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HELICOPTER MODIFICATIONS AND UPGRADES

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FOREWORD

The operational life of helicopters and aircrafts is usually over 20 years; some models exceed
this period by far (CH-47 Chinook, DC-3, etc.). During those years, many changes occur in
legislation, operation requirements and, for military helicopters/aircrafts, mission scenarios
and threats.
Many excellent books have been written covering most disciplines involving helicopter
development (aerodynamics, structures, performance, hydraulic systems, fuel systems, etc).
Most of them focussed, as mentioned above, on the development phase, that is, they provide
valuable information to design a new helicopter, and although that information is perfectly
valid to achieve any modification, I haven’t found a book specifically orientated to helicopter
modifications and upgrades.

This book is intended to be a guide for those small and mid size companies that carry out
most of the modifications and upgrades that any helicopter will undergo during its operational
life. These companies are not the helicopter manufacturer; therefore most of the helicopter
engineering data is not available to them, often none at all. In most of the cases, only
maintenance manuals and the helicopter itself are available.

I hope this book can solve similar problems, at least a few of them, to those my co-workers
(and friends) and I have had to face for many years when coping with many helicopters’
modifications.

Madrid, August 2006.


Adolfo Sanchez Manso

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. OBJECT .............................................................................................................................4
2. DEFINITION .....................................................................................................................5
3. RELATIONSHIP WITH CUSTOMER .............................................................................6
Documentation: ......................................................................................................................6
4. CERTIFICATION ............................................................................................................13
5. MATERIAL PROCUREMENT AND LOGISTICS........................................................ 19
6. MODIFICATION DESIGN .............................................................................................20
6.1 SAFETY ASSESSMENT ..............................................................................................20
6.2 STRUCTURAL DESIGN ..............................................................................................22
6.2.1 Geometrical definition.............................................................................................22
6.2.3 Actual stress distribution .........................................................................................23
6.2.4 Material selection and documentation.....................................................................28
6.2.5 Weight and balance .................................................................................................31
6.3 ELECTRICAL DESIGN ................................................................................................32
Pin to pin diagrams ...............................................................................................................32
Harness routing.....................................................................................................................33
Electrical load analysis .........................................................................................................34
6.4 AERODYNAMIC AND PERFORMANCE DESIGN .................................................. 35
6.5 SYSTEMS DESIGN ......................................................................................................39
6.5.1 Fluid systems (hydraulic, air conditioning, antiicing, fuel, etc.) .............................39
6.5.2 Mechanical systems.................................................................................................40
6.6 NOISE ............................................................................................................................40
6.7 ADDITIONAL DOCUMENTS FOR CERTIFICATION .............................................41
6.8 MANUAL SUPPLEMENTS..........................................................................................43
7. PROTOTYPE INSTALLATION .....................................................................................48
7.1 SERVICE BULLETIN ...................................................................................................49
7.2 WORK ORDER .............................................................................................................50
8. PROTOTYPE TESTS ......................................................................................................52
8.1 FUNCTIONAL AND GROUND TESTS ...................................................................... 52
8.2 EMI/EMC TESTS ..........................................................................................................58
Equipment level tests............................................................................................................58
Interoperability test...............................................................................................................58
Allowable radiation level .....................................................................................................65
8.3 FLIGHT TESTS .............................................................................................................65
9. ENTRY INTO SERVICE.................................................................................................72
10. SUMMARY .................................................................................................................73

Pag.3
1. OBJECT
The purpose of this book is to provide information to allow the reader to successfully
accomplish any modification or upgrade of a helicopter (civil or military).
This book makes the assumption that a small or mid size company has been selected to carry
out a modification. This implies that an employee has been designated as project manager and
is responsible for the whole project with the following conditions:

a) Helicopter engineering data is not available


b) Maintenance manuals are available
c) The helicopter is available, for limited periods of time, because operativity must be
kept until the modification starts
d) The company doesn’t have experts in all the required disciplines
e) The company is a minor consumer of raw materials (aluminium sheets, bolts, rivets,
electrical connectors, etc.) compared to any helicopter manufacturer
f) Direct contact with the customer is the responsibility of the project manager
g) Direct contact with the certification authority is also the project manager’s
responsibility

The following chapters are organised trying to follow the logical sequence of a modification
project.

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2. DEFINITION
It is important to define what a modification or upgrade is, in order to understand the
implications regarding certification (see chapter 4 for more details).

Modification/Upgrade: Any change of helicopter configuration carried out with non-approved


data by any airworthiness certification authority. This data has to be approved by the pertinent
certification authority prior to the release of the helicopter into normal service.
It is the responsibility of the company carrying out the modification to get the certificate of
the aforementioned modification from the applicable airworthiness authority.

The process to be followed to approve a modification, as far as certification is concerned, is


described in chapter 4.

On the other hand, when an approved (by any airworthiness authority) Service Bulletin (the
document describing how to carry out a particular modification) is implemented, the
certification process is greatly reduced, as mentioned in chapter 4.

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3. RELATIONSHIP WITH CUSTOMER
It is extremely important to establish a relationship with the customer based on confidence, to
prevent future disappointments, complaints and other problems. The customer has to be
informed (in advance) of any limitation imposed on the performance of the systems installed.
These limitations may occur because of the helicopter’s geometry, electrical power
generation, structural stress state or many other reasons.

