Number Theory.

Tutorial 1:
Divisibility and Primes
1 Introduction
1lc ilcory ol nnmcrs is ocvoico io sinoying ilc sci N = 1. 2. 8. 4. . 0. . . .
ol posiiivc inicgcrs. also callco ilc nn:n| nnh:. 1lc mosi imporiani
propcriy ol N is ilc lollowing axiom (wlicl mcans ilai ii cannoi c provco):
Axiom 1 (The Least-integer Principle) . nn-nj o N ] -
.. .nj: nn.n n nn|| |nn.
1lc sci ol all inicgcrs
. . . . 8. 2. 1. 0. 1. 2. 8. . . .
is ocnoico y Z. In ilis scciion wc nsc lciicrs ol ilc roman alplaci
c. /. c. . . . . /. |. :. :. . . . . r. . .
io ocsignaic inicgcrs nnlcss oilcrwisc spccico.
Theorem 1 (The division algorithm) G.n nnj .nj: c. /. .| c
0. |: .. n.j .nj: . : | |n
/ = c :. 0 : < c.
1lc nnmcr is callco ilc j.n ano ilc nnmcr : is callco ilc :-
nn.nn:. 1lc noiaiion : = / (moo c) is olicn nsco.
Example 1 8 = 8 11 2. 1 = (8) 7 . |n 2 = 8 (moo 11)
nnn = 1 (moo 7).
1
Denition 1 .n .nj: / . n...h| hj nn .nj: c ,= 0. .] |: .. nn
.nj: c | |n / = cc : | . nn h :.n n 0 = / (moo c). 1
n| nj |n c . n oivisor ] / nnn :. c[/.
Lci : c a posiiivc inicgcr. Lci ns ocnoic y d(:) ilc nnmcr ol oivisors
ol :. Ii is clcar ilai 1 ano : arc always oivisors ol a nnmcr : wlicl is
grcaicr ilan 1. 1lns wc lavc d(1) = 1 ano d(:) 2 lor : 1.
Denition 2 .n .nj: : . n||n n primc .] d(:) = 2. .n .nj: : 1.
|.| . n :.n . n||n n composiic nnh:.
Example 2 2. 8. . 7. 11. 18 n: :.n. 1. 4. 0. 8. 9. 10 n: n :.n. 4. 0. 8. 9. 10
n: n. nnh:.
Theorem 2 (The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic) 1:j .-
. .nj: : 1 nn h .:n n n :n ] :.n {.| :|n n|j
n ]n:). |n .
: = j

1
l
j

2
2
. . . j
r

.
|: j
l
. j
2
. . . . . j
a
n: n..n :.n nnn
l
.
2
. . . . .
a
n: .. .n-
j:. J|. ]n:.nj . n.j nn: ]:n | :n: ] | :.n ]n:.
Proof: Lci ns provc rsi ilai any nnmcr : 1 can c occomposco inio
a proonci ol primcs. Il : = 2. ilc occomposiiion is irivial ano wc lavc
only onc lacior. i.c.. 2 iiscll. Lci ns assnmc ilai lor all posiiivc inicgcrs.
wlicl arc lcss ilan :. a occomposiiion cxisis. Il : is a primc. ilcn : = :
is ilc occomposiiion rcqnirco. Il : is composiic. ilcn : = :
l
:
2
. wlcrc
: :
l
1 ano : :
2
1 ano y ilc inonciion lypoilcsis ilcrc arc primc
occomposiiions :
l
= j
l
. . . j

ano :
2
=
l
. . .
-
lor :
l
ano :
2
. 1lcn wc may
cominc ilcm
: = :
l
:
2
= j
l
. . . j

l
. . .
-
ano gci ilc occomposiiion lor : ano provc ilc rsi siaicmcni.
1o provc ilai ilc occomposiiion is nniqnc. wc slall assnmc ilc cxis-
icncc ol an inicgcr capalc ol iwo csscniially oicrcni primc occomposiiions.
ano lrom ilis assnmpiion ocrivc a coniraoiciion. 1lis will slow ilai ilc
lypoilcsis ilai ilcrc cxisis an inicgcr wiil iwo csscniially oicrcni primc
occomposiiions is nnicnalc. ano lcncc ilc primc occomposiiion ol cvcry
inicgcr is nniqnc. Wc will nsc ilc Lcasi-inicgcr Irinciplc.
2
Snpposc ilai ilcrc cxisis an inicgcr wiil iwo csscniially oicrcni primc
occomposiiions. ilcn ilcrc will c a smallcsi sncl inicgcr
: = j
l
j
2
. . . j

=
l

2
. . .
-
. (1)
wlcrc j
i
ano
)
arc primcs. Ly rcarranging ilc orocr ol ilc js ano ilc s.
il ncccssary. wc may assnmc ilai
j
l
j
2
. . . j

.
l

2
. . .
-
.
Ii is impossilc ilai j
l
=
l
. lor il ii wcrc wc conlo canccl ilc rsi lacior
lrom cacl sioc ol cqnaiion (1) ano io oiain iwo csscniially oicrcni primc
occomposiiions lor a nnmcr smallcr ilan :. coniraoiciing ilc cloicc ol :.
Hcncc ciilcr j
l
<
l
or
l
< j
l
. Wiiloni loss ol gcncraliiy wc snpposc ilai
j
l
<
l
.
Wc now lorm ilc inicgcr
:

