( x) = a( x − p ) 2 → 1 zero. The zero is x = p.
Standard form: Check discriminant. D = b 2 − 4ac
If D < 0 there are no zeroes.
If D = 0 there is 1 zero.
If D > 0 there are 2 zeroes.

To determine the zeroes of from the standard form use the quadratic formula.
− b ± b 2 − 4ac
For , ax 2 + bx + c = 0 use x = to solve for x.
2a

Reciprocal functions

1 1
The reciprocal function of a function, f , is defined as . To help you graph y = , you should
f f ( x)
use the following:
1
The vertical asymptotes of y = will occur where f ( x) = 0
f ( x)
1 1
As f (x) increases, decreases. As f (x) decreases, increases.
f ( x) f ( x)
1 1
For f ( x) > 0 , > 0 . For f ( x) < 0 , < 0.
f ( x) f ( x)
1
The graph of y = always passes through the points where f ( x) = 1 or f ( x) = −1 .
f ( x)
You may find it helpful to sketch the graph of y = f (x) first, before you graph the reciprocal.
4

e.g. Sketch the graph of y = 2

1
. 2
y = x 2 − 4x
x − 4x
Look at the function f ( x) = x 2 − 4 x . 5

Factor it. f ( x) = x( x − 4) . -2

The zeroes are x = 0, and x = 4. The vertical

asymptotes will be at x = 0, and x = 4. -4

You could sketch the graph of f ( x) = x 2 − 4 x 4

to see where the function increases and

decreases, where f ( x) = 1 or –1. Use the 2

1
information above to help you sketch the y=
reciprocal. 5
x − 4x
2

-2

-4

Vertical asymptotes
Exponential Functions
6
f(x) = 2x-2+3
6
f(x) = 2x
In general, the exponential function
4 is defined by the equation, y = a x 4

or f ( x) = a x , a > 0, x ∈ R .
2
Transformations apply to 2

exponential functions the same way

they do to all other functions.

Exponential Growth and Decay

Population growth and radioactive decay can be modelled using exponential functions.
t

Decay: N (t ) = N 0  1 
t h
Growth: N (t ) = N (2) d N 0 - initial amount N 0 - initial amount
0
2
t – time elapsed t – time elapsed
d – doubling period h – half-life
N (t ) - amount at time t N (t ) - amount at time t

Compound Interest
Calculating the future amount: A = P (1 + i ) n A – future amount P – present (initial) amount
Calculating the present amount: P = A(1 + i ) − n i – interest rate per conversion period
n – number of conversion periods

Trigonometry

Given a right angle triangle we can use the following ratios

Primary Trigonometric Ratios r
y x y y
sin θ = cosθ = tan θ =
r r x
Reciprocal Trigonometric Ratios
r 1 r 1 x 1 x
csc θ = = secθ = = cot θ = =
y sin θ x cosθ y tan θ

Trigonometry of Oblique Triangles A

Sine Law
a b c
= =
sin A sin B sin C b c
Can be used when you know ASA, AAS, SSA

Cosine Law
a 2 = b 2 + c 2 − 2bc cos A
Can be used when you know SSS, SAS C a B
When you know SSA it is considered the ambiguous case. C

Angle Conditions # of Triangles

a < b sin A
b a
∠A < 90  0
a = b sin A
b sinA
1
a > b sin A 2 C
A
B
∠A > 90  a≤b 0 a
b
a>b 1
A
B

Trigonometric Identities
sin θ
Pythagorean Identity: sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ = 1 Quotient Identity: tan θ =
cosθ
e.g. Prove the identity. sin 2 θ + 2 cos 2 θ − 1 = cos 2 θ
LS = sin 2 θ + 2 cos 2 θ − 1 Work with each side separately.
Look for the quotient or Pythagorean identities.
= sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ + cos 2 θ − 1 You may need to factor, simplify or split terms up.
When you are done, write a concluding statement.
= 1 + cos 2 θ − 1
= cos 2 θ = RS Since LS=RS then sin 2 θ + 2 cos 2 θ − 1 = cos 2 θ is true for all values of θ .

Periodic Functions
A periodic function has a repeating pattern. The period is the length of the cycle.
The cycle is the smallest complete repeating The amplitude is the magnitude of the vertical
pattern. distance from the axis of the curve to the
The axis of the curve is a horizontal line that is maximum or minimum value. The equation is
midway between the maximum and minimum max value − min value
a=
values of the graph. The equation is 2
max value + min value
y= .
2

Trigonometric Functions
The graphs of y = sin θ , y = cosθ , and y = tan θ are shown below.
1 y = sin θ y = tan θ
0.5 y = sin θ 5

Period = 360˚
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 Amplitude = 1 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

-0.5 Zeroes = 0˚,

180˚, 360˚…
-5
-1

1
y = cosθ
0.5 y = cosθ y = tan θ
Period = 360˚ Period = 180˚
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 Amplitude = 1 Zeroes = 0˚, 180˚, 360˚…
-0.5 Zeroes = 90˚, 270˚… Vertical asymptotes = 90˚, 270˚…
-1

Transformations of Trigonometric Functions

Transformations apply to trig functions as they do to any other function.

The graphs of y = a sin k (θ + b) + d and y = a cos k (θ + b) + d are transformations of the graphs

y = sin θ and y = cos θ respectively.

The value of a determines the vertical stretch, called the amplitude.

It also tells whether the curve is reflected in the θ -axis.
1
The value of k determines the horizontal stretch. The graph is stretched by a factor of . We can use
k
this value to determine the period of the transformation of y = sin θ or y = cos θ .
y = sin kθ y = cos kθ 360 y = tan kθ 180
The period of or is , k > 0. The period of is , k > 0.
k k
The value of b determines the horizontal translation, known as the phase shift.
The value of d determines the vertical translation. y = d is the equation of the axis of the curve.
e.g. e.g.
y = cos 2θ + 1
1
y = sin θ + 45
2
( )
g(x) = cos(2⋅x)+1
2 1

1.5
0.5

1
g(x) = 0.5⋅sin(x+45)
0.5
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 -0.5

-0.5

f(x) = sin(x)
-1
f(x) = cos(x) -1