Keep in mind that every customer expects the systems or equipment to operate as stated in
their specifications. Unfortunately, most of the time these specifications are based on
laboratory tests, performed in ideal conditions. Ideal conditions simply do not exist in a
helicopter (eg, most, if not all, of the Forward Looking Infrared devices currently in use in
helicopters are able to provide 360º azimuth view and between +90º to –120º in elevation.
When installed in a helicopter it is very difficult to attain those angles, simply because the
fuselage exists). This example is quite evident and easy to understand by the customer, but
even in these cases, inform the customer as soon as possible to prevent future trouble.

There are a large variety of customers and the project manager has to deal with all of them.
Some of them provide very detailed specifications of what exactly they want, others simply
say they want this equipment to be installed without any further information. Some customers
define (model and part numbers) the systems and equipment they require to be installed,
others just mention the system they need (a satellite phone, a conversion to medical
evacuation, etc) and expect the modification company to select the systems for them.

Because of this variety, this book will assume the worst case, with no specification provided
and systems or equipment to be selected by the company. Obviously, if the customer has a
written specification and has selected the equipment, these tasks do not have to be carried out
by the modification company.

Several quality assurance standards (EN 9100, AQAP 110, etc) define the documentation to
be written and the design reviews to be held with the customer in any project.

Documentation:

a) Installation specification
b) Design management plan
c) Configuration control management plan
d) Quality assurance plan

Installation specification:

It is advisable to issue a specification to define the installation requirements and send it to the
customer for their approval. This document makes clear what the installation goals are and the
final design can be checked against them. In other words, the final design can be accepted or
rejected based on facts and not on opinions.

Depending on the modification complexity, the installation specification may be as brief as


one page or as long as required. But the minimum information to be included is the following:

Pag.6
a) Model and part numbers of the systems or equipment to be installed
b) Environmental and electromagnetic requirements to be withstood by the
systems/equipment. These requirements are those of the helicopter. If no information
is available about these requirements, use those mentioned in the military standards
MIL-STD-810 (environment) and MIL-STD-461 (electromagnetic) for military
helicopters, and the DO-160 for civil helicopters
c) Expected operational performance of systems and equipment
d) Ergonomic requirements. If there is not data available, use MIL-STD-1472
e) Certification standards to be applied. FAR 27 or 29 (USA), EASA Part 27 or 29
(Europe), etc for civil helicopters. Specific military standards, depending on the
country, for military helicopters
f) Maximum weight increase allowed to the modification
g) Cooling requirements for electronic equipment
h) Maximum acceptable temperature and humidity for air conditioning modifications
i) Maximum acceptable CO levels inside the cabin (when number of passengers has
been increased)
j) Non standard corrosion prevention methods, if any
k) Any other relevant requirement (specific configuration for avionics modifications,
stiffness requirements for major structural modifications, expected fatigue life for
structural modifications, etc)

It can seem cumbersome and time consuming to issue a specification for many minor
modifications, but even in such cases it is worth doing . Remember that the modification has
to be accepted by the customer and we are all generals after the battle. It is much easier to get
acceptance of a modification after filling in a checklist, where the operational parameters
(with tolerances) are described, than discussing several opinions.

Design management plan:

This document mentions how the modification design and implementation will be carried out,
what resources are assigned to the project, who is responsible for every discipline involved in
the modification (structure, electrical systems, tests, prototype installation, etc) and which
means will be utilised ( eg 3D design tools, finite element analysis codes, etc).

It should also mention who has to sign, and in what order, the documents being issued (ie, a
mechanical drawing requires several signatures, such as drawn by, checked by, stress check
by, approved by, etc).

The design reviews are established (how many, dates and locations (customer facilities or
modification company premises)) and record formats and procedures.

Configuration control management plan:

This document describes how the documentation to be issued will be numbered and
controlled. It also states how the changes, concessions and deviations will be treated
(drawings, documents, equipments, etc), who is responsible for doing it and with what means
the configuration control is achieved.

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Quality assurance plan:

This document is exactly what it says. It summarises the methods to be used to ensure the
modification meets the company’s quality standards. This document is issued by the
company’s quality assurance department, which is independent of the engineering and
production departments.

Design reviews:

Three design reviews are normally set up for major modifications, however, for minor ones
this can be too much and even meaningless, because it may take less time to finish the design
than to prepare the three reviews. But at leas, one design review has to be held for minor
modifications.