= : j
l

S
. . .
-
. (2)
1lcn iwo occomposiiions ol : givc ilc lollowing iwo occomposiiions ol :

:
:

= (j
l
j
2
. . . j

) (j
l

2
. . .
-
) = j
l
(j
2
. . . j

2
. . .
-
). (8)
:

= (
l

2
. . .
-
) (j
l

2
. . .
-
) = (
l
j
l
)(
2
. . .
-
). (4)
Sincc j
l
<
l
. ii lollows lrom (4) ilai :

is a posiiivc inicgcr. wlicl is smallcr

ilan :. Hcncc ilc primc occomposiiion lor :

mnsi c nniqnc ano. apari

lrom ilc orocr ol ilc laciors. (8) ano (4) coincioc. Irom (8) wc lcarn ilai
j
l
is a lacior ol :

ano mnsi appcar as a lacior in occomposiiion (4). Sincc

j
l
<
l

i
. wc scc ilai j
l
,=
i
. i = 2. 8. . . . . :. Hcncc. ii is a lacior ol
l
j
l
.
i.c..
l
j
l
= j
l
: or
l
= j
l
(: 1). wlicl is impossilc as
l
is primc ano

l
,= j
l
. 1lis coniraoiciion complcics ilc prool ol ilc Innoamcnial 1lcorcm
ol Ariilmciic.
Lci r c a rcal nnmcr. 1lcn ii can c wriiicn in a nniqnc way as . c.
wlcrc . Z ano 0 c < 1. 1lcn. ilc lollowing noiaiion is nsco: . = r|.
. 1 = r|. c = r. Wc will nsc lcrc only ilc rsi lnnciion r|. wlicl is
callco | .nj:n| n: ol r. Lxamplcs: 2.| = 8. | = 8. | = .
Theorem 3 J| nn|| :.n n..: ] n n. nnh: : . | |nn
: jn|

:|.
8
Proof: Wc provc rsi ilai : las a oivisor wlicl is grcaicr ilan 1 ni lcss
ilan

:. As : is composiic. ilcn : = d
l
d
2
. d
l
1 ano d
2
1. Il d
l


:
ano d
2


:. ilcn
: = d
l
d
2
(

:)
2
= :.
a coniraoiciion. Snpposc. d
l


:. 1lcn any ol ilc primc oivisors ol d
l
will c lcss ilan or cqnal io

:. Lni cvcry oivisor ol d
l
is also a oivisor ol
:. ilns ilc smallcsi primc oivisor j ol : will saiisly ilc incqnaliiy j

:.
Sncc j is an inicgcr. j

:|. 1lc ilcorcm is provco.

Theorem 4 (Euclid) J| nnh: ] :.n . .nn..
Proof: Snpposc ilcrc wcrc only niic nnmcr ol primcs j
l
. j
2
. . . . . j

. 1lcn
lorm ilc inicgcr
: = 1 j
l
j
2
. . . j

.
Sincc : j
i
lor all i. ii mnsi c composiic. Lci c ilc smallcsi primc
lacior ol :. As j
l
. j
2
. . . . . j

rcprcscni all cxisiing primcs. ilcn is onc ol

ilcm. say = j
l
ano : = j
l
:. Now wc can wriic
1 = : j
l
j
2
. . . j

= j
l
: j
l
j
2
. . . j

= j
l
(: j
2
. . . j

).
Wc lavc goi ilai j
l
1 is a lacior ol 1. wlicl is a coniraoiciion.
1lc lollowing ilrcc ilcorcms arc lar lrom cing clcmcniary. Ol conrsc.
no onc nry assnmcs ilai sinocnis arc lamiliar wiil ilcsc ilcorcms. Ncv-
crilclcss. somc sinocnis nsc ilcm ano somciimcs a oicnli mail olympiao
prolcm can c irivialisco y ooing so. 1lc aiiiinoc ol ilc Jnry ol ilc Inicr-
naiional Mailcmaiics Olympiao is io clicvc ilai sinocnis know wlai ilcy
nsc. 1lcrclorc ii pays io nnocrsiano ilcsc rcsnlis cvcn wiiloni a prool.
Lci (r) ocnoic ilc nnmcr ol primcs wlicl oo noi cxccco r. Lccansc
ol ilc irrcgnlar occnrcncc ol ilc primcs. wc cannoi cxpcci a simplc lormnla
lor (r). Howcvcr onc ol ilc mosi imprcssivc rcsnlis in aovancco nnmcr
ilcory givcs an asympioiic approximaiion lor (r).
Theorem 5 (The Prime Number Theorem)
lim
a
(r)
ln r
r
= 1.
|: ln r . | nn:n| |jn:.|n. hn c.
4
Theorem 6 (Dirichlets Theorem) 1] c nnn / n: :|n.|j :.n -
.. .nj: {|.| nnn |n |j nn |n nnn :.n ]n: .n
|.: :.n ]n:.n.n). |n |: n: .nn.|j nnnj :.n ] | ]:n
c: /. |: : = 1. 2. . . ..
Theorem 7 (Bertrands Postulate, proved by Chebyschef) 1: :j
.. .nj: : 1 |: . n :.n j | |n : < j < 2:.