For major modifications, the design reviews are the following (this is the minimum number of
reviews, more reviews can be defined if deemed necessary).

a) PDR (preliminary design review)


b) CDR (critical design review)
c) FDR (final design review)

PDR:
The preliminary design review is held when the design concepts are completely defined,
although minor changes could take place.
During this meeting the following modification aspects are analysed:

a) Systems/equipment selection
b) Equipment locations on helicopter
c) Structural modification design
d) Structural stress analysis (static, dynamic and fatigue)
e) Material selection (structural and mechanical)
f) Corrosion prevention program
g) Weight estimation
h) Ergonomics
i) Cooling requirements
j) Electrical consumption
k) Electrical modification design (pin to pin diagrams and harness routing)
l) Material selection (electrical components such as connectors, switches, etc)
m) Aerodynamic impact
n) Helicopter performance impact (if any)
o) System/equipment actual expected performance
p) Noise requirements (if applicable)
q) Preliminary functional and ground test procedure
r) Preliminary EMI/EMC test procedure

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s) Preliminary flight test procedure
t) Preliminary flight manual supplement
u) Preliminary documents for continuous airworthiness (maintenance manual
supplement, wiring manual supplement, illustrated part catalogue supplement)
v) Project schedule
w) Any other relevant aspect

After the PDR is finished, a document has to be issued (normally a check list) contemplating
all the analysed aspects. It has to make clear if any particular point is approved or rejected and
what remarks (if any) have been stated. This document has to be signed off by the customer
representative and the project manager.

If the PDR has been approved by the customer, it has to be explicitly written that permission
has been granted to begin the next modification phase (detail design).

CDR:
The critical design review is held when the detail design is finished.
During this meeting the following modification aspects are analysed:

x) Definitive equipment locations on helicopter


y) Definitive Structural modification design
z) Definitive Structural stress analysis (static, dynamic and fatigue)
aa) Material selection (structural and mechanical)
bb) Corrosion prevention program
cc) Weight impact
dd) Ergonomics
ee) Cooling requirements
ff) Electrical consumption
gg) Electrical modification design (pin to pin diagrams and harness routing)
hh) Material selection (electrical components such as connectors, switches, etc.)
ii) Aerodynamic impact
jj) Helicopter performance impact (if any)
kk) System/equipment actual expected performance
ll) Noise requirements (if applicable)
mm) Definitive functional and ground test procedure
nn) Definitive EMI/EMC test procedure
oo) Definitive flight test procedure
pp) Preliminary flight manual supplement
qq) Preliminary documents for continuous airworthiness (maintenance manual
supplement, wiring manual supplement, illustrated part catalogue supplement)
rr) Project schedule
ss) Any other relevant aspect

After the CDR is finished, a document has to be issued (normally a check list), which lists all
the analysed aspects. It has to make clear if any particular point is approved or rejected and
what remarks (if any) have been stated. This document has to be signed off by the customer
representative and the project manager.

Pag.9
If the CDR has been approved by the customer, it has to be explicitly written that permission
has been granted to begin the next modification phase (parts’ manufacturing, prototype
installation and tests).

FDR:
The final design review is held to wrap up the project. A final document is issued and signed
off by customer and project manager, declaring the modification has been accepted by the
former.

The following documentation is given to the customer:

a) Flight manual supplement


b) Maintenance manual supplement
c) Wiring manual supplement
d) Illustrated Part Catalogue supplement
e) Copy of the approved modification airworthiness certificate (not mandatory)
f) Filled in helicopter log book
g) For military helicopters in NATO countries: NSN’s (NATO Stock numbers of the
applicable parts)

And the following items are also delivered:

a) The modified helicopter


b) Spare parts (if applicable)
c) Special tools (if applicable)
d) Ground support equipment (if applicable)
It is noteworthy to say that performance of systems and equipment has to be demonstrated to
the customer. This can take place prior to or during the final design review. Some differences
exist between system performance shown to the certification authority and system
performance to be demonstrated to the customer. In chapter 4 “Certification” this is explained
in greater detail.

As far as system or equipment selection is concerned, assuming the customer has not already
selected the system or equipment, keep them informed and involved in the selection, , as
much as possible, and take into account the following suggestions.

Disregarding economical issues (it is assumed that an agreement about equipment prices has
been reached somehow), the following has to be considered when dealing with equipment
suppliers (manufacturers or vendors).

a) Lead-time: this is the first information to be required from the supplier, preferably in
writing. It is evident that without this information, a realistic modification schedule
cannot be completed. It is sensible to provide the customer with a non-excessively
optimistic schedule in order to prevent future problems. If some particular equipment
has a very long lead time, one year for instance, inform the customer from the
beginning that this is the time they have to wait, and do not trust the supplier’s
goodwill promises saying that it may be delivered sooner. It will not be or, even
worse, the equipment will have some flaws that, in the long term, cause more delays.