Number Theory. Tutorial 2:

The Euclidean algorithm
1 The number of divisors of :
Lci : c a posiiivc inicgcr wiil ilc primc laciorisaiion
: = j

1
l
j

2
2
. . . j
r

. (1)
wlcrc j
i
arc oisiinci primcs ano
i
arc posiiivc inicgcrs. How can wc no
all oivisors ol : Lci d c a oivisor ol :. 1lcn : = d:. lor somc :. ilns
: = d: = j

1
l
j

2
2
. . . j
r

.
Sincc ilc primc laciorisaiion ol : is nniqnc. d cannoi lavc in iis primc
laciorisaiion a primc wlicl is noi among ilc primcs j
l
. j
2
. . . . . j

. Also. a
primc j
i
in ilc primc laciorisaiion ol d cannoi lavc an cxponcni grcaicr ilan

i
. 1lcrclorc
d = j

1
l
j

2
2
. . . j
r

. 0
i

i
. i = 1. 2. . . . . :. (2)
Theorem 1. J| nnh: ] .. n..: ] : .
d(:) = (
l
1)(
2
1) . . . (

1). (8)
: ]. Inocco. wc lavc cxacily
i
1 possiiliiics io cloosc
i
in (2). namcly
0. 1. 2. . . . .
i
. 1lns ilc ioial nnmcr ol oivisors will c cxacily ilc proonci
(
l
1)(
2
1) . . . (

1).
Denition 1. J| nnh: /:. |: / = 0. 1. 2. . . . . n: n||n mnlii-
plcs ol :.
Ii is clcar ilai any mnliiplc ol : givcn y (1) las ilc lorm
: = /j

1
l
j

2
2
. . . j
r

.
i

i
. i = 1. 2. . . . . :.
wlcrc / las no primcs j
l
. j
2
. . . . . j

in iis primc laciorisaiion. 1lc nnmcr

ol mnliiplcs ol : is inniic.
1
2 reatest common divisor and least com-
mon multiple
Lci c ano / c iwo posiiivc inicgcrs. Il d is a oivisor ol c ano also a oivisor ol
/. ilcn wc say ilai d is a common oivisor ol c ano /. As ilcrc arc only a niic
nnmcr ol common oivisors. ilcrc is a j:n nnn n..:. ocnoico y
gco(c. /). 1lc nnmcr : is saio io c a common mnliiplc ol c ano / il : is a
mnliiplc ol c ano also a mnliiplc ol /. Among all common mnliiplcs ilcrc is a
minimal onc (Lcasi-inicgcr principlc ). Ii is callco ilc |n nnn n|.|
ano ii is ocnoico y lcm (c. /).
In ilc occomposiiion (1) wc lao all cxponcnis posiiivc. Howcvcr. somc-
iimcs ii is convcnicni io allow somc cxponcnis io c 0. 1lis is cspccially
convcnicni. wlcn wc consiocr primc laciorisaiions ol iwo nnmcrs c ano /.
looking lor gco (c. /) ano lcm (c. /). sincc wc may assnmc ilai oil c ano /
lavc ilc samc sci ol primcs in ilcir primc laciorisaiions.
Theorem 2.
c = j

1
l
j

2
2
. . . j
r

. / = j

1
l
j

2
2
. . . j
r

.
|:
i
0 nnn
i
0. h n:h.:n:j .. .nj:. J|n
gco (c. /) = j

1

1

l
j

2

2

2
. . . j
r r

. (4)
nnn
lcm (c. /) = j

1

1

l
j

2

2

2
. . . j
r r

. ()
: :.
gco (c. /) lcm (c. /) = c /. (0)
: ]. Iormnlas (4) ano () lollow lrom onr ocscripiion ol common oivisors
ano common mnliiplcs. 1o provc (0) wc lavc io noiicc ilai min(
i
.
i
)
max(
i
.
i
) =
i

i
.
Wc snspcci (in laci ii is an opcn qncsiion) ilai primc laciorisaiion is
compniaiionally oicnli ano wc ooni know casy algoriilms lor ilai ni
lorinnaicly ilc grcaicsi common oivisor gco(c. /) ol nnmcrs c ano / can c
lonno wiiloni knowing ilc primc laciorisaiions lor c ano /. 1lis algoriilm
was known io Lnclio ano mayc cvcn was oiscovcrco y lim.
2
Theorem 3 (The Euclidean Algorithm). c nnn / h .. .n-
j:. 1 | n...n n|j:.|n :n| .n nn
c =
l
/ :
l
. 0 < :
l
< /.
/ =
2
:
l
:
2
. 0 < :
2
< :
l
.
:
l
=
S
:
2
:
S
. 0 < :
S
< :
2
.
.
.
.
:
- 2
=
-
:
- l
:
-
. 0 < :
-
< :
- l
.
:
- l
=
-l
:
-
.
J|n :
-
= gco (c. /).
: ]. Is asco on ilc oscrvaiion ilai il c = / :. ilcn gco (c. /) =
gco (/. :). Inocco. il d is a common oivisor ol c ano /. ilcn c = c