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b) Specification: Ask for a comprehensive specification of the product. This will let you
know what you should expect from the system.
c) Declaration of Design and Performance (DDP): Demand a DDP from the supplier.
Several items of equipment do not fulfil the specification requirements, and the DDP
states the deviations and actual equipment performance.
d) Environmental and EMI/EMC test reports: Pay special attention to this issue. Make
sure that the equipment to be installed in the helicopter is able to withstand its
operational environment (vibration, temperature variations, EMI, etc.). Therefore, if
possible, ask the supplier for a copy of these test reports. As the very minimum, ask
the supplier for the equipment fragility curve (that shows the vibration level the
equipment is able to withstand without shock absorbers)
e) Failure analysis report: If the system to be installed may have any failure mode that
could be dangerous or catastrophic for the helicopter, demand a Failure Mode and
Effect Analysis report (FMEA) from the supplier
f) Interface Control Document (ICD): this is the document needed to achieve the
installation on the helicopter. This document describes the mechanical (dimensions,
attachment points, weight, centre of gravity, etc), electrical (signals, connectors, pins,
etc), cooling (forced ventilation required, minimum distances to enclosure walls, etc.)
and any other interface. This document has also to be provided by the supplier
g) Acceptance Test Procedure (ATP): The supplier has to deliver the procedures to test
the equipment when received at the modification company’s facilities. This test checks
whether the equipment is in the same condition as when it was sent from the supplier
factory or, for any reason, has been damaged during transportation.
h) Data sheets: The supplier has to send the Data sheets (those recording the data
obtained in the supplier factory when the equipment is tested prior to being shipped to
the modification company), otherwise it would be impossible to determine if the
equipment has suffered any damage during transportation or it was sent with some
problem by the supplier
i) Certificate of conformity: The equipment, when shipped, has to be provided with a
certificate of conformity stating the product has been manufactured according to the
approved design data.
j) Maintenance manuals: If contractually demanded by the customer. These manuals can
be for O (operational), I (intermediate) and D (Depot) maintenance levels.
k) For electronic equipment, ask the supplier for all the equipment needed to operate the
system. All equipment means all the components to be installed in the helicopter and
all the auxiliary items (for ground use) required to operate and test the system. Some
companies say nothing about these auxiliary items, and when you realise it is
necessary, the wasted time is hard to regain and the price is usually quite high.

It is more expensive to order any system or equipment with the stated documentation than
without it. However, those documents ease the certification process (which could become
very expensive if the certification authority requires a demonstration of compliance of any
equipment with all or some environmental requirements, firstly because tests are expensive
and, secondly, because the modification company has no control over the equipment in case a
failure occurred during these tests).
On the other hand, if there are functional problems with the supplied equipment, the
documentation (ATP and data sheets) helps to detect where the problem is and who is
responsible for it.

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The previous paragraph leads to the warranty issue. It is customary to get a one year warranty
for most equipment and systems. If the customer requires a warranty extension, the equipment
manufacturer or vendor has to be informed and the modification company will be charged for
this extension.
The following surcharges can be expected:

a) Software: from 7% to 12% of equipment net price per year of warranty extension
b) Electronic equipment hardware: 5% to 8% of equipment net price per year of warranty
extension
c) Other equipment/systems: 4% to 9% (depending on equipment complexity) of
equipment net price per year of warranty extension

The liability of the modification carried out belongs to the modification company; this has to
demand the same level of responsibility from its suppliers. Therefore, the contracts to be
issued have to contain the following information, as a minimum:

a) Number of equipment/systems to be supplied


b) Delivery schedule
c) Type of supplied equipment: only new equipments are acceptable, no “exchange”
items or second hand ones are tolerated
d) Unit price
e) Auxiliary equipment (if needed) price and delivery schedule
f) Documentation to be delivered (Specification, DDP, test reports, ATP, Data sheets,
etc)
g) Warranty and warranty extensions if applicable (price of these extensions)
h) Equipment/systems delivery location (at manufacturer’s facilities, at modification
company premises, at modification company closest customer, etc)
i) Equipment/system transportation method (by air, sea, etc)
j) Down payment (if previously agreed)
k) Payment schedule (usually linked to the delivery schedule)
l) Indemnity (in case some delivery delay occurs or the equipment works below the
specification operation levels). Usually the indemnities are the same as those imposed
by the customer on the modification company. Contract cancellation details are
included in this paragraph
m) Maintenance plan: it has to be clearly mentioned if the intermediate and depot level
maintenance will be carried out exclusively by the equipment manufacturer or some
maintenance capabilities have to be developed by the modification company or the
helicopter operator (customer). Obviously, this is particularly important after the
warranty period has expired
n) Future maintenance policy. It will be defined how the items needing maintenance will
be managed. Basically there are two ways of doing this. In the first case, the item is
sent to the maintenance facility and when properly revised or repaired it is returned
to the modification company (or the customer) and installed in the helicopter. The
other alternative (available only for certain equipment) is called “exchange”; it means
that an item is sent to the maintenance facility and you receive a revised or repaired
one belonging to another operator. Both methods have pros and cons; a careful study
is required before deciding which one to select. In fact, in most cases the customer will
be the one to decide which method to choose according to their current and future
needs

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4. CERTIFICATION
The certification authority that validates the modification will verify the following and only
this:

The modification does not adversely affect the safe operation of the helicopter.

There are two very important certification paragraphs in FAR and EASA standards;
27/29.1301 and 27/29.1309. They are enunciated in an apparently simple and straightforward
form, but to show compliance with them is not that simple.

The philosophy of paragraph 1301 is: Every system/piece of equipment installed in a


helicopter has to work for what it is designed (and in some occasions limitations have to be
implemented because of restrictions imposed by the helicopter on the system or, vice versa,
the system on the helicopter).

The philosophy of paragraph 1309 is: Every system/piece of equipment installed in a


helicopter has to work in a safe manner (in all the conceivable conditions compatible with the
helicopter operation).

It implies that the authority will check if each and every one of the systems/pieces of
equipment installed affect the helicopter, but the authority will not express any opinion about
the quality of the new systems/equipment. An example will clarify this point.