d ano
/ = /

d ano ilcn : = c/ = c

d /

d = (c

)d ano d is also a common

oivisor ol / ano :. Also il d is a common oivisor ol / ano :. ilcn / = /

d.
: = :

d ano c = / : = /

d :

d = (/

)d. wlcncc d is a common

oivisor ol c ano /.
Ii is clcar now ilai gco (c. /) = gco (/. :
l
) = gco (:
l
. :
2
) = . . . =
gco (:
- l
. :
-
) = :
-
.
Theorem 4 (The Extended Euclidean Algorithm). :. | ]|-
|.nj nh| .| :
l
.
2
. nnn |: |nn

c 1 0
/ 0 1

.
1n n:nnn .| | 1|.nnn .|j:.|n nh. :]:n | ]||.nj
:n.n .| : ] |. nh|. 1.: .|| :n | |.:n :
S
hj
h:n.nj ]:n | : : | nn : .n
l
. nn |. n
S
:=

l

l

2
. J|n .n.|n:|j :n | ]:| :

:=
2

2

S
. 1
.|| n.n |. : n ]|| |n :n.nj

.|| hn.n . n.nj

2
nnn h:n.nj
l
.n
2
. |.| nn h :.n jnh|.n||j n
8

:=
2

2

l
. 1nn||j .|| hn.n | nh|

c 1 0
/ 0 1
:
l
1
l
:
2

2
1
l

2
.
.
.
:
-
: :

.
J|n gco (c. /) = :
-
= c: /:.
: ]. Wc will provc ilis y inonciion. Lci ilc /il row ol ilc ialc c

= (

).
Wc assnmc ilai
i
= c
i
/
i
lor all i < /. 1lis is ccriainly irnc lor i = 1. 2.
1lcn y inonciion lypoilcsis

=
2

l
= c
2
/
2

(c
l
/
l
) =
c(
2

l
) /(
2

l
) = c

.
1lns ilc siaicmcni
i
= c
i
/
i
is irnc lor all i. In pariicnlar. ilis is irnc
lor ilc lasi row. wlicl givcs ns :
-
= c: /:.
Example 1. c = 821. / = 848. 1.nn | j:n nnn n..:
gco (c. /). | |n nnn n|.| lcm (c. /). nnn n |.nn: :nn.n
] | j:n nnn n..: .n | ]:n gco (c. /) = /c :/.
J| 1|.nnn n|j:.|n
821 = 0 848 821
848 = 2 821 201
821 = 1 201 120
201 = 1 120 81
120 = 1 81 89
81 = 2 89 8
89 = 18 8 0.
4
nnn |:]: gco(821. 848) = 8 nnn lcm(821. 848) =
821 848
8
= 107 848 =
90201. J| 1.nnn 1|.nnn n|j:.|n
821 1 0
848 0 1
821 1 0
201 2 1
120 8 1
81 2
89 8 8
8 21 8
hn.n.nj | |.nn: :nn.n gco (821. 848) = 8 = (21) 821 8 848.
3 elativ ely prime numbers
Denition 2. 1] gco(c. /) = 1. | nnh: c nnn / n: n.n h rclaiivcly
primc {: coprimc).
1lc lollowing propcriics ol rclaiivcly primc nnmcrs arc olicn nsco.
Lemma 1. gco (c. /) = 1. .... c nnn / n: :|n.|j :.n. J|n
. c nnn / n n |n nnn :.n .n |.: :.n ]n:.n.n.
. 1] c . n n|.| ] c nnn n| n n|.| ] /. |n c . n n|.| ]
c/.
. 1] cc . n n|.| ] /. |n c . n n|.| ] /.
. J|: .. .nj: :. : | |n :c :/ = 1.
: ]. Iari 1 lollows lrom cqnaiion (4). paris 2 ano 8 lollow lrom pari 1.
ano pari 4 lollows lrom 1lcorcm 4.
Theorem 5 (The Chinese remainder theorem). c nnn / h :|-
n.|j :.n nnh:. 0 : < c nnn 0 : < /. J|n |: .. n n.j
nnh: | |n 0 < c/ nnn
: = (moo c) nnn : = (moo /). (7)
.... |n :nn.nn: : n n..n.nj hj c nnn :nn.nn: : n n..n.nj hj /.

: ]. Lci ns provc rsi. ilai ilcrc cxisis ai mosi onc inicgcr wiil ilc
conoiiions rcqnirco. Assnmc. on ilc conirary. ilai lor iwo inicgcrs
l
ano

2
wc lavc 0
l
< c/. 0
2
< c/ ano
: =
l
(moo c) =
2
(moo c) ano : =
l
(moo /) =
2
(moo /).
Lci ns assnmc ilai
l

2
. 1lcn ilc nnmcr =
l

2
saiiscs
0 < c/ ano
0 = (moo c) ano 0 = (moo /). (8)
Ly Lcmma 1 pari 8. conoiiion (8) implics ilai is oivisilc y c/. wlcncc
= 0 ano
l
=
2
.
Now wc will no an inicgcr . sncl ilai : = (moo c) ano : =
(moo /). ignoring ilc conoiiion 0 < c/. Ly 1lcorcm 4 ilcrc arc
inicgcrs :. : sncl ilai gco (c. /) = 1 = :c :/. Mnliiplying ilis cqnaiion
y : : wc gci ilc cqnaiion
: : = (: :):c (: :):/ = :

c :

/.
Now ii is clcar ilai ilc nnmcr
= : :

c = : :

/
saiiscs ilc conoiiion (7). Il oocs noi saiisly 0 < c/. wc oivioc y
c/ wiil rcmainocr = c/
l
. Now 0
l
< c/ ano
l
saiiscs (7).
1lcorcm is provco.
1lis is a consirnciivc prool ol ilc lincsc rcmainocr ilcorcm. wlicl
givcs also an algoriilm ol calcnlaiing sncl wiil propcriy (7). A sloricr
ni nonconsrnciivc prool. wlicl nscs Iigconlolc principlc can c lonno in ilc
iraining maicrial Iigconlolc Irinciplc. Ii is nsco ilcrc io provc Icrmais
ilcorcm ilai any primc ol ilc iypc 4: 1 can c rcprcscnico as a snm ol
iwo sqnarcs.
op yrigli: MailOlymp.com Lio 2001. All riglis rcscrvco.
0
Number Theory. Tutorial 3:
Eulers function and Eulers Theorem
1 Eulers -function
Denition 1. : h n .. .nj:. J| nnh: ] .. .nj:
| |nn : jn| : |n n: :|n.|j :.n :. . nnn hj (:).
J|. ]n.n . n||n 1|: -]n.n : 1|: .n ]n.n.
Lci ns ocnoic Z
a
= 0. 1. 2. . . . . :1 ano y Z
a
ilc sci ol ilosc noncro
nnmcrs lrom Z
a
ilai arc rclaiivcly primc io :. 1lcn (:) is ilc nnmcr ol
clcmcnis ol Z
a
. i.c.. (:) = [Z
a
[.
Example 1. : = 20. J|n Z
2
= 1. 8. 7. 9. 11. 18. 17. 19 nnn (20) = 8.
Lemma 1. 1] : = j

. |: j . :.n. |n (:) = j

j
l
= j

1
1
j

.
: ]. Ii is casy io lisi all inicgcrs ilai arc lcss ilan or cqnal io j

ano
noi rclaiivcly primc io j

. 1lcy arc j. 2j. 8j. . . . . j

l
j. Wc lavc cxacily
j
l
ol ilcm. 1lcrclorc j

j
l
noncro inicgcrs lrom Z
a
will c rclaiivcly
primc io :. Hcncc (:) = j

j
l
.
An imporiani conscqncncc ol ilc lincsc rcmainocr ilcorcm is ilai ilc
lnnciion (:) is mnliiplicaiivc in ilc lollowing scnsc:
Theorem 1. : nnn : h nnj :|n.|j :.n .. .nj:. J|n
(::) = (:) (:).
: ]. Lci Z

= :
l
. :
2
. . . . . :

ano Z
a
= :
l
. :
2
. . . . . :
a
. Ly ilc
lincsc rcmainocr ilcorcm ilcrc cxisis a nniqnc posiiivc inicgcr
i)
sncl
ilai 0
i)
< :: ano
:
i
=
i)
(moo :). :
)
=
i)
(moo :).
1
ilai is
i)
las rcmainocr :
i
on oivioing y :. ano rcmainocr :
)
on oivioing
y :. in pariicnlar lor somc inicgcrs c ano /

i)
= c: :
i
.
i)
= /: :
)
. (1)
As in 1niorial 2. in ilc prool ol ilc Lncliocan algoriilm. wc noiicc ilai
gco (
i)
. :) = gco (:. :
i
) = 1 ano gco (
i)
. :) = gco (:. :
)
) = 1. ilai is
i)
is rclaiivcly primc io : ano also rclaiivcly primc io :. Sincc : ano : arc
rclaiivcly primc.
i)
is rclaiivcly primc io ::. lcncc
i)
Z
a
. lcarly .
oicrcni pairs (i. ) ,= (/. |) yiclo oicrcni nnmcrs. ilai is
i)
,=

lor
(i. ) ,= (/. |).
Snpposc now ilai a nnmcr ,=
i)
lor all i ano . 1lcn
: = (moo :). : = (moo :).
wlcrc ciilcr : oocs noi clong io Z

or : oocs noi clong io Z

a
. Assnming
ilc lormcr. wc gci gco (:. :) 1. Lni ilcn gco ( . :) = gco (:. :) 1 ano
oocs noi clong io Z

a
. Ii slows ilai ilc nnmcrs
i)
ano only ilcy
lorm Z
a
. Lni ilcrc arc cxacily (:) (:) ol ilc nnmcrs
i)
. cxacily as
many as ilc pairs (:
i
. :
)
). 1lcrclorc (::) = (:) (:).
Theorem 2. : h n .. .nj: .| | :.n ]n:.n.n
: = j

1
l
j

2
2
. . . j
r

.
|: j
i
n: n..n :.n nnn
i
n: .. .nj:. J|n
(:) = :

1
1
j
l

1
1
j
2

. . .