Assume that a machine gun has been installed in a helicopter. The certification authority will
check the following:

a) The machine gun is able to withstand and operate safely in the helicopter environment
b) The ammunition is safe to be shot on board the helicopter
c) No bullet will impact, in any conceivable flight condition when the machine gun is
shooting, with any part of the helicopter (blades, sponson, etc)
d) Gases from the machine gun do not adversely affect the helicopter
e) Vibration caused by the machine gun does not adversely affect the equipment nearby
f) There is sufficient time to bail out of the helicopter in case of an accident, when the
machine gun is installed
g) Some other issues

But the certification authority will not verify if the maximum range of the machine gun meets
that of the specification, if the machine gun is accurate enough to hit some targets under
specific shooting conditions, etc. These characteristics have to be demonstrated to the
customer, not to the certification authority.
That is why, as mentioned in chapter 3, a FDR is sometimes necessary. Safety operation has
to be demonstrated to the certification authority, and performance according to the
specification has to be demonstrated to the customer.

The certification process starts with an official letter sent by the company to the authority. It
mentions that a modification (ie, a GPS model XXXX) is going to be carried out on a

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helicopter model XXXX and asks for a meeting to be held between the company and the
authority to make a presentation of the project and start discussions on the certification
process.

The certification documentation to be issued for a generic modification is:

a) Certification plan
b) Modification description
c) Safety assessment
d) Master drawing list
e) Helicopter configuration report
f) Equipment qualification report
g) Mechanical drawings
h) Static structural analysis
i) Dynamic structural analysis
j) Fatigue analysis
k) Electrical drawings
l) Electrical load analysis
m) Weight and balance
n) Aerodynamic analysis
o) Helicopter performance analysis
p) Fire protection analysis
q) Hydraulic system functional analysis
r) Thermal analysis
s) Pneumatic system functional analysis
t) Anti icing system functional analysis
u) Fire extinguishing system functional analysis
v) Flight controls kinematical analysis
w) Landing gear kinematical analysis
x) Fuel system functional analysis
y) Noise analysis
z) Air conditioning functional analysis
aa) Heating system functional analysis
bb) Illumination system functional analysis
cc) Main rotor kinematical analysis

dd) Tail rotor kinematical analysis


ee) Blade folding system functional analysis
ff) Transmission functional analysis
gg) Safety analysis (if needed depending on safety assessment results)
hh) FMEA (if needed depending on hazard analysis results)
ii) Functional and ground test procedure
jj) Functional and ground test results report
kk) EMI/EMC test procedure
ll) EMI/EMC test results report
mm) Flight test procedure
mn) Flight test results report
mo) Modification checklist
mp) Service bulletin
mq) Flight manual supplement

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mr) Maintenance manual supplement
ms) Wiring manual supplement
mt) If a modification is applied on an engine, equivalent documentation as above has to be
edited plus 1) engine functional analysis 2) windmill effect analysis 3) rotating part
containment analysis

The certification plan is the document that sets up the certification bases and how compliance
with those certification requirements will be demonstrated (compliance methods).

The certification bases depend on whether the helicopter is civil or military.

For civil helicopters, the certification bases are:

For helicopters designed in the USA: FAR 27 or FAR 29 (it depends on the weight of the
helicopter. FAR 27 is applicable for helicopters with a take off weight equal or less than 6000
lbs and FAR29 for those with a take off weight exceeding 6000 lbs).

For helicopters designed in Europe: EASA Part 27 or Part 29 (it also depends on the weight of
the helicopter).

FAR 27 and EASA Part 27 are equivalent, but there are some differences between FAR 29
and EASA Part 29.

For military helicopters, the certification bases can be selected by the applicant (the
modification company). According to the type of modification, it may even be valid to use
civil standards (FAR/EASA 29 for instance) and discuss with the authority special paragraphs
for the specific military characteristics not covered by the civil standards.
In the USA applicable military standards for helicopters are recommended, in Canada DEF-
STAN (Volume 2: rotary wing) are also suggested. In other countries, however, military
standards for helicopters are not so readily available or they simply do not exist.

A suggested table of contents for a certification plan is the following:

1) Scope
2) Applicability
3) Reference documentation
4) Modification description
5) Configurations
6) Design definition
7) Documentation control
8) Certification bases
9) Certification requirements
10) Compliance methods
11) List of documents
12) Limitations

Scope:

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This paragraph defines the purpose of the document: to obtain a certification by the authority
for the modification (whichever it is) to be implemented on the helicopter model XXXX,
manufactured by XXXX.

Applicability:
This paragraph indicates which helicopters will be affected by the modifications. Include
serial number and tail number, if possible.

Reference documentation:
List the document used to issue the certification plan (flight manual, Type Certificate,
maintenance manuals, certification standards, etc)

Modification description:
Summarise the modification (what it consists of , where the equipment is located, how it
works, which are the interfaces with the helicopter, etc)

Configurations:
The modification will be implemented in a particular helicopter configuration. This
configuration has to be clearly defined. Refer to the helicopter configuration report.

Bear in mind that, at this stage, all possible variations of the standard helicopter configuration
compatible with the modification have to be defined in order to obtain a certification covering
all possible situations. An example will be used to clarify this point.