1
1
j

.
: ]. Wc nsc Lcmma 1 ano 1lcorcm 1 io compnic (:):
(:) = (j

1
l
) (j

2
2
) . . . (j
r

)
= j

1
l

1
1
j
l

2
2

1
1
j
2

. . . j
r

1
1
j

= :

1
1
j
l

1
1
j
2

. . .

1
1
j

.
Example 2. (204) = (2
S
8 11) = 204

l
2

2
S

l
ll

= 80.
2
2 Congruences. Eulers Theorem
Il c ano / arc inigcrs wc wriic c / (moo :) ano say ilai c is congrncni
io / il c ano / lavc ilc samc rcmainocr on oivioing y :. Ior cxamplc.
41 80 (moo 1)8. 41 87 (moo 1)8. 41 , 7 (moo 1)8.
Lemma 2. c nnn / h .nj: nnn : . n .. .nj:. J|n
{n) c / (moo :) .] nnn n|j .] c / . n...h| hj :.
{h) 1] c / (moo :) nnn c d (moo :). |n c c / d (moo :).
{) 1] c / (moo :) nnn c d (moo :). |n cc /d (moo :).
{n) 1] c / (moo :) nnn : . n .. .nj:. |n c
a
/
a
(moo :).
{) 1] cc /c (moo :) nnn c . :|n.|j :.n :. |n c / (moo :).
: ]. (a) Ly ilc oivision algoriilm
c =
l
: :
l
. 0 :
l
< :. ano / =
2
: :
2
. 0 :
2
< :.
1lns c / = (
l

2
): (:
l
:
2
). wlcrc : < :
l
:
2
< :. Wc scc ilai
c / is oivisilc y : il ano only il :
l
:
2
is oivisilc y : ni ilis can
lappcn il ano only il :
l
:
2
= 0. i.c.. :
l
= :
2
.
() is an cxcrcisc.
(c) Il c / (moo :) ano c d (moo :). ilcn :[(c /) ano :[(c d).
i.c.. c / = i: ano c d = : lor somc inicgcrs i. . 1lcn
cc /d = (cc /c) (/c/d) = (c/)c /(c d) = ic: /: = (ic /):.
wlcncc cc /d (moo :)
(o) Iollows immcoiaicly lrom (c)
(c) Snpposc ilai cc /c (moo :) ano gco (c. :) = 1. 1lcn ilcrc cxisi
inicgcrs . sncl ilai c : = 1 or c 1 (moo :). 1lcn y (c)
c cc /c / (moo :).
ano c / (moo :) as rcqnirco.
1lc propcriy in Lcmma 2 (c) is callco ilc nn||n.n ::j.
Theorem 3 (Fermats Little Theorem). j h n :.n. 1] nn .nj:
c . n n...h| hj j. |n c
l
1 (moo j). .| c

c (moo j) ]: n|| c.
8
: ]. Lci c. c rclaiivcly primc io j. onsiocr ilc nnmcrs c. 2c. ....
(j 1)c. All ol ilcm lavc oicrcni rcmainocrs on oivioing y j. Inocco.
snpposc ilai lor somc 1 i < j1 wc lavc ic c (moo j). 1lcn
y ilc canccllaiion propcriy c can c canccllco ano i (moo j). wlicl is
impossilc. 1lcrclorc ilcsc rcmainocrs arc 1. 2. .... j 1 ano
c 2c (j 1)c (j 1) (moo j).
wlicl is
(j 1) c
l
(j 1) (moo j).
Sincc (j 1) is rclaiivcly primc io j. y ilc canccllaiion propcriy c
l

1 (moo j). Wlcn c is rclaiivcly primc io j. ilc lasi siaicmcni lollows lrom
ilc rsi onc. Il c is a mnliiplc ol j ilc lasi siaicmcni is also clcar.
Theorem 4 (Eulers Theorem). ) : h n .. .nj:. J|n
c
a
1 (moo :)
]: n|| c :|n.|j :.n :.
: ]. Lci Z
a
= .
l
. .
2
. . . . . .
a
. onsiocr ilc nnmcrs .
l
c. .
2
c. .... .
a
c.
Loil .
i
ano c arc rclaiivcly primc io :. ilcrclorc .
i
c is also rclaiivcly primc
io :. Snpposc ilai :
i
= .
i
c (moo :). i.c.. :
i
is ilc rcmainocr on oivioing
.
i
c y :. Sincc gco (.
i
c. :) = gco (:
i
. :). yicloing :
i
Z
a
. 1lcsc rcmainocrs
arc all oicrcni. Inocco. snpposc ilai :
i
= :
)
lor somc 1 i < :.
1lcn .
i
c .
)
c (moo :). Ly ilc canccllaiion propcriy c can c canccllco
ano wc gci .
i
.
)
(moo :). wlicl is impossilc. 1lcrclorc ilc rcmainocrs
:
l
. :
2
. .... :
a
coincioc wiil .
l
. .
2
. . . . . .
a
. apari lrom ilc orocr in wlicl
ilcy arc lisico. 1lns
.
l
c .
2
c . . . .
a
c :
l
:
2
. . . :
a
.
l
.
2
. . . .
a
(moo :).
wlicl is
c
a
(moo :).
wlcrc = .
l
.
2
. . ..
a
. Sincc is rclaiivcly primc io : ii can c canccllco
ano wc gci c
a
1 (moo :).
op yrigli: MailOlymp.com Lio 2001. All riglis rcscrvco.
4
Number Theory. Tutorial 4:
epresen tation of Numbers
1 Classical Decimal Positional ystem
1lcrc is an imporiani oisiinciion ciwccn nnmcrs ano ilcir rcprcscniaiions.
In ilc occimal sysicm ilc cro ano ilc rsi ninc posiiivc inicgcrs arc ocnoico
y symols 0. 1. 2. . . . . 9. rcspcciivcly. 1lcsc symols arc callco n.j.. 1lc
samc symols arc nsco io rcprcscni all ilc inicgcrs. 1lc icnil inicgcr is
ocnoico as 10 ano an ariirary inicgcr can now c rcprcscnico in ilc
lorm
= c
a
10
a
c
a l
10
a l
. . . c
l
10 c

. (1)
wlcrc c

. c
l
. . . . . c
a
arc inicgcrs ilai can c rcprcscnico y a singlc oigii
0. 1. 2. . . . . 9. Ior cxamplc. ilc ycar. wlcn I siarico io ilink aoni sciiing
np ilis wcsiic. can c wriiicn as
1 10
S
9 10
2
9 10 8.
Wc sloricn ilis cxprcssion io (1998)
l
or simply 1998. laving ilc occimal
sysicm in mino. In ilis noiaiion ilc mcaning ol a oigii ocpcnos on iis posi-
iion. 1lns iwo oigii symols 9 arc siinaico in ilc icns ano ilc lnnorcos
placcs ano ilcir mcaning is oicrcni. In gcncral lor ilc nnmcr givcn y
(1) wc wriic
= (c
a
c
a l
. . . c
l
c

)
l
io cmplasisc ilc cxccpiional rolc ol 10. 1lis noiaiion is callco ..nn|.
Iis invcniion. aiirinico io Snmcrians or Laylonians ano iis lnrilcr ocvcl-
opmcni y Hinons. was ol cnormons signicancc lor civilisaiion. In oman
symolism. lor cxamplc. onc wroic
MM I II = (ilonsano) (ninc lnnorcos) (ninciy)
(vc) (onc) (onc) (onc).
1
Ii is clcar ilai morc ano morc ncw symols sncl as I. . . . M arc
nccoco as nnmcrs gci largcr wlilc wiil ilc Hinon posiiional sysicm now in
nsc wc ncco only icn Araic nnmcrals 0. 1. 2. . . . . 9. no maiicr low largc is
ilc nnmcr. 1lc posiiional sysicm was inirooncco inio mcoicval Lnropc y
mcrclanis. wlo lcarnco ii lrom ilc Aras. Ii is cxacily ilis sysicm wlicl
is io lamc ilai ilc ancicni ari ol compniaiion. oncc connco io a lcw
aocpis. ccamc a roniinc algoriilmic skill ilai can c oonc aniomaiically
y a maclinc. ano is now iangli in clcmcniary sclool.
2 ther Positional ystems
Mailcmaiically. ilcrc is noiling spccial in ilc occimal sysicm. 1lc nsc ol
icn. as ilc asc. gocs ack io ilc oawn ol civilisaiion. ano is aiirinico io ilc
laci ilai wc lavc icn ngcrs on wlicl io conni. Oilcr nnmcr conlo c nsco
as ilc asc. ano nnoonicoly somc ol ilcm wcrc nsco. 1lc nnmcr woros
in many langnagcs slow rcmnanis ol oilcr ascs. mainly iwclvc. liccn ano
iwcniy. Ior cxamplc. in Lnglisl ilc woros lor 11 ano 12 ano in Spanisl
ilc woros lor 11. 12. 18. 14 ano 1. arc noi consirncico on ilc occimal
principlc. In Ircncl a spccial rolc ol ilc woro lor 20 is clcarly oscrvco. 1lc
Laylonian asironomcrs lao a sysicm ol noiaiion wiil ilc asc 00. 1lis
is clicvco io c ilc rcason lor ilc cnsiomary oivision ol ilc lonr ano ilc
angnlar ocgrcc inio 00 minnics. In ilc ilcorcm ilai lollows wc slow ilai an
ariirary posiiivc inicgcr / 1 can c nsco as ilc asc.
Theorem 1. / 1 h n .. .nj:. J|n :j .. .nj:
nn h n.j|j ::nn .n | ]:n
= d

d
l
/ d
2
/
2
d
a
/
a
. (2)
|: | n.j. d

. d
l
. . . . . d
a
|. .n | :nnj 0 d
i
/1. ]: n|| i.
: ]. 1lc prool is y inonciion on . ilc nnmcr cing rcprcscnico. lcarly .
ilc rcprcscniaiion 1 = 1 lor 1 is nniqnc. Snpposc. inonciivcly. ilai cvcry
inicgcr 1. 2. . . . . 1 is nniqncly rcprcscnialc. Now consiocr ilc inicgcr .
Lci d