Assume a VHF radio has to be installed in a helicopter. This helicopter has a configuration
(whatever it is). This configuration will be called “standard”.
Some optionals exists for this helicopter model eg a rescue hoist, skis and stretchers, although
they are not installed in the aircraft. All these optionals are compatible with the VHF radio.
The applicable configuration is the standard + rescue hoist + skis + stretchers.
Of course, this compatibility has to be demonstrated to the certification authority.

If the stated optionals are not included in the helicopter configuration report, the use of the
VHF radio will not be possible, from a legal standpoint, when some or all of the optionals are
installed in the helicopter.

Design definition:
The modification design is completed by the drawings and documents in the Master drawing
list.

Documentation control:
This paragraph defines how the certification documentation to be sent to the authority will be
controlled by the modification company.

Certification bases:

Pag.16
This paragraph states what the certification bases are (ie, FAR29), what the applicable
standards’ amendments are, and the reasons to apply these bases.

Certification requirements:
Each paragraph of the applicable certification standard has to be analysed and determined if it
is applicable (or not) to the modification. A table, similar to the one shown below, has to be
created listing all the applicable paragraphs.

METHOD OF COMPLIANCE
SECTION TITLE (Amdt)
(MOC)

General
29.25 (a) (b) (c) Weight limits (Amdt 29-43) Analysis
Centre of gravity limits (Amdt
29.27 Analysis
29-3)
Empty weight and
29.29 (a) (b) corresponding center of Analysis
gravity (Amdt 29-15)
Strength Requirements
Factor of Safety. (Original
29.303 Stress analysis
Edition)
Strength and Deformation.
29.305 (a) (b) Stress analysis
(Original Edition)
Proof of structure (Amdt 29-
29.307 (a) (b) Stress analysis
26)
Design Limitations. (Original
29.309 Stress analysis
Edition)
29.561(a) (b) (c) Emergency landing
Stress analysis
(d) Conditions (Amdt 29-38)

Compliance methods:
These are the methods used to demonstrate that each certification paragraph is accomplished
by the modification.

Several methods of compliance can be utilised, such as:

a) Compliance statement
b) Design reviews
c) Analysis (structural, electrical, aerodynamic, etc)
d) Qualification of equipment, components and materials
e) Aircraft inspection
f) Ground and functional tests
g) EMI/EMC tests
h) Flight tests

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i) Laboratory tests
j) Any other acceptable by the authority

A brief explanation of these methods has to be included in the certification plan.

List of documents:
All the certification documents have to be listed with title, number and issue.

Limitations:
Expected limitations in the flight envelope or any other operational limitation has to be
mentioned. If no limitation is envisaged or it is not possible to determine it at this stage, then
it will be mentioned that any limitations detected during the certification process will be
included in the flight manual supplement and/or maintenance manual supplement (if
applicable).

The rest of the certification documents will be further detailed in the following chapters.

Note for civil modifications made in the USA and applied to European helicopters: Before the
creation of EASA, it was customary in some European countries that the pertinent Civil
Aviation Authority validated directly any modification made in the USA, and approved by the
FAA, applicable to a civil helicopter. In other words, any modification approved by FAA
could be implemented in some European helicopters without further investigation. Since
EASA exists, no modification approved by FAA is directly applicable in any European
country; all these modifications have to be validated by EASA before they could be applied.

Note for minor civil modifications in Europe: A minor modification is that complying with the
requirements set up in EASA Part 21 Check list (major and minor modifications). If the minor
modification is carried out by a DOA (Design Organization Approval) company, the
certification authority delegates the modification approval to the company (similar to the
DER’s and the FAA,This means that certification documentation does not need to be sent to
the authority for approval, but the work to be completed is exactly the same as for a major
modification. It has to be substantiated in the same way. Minor modification does not mean
that the justification documents do not have to be completed because the modification is quite
simple.

Pag.18
5. MATERIAL PROCUREMENT AND LOGISTICS

Modification companies are usually small consumers of raw materials; therefore, they are
always at the bottom of the vendor’s priorities. If this company is located in a country where
all or most of these aeronautical materials (aluminium, titanium, rivets, bolts, electrical
connectors, hydraulic connectors, electrical wires, etc) have to be imported, the situation is
even worse, and it will have a negative impact on the project schedule.

In order to minimize delays, the following actions can be implemented:

a) Use the same standards as those of the helicopter, design with the same bolts, rivets,
nuts, etc. Some materials spared for maintenance can be used for the modification
until the purchase order is received
b) Define standard part numbers instead of vendor’s part numbers on the parts lists.
Define MS, NAS, LN, etc part numbers and avoid part numbers of suppliers, so more
vendors can provide the same part
c) When rivets and bolts have been selected, order those bolts and rivets and also some
of the same part number but with one longer dash number and others with the same
part number but with one shorter dash number
d) Select the electrical connectors as soon as possible and place an order immediately
(lead-time is variable depending on the connector. It can range from one week to
more than twelve . Four to six weeks is an average lead-time). Obviously, it is
absolutely necessary to know what the equipment connectors are before any purchase
order can be placed. This information is obtained from the ICD (see chapter 3)
e) When ordering a system or piece of equipment, state explicitly that the following
items are required:
a. System/equipment part number XXXX
b. System/equipment specification
c. Declaration of design and performance (DDP)
d. Interface control document (ICD)
e. Environmental and EMI/EMC test reports
f. Acceptance test procedure and data sheets
g. FMEA (if necessary)
h. System/equipment maintenance manuals (if required)

f) Order metal sheets as soon as possible and at least 10% in excess of what is expected
to be consumed
g) If special paint is needed (eg radomes), select and order it as soon as possible
h) Bear in mind that some static strength tests (ie, for metallic materials’ yield and
ultimate tensile stress tests) have to be carried out on some specimen items to ensure
the material complies with the strength requirements. These tests will be performed by
the quality assurance department; according to the material reception procedure set up
by the company. Tests of composites are more complex and require more time than
their metallic counterparts

Pag.19
6. MODIFICATION DESIGN

In principle, any modification can be attempted, but with regard to the assumptions of chapter
1 it is very wise not to be involved in modifications concerning the following items, or at
least, subcontract this part of the job to the helicopter/engine manufacturer as soon as the
project starts.

a) Rotor (both main and tail rotor, including hydraulic system) and blades
b) Transmissions and gear boxes (particularly the main gear box)
c) Autopilot (those modifications involving autopilot control laws and autopilot
interconnection with other navigation or attitude equipment)
d) Automatic augmentation stabilization systems
e) Engine (engine itself, external devices (EAPS) affecting the engine can be
installed without special problems)

Another important issue is that of the helicopters endowed with second-generation avionics;
examples are the Eurocopter EC-135 (civil) and Eurocopter Tiger (military). When a new
system or equipment is installed in such helicopters, the software has to be adapted in order to
“inform” the helicopter that a new component has been added and its behaviour has to be
modified accordingly. The helicopter manufacturer is the only one possessing that capability
(because only they have the software), therefore ask for their support at the beginning of the
project.

Any other modification can be achieved without the support of the helicopter manufacturer.

The following subchapters are listed sequentially but they can be addressed in parallel except
the safety assessment; that should be the first analysis completed, even before the
modification design is started.

It is worth a reminder of what the purposes of any modification are, although they seem quite
obvious.

a) Helicopter safety (this is the main consideration to be taken into account)


b) Proper operation of the new equipment in order to accomplish its intended use
c) Maintenance simplicity (the helicopter will be maintained for many year after the
modification is completed, so try to ease the modification maintenance tasks and not
complicate the previously established maintenance actions)
d) Ergonomics (design modifications in such a way so as not to increase the work load of
the crew more than necessary; and prevent tiredness through a lack of comfort (eg
improper illumination, reduced space to operate, unsuitable vision angles, etc)

6.1 SAFETY ASSESSMENT


Prior to discussing safety assessment, it is necessary to mention another safety issue that is of
great concern for the certification authorities. This is the modification fire protection.
What has been devised to prevent a fire due to the modification has to be documented in the
“Fire protection analysis report”.
For most modifications, this report deals with the materials selected (mechanical and
electrical) for the modification and the new installed equipment. It has to be demonstrated that

Pag.20
the materials selected are fire resistant according to FAR or EASA 27/29-853/855/861 and
863; the same applies to the new equipment.

Compliance with those paragraphs is demonstrated by suitable selection of materials and fire
tests successfully passed by the equipment. In some extreme cases it may require that a fire
extinguishing system be installed.

As far as a safety assessment is concerned, it has to be carried out to comply with FAR or
EASA 27/29.1309. This analysis will reveal what failures may occur, due to the modification,
and how dangerous they are.
The following documents can be consulted to clarify the scope of paragraph 27/29.1309:

a) FAA AC 29.1309
b) FAA AC 25.1309-1A
c) FAA AC 23-1309-1C
d) JAA AMJ 25-1509-1 (NPA 25F-281 Final versión)

The functional hazard analysis is the first to be done, even before the modification design is
started.

The conclusions of this analysis will drive the design process in order to prevent any potential
major, hazardous or catastrophic failure.

Note: the documentation referred above classifies the failures as minor, major, hazardous or
catastrophic. The following is a brief summary of that classification. Consult the
aforementioned documents for further details
Minor failures are those that do not affect the aircraft’s essential flight characteristics
Major failures are those affecting the helicopter’s flight characteristics and causing
increased work for the crew
Hazardous failures are those that may cause serious injuries to the passengers but the crew is
able to perform its tasks
Catastrophic failures are those that may cause the destruction of the helicopter and the death
of its occupants.

The functional hazard analysis has to state the capabilities of the new installed equipment. It
has to investigate if any failure (capability loss, wrong indications, electrical failure,
mechanical failure, electromagnetic interferences, etc) of the new equipment can adversely
affect the essential helicopter functions. All the failures are classified according to minor,
major, hazardous or catastrophic.
If any potential failure of the new equipment can cause only minor failures, no further
analysis is required. Notwithstanding this, the modification design has to consider the means
to prevent as many minor failures as possible.

On the contrary, if major, hazardous or catastrophic failures may occur, further investigation
is needed. This is recorded in the following documents:

a) Safety analysis
b) FMEA (failure modes and effect analysis)

Pag.21
One of the best references to learn how to perform these analyses is the ARP procedures (926,
5580) of the SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) of the USA.