= (moo /). 1lcn d

is oivisilc y / ano lci

l
= ( d

)/ .
Sincc
l
< . y ilc inonciion lypoilcsis
l
is nniqncly rcprcscnialc in
ilc lorm

l
=
d

/
= d
l
d
2
/ d
S
/
2
d
a
/
a l
.
2
1lcn clcarly.
= d

l
/ = d

d
l
/ d
2
/
2
d
a
/
a
.
is ilc rcprcscniaiion rcqnirco.
Iinally. snpposc ilai las somc oilcr rcprcscniaiion in ilis lorm also.
i.c..
= d

d
l
/ d
2
/
2
d
a
/
a
= c

c
l
/ c
2
/
2
c
a
/
a
.
1lcn d

= c

= : as ilcy arc cqnal io ilc rcmainocr ol on oivioing y /.

Now ilc nnmcr

l
=
:
/
= d
l
d
2
/ d
S
/
2
d
a
/
a l
= c
l
c
2
/ c
S
/
2
c
a
/
a l
las iwo oicrcni rcprcscniaiions wlicl coniraoicis ilc inonciivc assnmpiion.
sincc wc lavc assnmco ilc irnil ol ilc rcsnli lor all
l
< .
Corollary 1. 1 | nn.n
= (d
a
d
a l
. . . d
l
d

)

(8)
.: {). J| n.j. d
i
nn h ]nn hj | :nn n|.n.n ] |
n...n n|j:.|n n ]||
=
l
/ d

. (0 d

< /)

l
=
2
/ d
l
. (0 d
l
< /)
.
.
.

a
= 0 / d
a
(0 d
a
< /)
Ior cxamplc. ilc posiiional sysicm wiil asc cmploy ilc oigiis 0. 1. 2. 8. 4
ano wc can wriic
1998
l
= 8

0
S
4
2
4 8 = 80448

.
Lni in ilc compnicrs cra ii is ilc inary (or oyaoic) sysicm (asc 2) ilai
cmcrgco as ilc mosi imporiani onc. Wc lavc only iwo oigiis lcrc 0 ano
1 ano a vcry simplc mnliiplicaiion ialc lor ilcm. Lni nnocr ilc inary
sysicm. ilc rcprcscniaiions ol nnmcrs gci longcr. Ior cxamplc.
80
l
= 1 2

0 2

1 2

0 2
S
1 2
2
1 2 0 = 1010110
2
. (4)
8
Lcini (10401710) was onc ol ilc proponcnis ol ilc inary sysicm. Ac-
coroing io Laplacc: Lcini saw in lis inary ariilmciic ilc imagc ol crc-
aiion. Hc imaginco ilai nii y rcprcscnico o o. ano cro ilc voio ilai ilc
Snprcmc Lcing orcw all cings lrom ilc voio. nsi as nniiy ano cro cxprcss
all nnmcrs in lis sysicm ol nnmcraiion.
Lci ns look ai ilc inary rcprcscniaiion ol a nnmcr lrom ilc inlormaiion
poini ol vicw. Inlormaiion is mcasnrco in iis. Onc h. is a nnii ol inlor-
maiion cxprcssco as a cloicc ciwccn iwo possiiliiics 0 ano 1. 1lc nnmcr
ol inary oigiis in ilc inary rcprcscniaiion ol a nnmcr is ilcrclorc ilc
nnmcr ol iis wc ncco io iransmii ilrongl an inlormaiion clanncl (or
inpni inio a compnicr). Ior cxamplc. ilc cqnaiion (4) slows ilai wc ncco 7
iis io iransmii or inpni ilc nnmcr 80.
Theorem 2. J .n n nnh: hj n:.nj . .n . h.nn:j ::-
nn.n nn log
2
| 1 h. ] .n]:nn.n. |: r| nn |
.nj: n: ] r.
: ]. Snpposc ilai las : inary oigiis in iis inary rcprcscniaiion. 1lai
is
= 2
a l
c
a 2
2
a 2
c
l
2
l
c

. c
i
0. 1.
1lcn 2
a
2
a l
or : |
2
: 1. i.c.. log
2
| = : 1 ano ilns
: = log
2
| 1.
3 epresen tations for real numbers
1lc ncgaiivc powcrs ol 10 arc nsco io cxprcss ilosc rcal nnmcrs wlicl arc
noi inicgcrs. 1lc oilcr ascs can c also nsco. Ior cxamplc.
1
8
= 0.12
l
=
1
10

2
10
2


10
S
=
0
2

0
2
2

1
2
S
= 0.001
2
1
7
= 0.1428714287 . . .
l
= 0.(14287)
l
= 0.001001 . . .
2
= 0.(001)
2
1lc inary cxpansions ol irraiional nnmcrs. sncl as

= 10.001111000110111 . . .
2
.
arc nsco somciimcs in crypiograply lor simnlaiing a ranoom scqncncc ol
iis. Lni ilis mciloo is consiocrco io c insccnrc. 1lc nnmcr.

in ilc
cxamplc aovc. can c gncssco alicr knowing ilc iniiial scgmcni wlicl will
rcvcal ilc wlolc scqncncc.
4