The safety analysis determines the probability that a particular failure occurs and what has to
be done to increase this probability (increase redundancy, establish inspections, specific
designs, etc) and in the event this increase is not feasible, how the design has to be redefined
to diminish the consequences of that particular failure. Several techniques are used to perform
this task. One of them, fault tree analysis, uses probability to assure a particular system
complies with the safety requirements.

Note: Minor failures are those with an occurrence probability from 10-3 to 10-5. Major
failures from 10-5 to 10-7. Hazardous failures from 10-7 to 10-9 and Catastrophic failures less
than 10-9.

The FMEA shows most of the failures that could happen in a system of special importance
and what their consequences are, both in the system and in the helicopter. The concept of
this analysis is simple: but imagine all the potential failures an autopilot could have and their
consequences. In other words, to perform a FMEA analysis many tests and much time are
required. This analysis has to identify the failures modes, has to set up quantitative failure
rates, has to identify the failure effects and, finally, it has to show how the failure is detected.

6.2 STRUCTURAL DESIGN


From a structural standpoint, the designer faces two problems regarding the lack of available
engineering data, namely:

a) Geometrical helicopter definition


b) Actual stress distribution in the helicopter structure

How to overcome these two problems will be subsequently shown.

6.2.1 Geometrical definition


When a piece of equipment has to be installed in a helicopter and no reliable drawings exist,
depending on the money allocated for the modification and the means available, the helicopter
structure can be reproduced by two different methods. It is noteworthy to mention that only
very complex areas, those with double curvature surfaces, ie, helicopter nose, need to resort to
these methods; other areas with single curvature surfaces can be reproduced with a few
measures taken on the helicopter.

Method a:
You need a laser tracker, or similar equipment, to measure a grid of points on the helicopter
selected area.
First of all, using tape or any other means, draw a point grid on the actual helicopter skin,
using as many points as necessary. This sentence means: use many many points, and number
them in a logical sequence (this is very important), the more complex the surface is, the more
points are needed to get a reliable reproduction.

Using the laser tracker, get the 3-D coordinates of all these points. These coordinates are
related to the laser tracker origin. Record the stated measurements.

Pag.22
Transfer the laser tracker file to a 3-D CAD program, like CATIA V5, V4 or any other
equivalent.

Using the measured points, create a 3-D surface. It will be an absolutely reliable reproduction
of the helicopter skin.

Consult the original IPC or structural repair manual to know the skin thickness at this area,
apply this thickness to the 3-D surface. In those documents you will also find the thickness of
frames and stringers, and their materials. So measure on the helicopter the position of those
elements and reproduce them on the 3-D surface, in the appropriate location.
The reliable definition of the actual helicopter has been accomplished. Using this method, the
whole helicopter structure can be reproduced, although the cost will be ridiculously
expensive.

Method b:
The goal and procedure are similar to those of method “a”; the only difference is the available
means.
If no laser tracker or similar equipment is available, then make some metallic templates of the
selected area in two perpendicular set of planes respect to the surface (that is, templates
parallel to the existing frames and in their perpendicular direction (that of the stringers)).

These templates will be made of thin aluminium or any other material easy to work. The
metallic plate will be adapted to the helicopter geometry in successive steps; as you can
imagine, this is a very time consuming operation, and not as accurate as the laser tracker
measurement, but reliable enough for any modification. Differences between the actual
surface and that created from the templates are usually of the order of one mm.

It is wise to create the template at the same location as the frames and stringers bounding the
selected area. The more complex the surface is, the more templates are needed.

Next step is to obtain the coordinates of some points of these templates (bear in mind that
these template are 2-D elements); a gauge can be used for this task, and then transfer these
coordinates to a 3-D CAD program.

From this step, the work to do is exactly the same as that of method “a”. The only difference
will be precision. This method is less accurate, but expect errors between 0.5 and 1.5 mm
when comparing the actual helicopter surface with the one created by this method.

6.2.3 Actual stress distribution


This is another important problem to face. It is relatively easy to determine how the new
equipment increases the helicopter’s weight, because the modification company has got the
data of these pieces of equipment (weight, centre of gravity location, external envelope, etc):
but how stressed is the actual helicopter structure in the area where the new equipment will be
placed?
The obvious answer to this problem is to measure those stresses on the actual helicopter.
However, this is so expensive that is out of the question for many modifications.

Pag.23
If a very sensitive area will be affected by the modification, and very sensitive area means the
structure supporting the main gearbox or the tail rotor, then those areas will be flight-tested.
As many strain gauges as needed will be located in the structural elements in order to get the
real stresses of the structure under all representative flight conditions.
It is an expensive procedure because more flights than expected will have to be done, the
reason is the equipment recording the strain gauges data; unfortunately they do not have an
infinite number of channels, in fact they do not have many, and in order to get a detailed
knowledge of how the supporting structure is loaded, many strain gauges are needed and
several flight conditions have to be evaluated.
However, if those areas will be affected by the modification, it is wise to proceed in the
aforementioned manner.

For all other modifications, this is simply unacceptable from an economical standpoint and in
fact, not absolutely necessary. But if you have enough economical resources do not hesitate to
flight test the helicopter, as it is the only absolutely reliable method to know the structural
stress distribution; if not, then the following assumption can be used.

Assume the helicopter structure is loaded to its 100% capability.

It means that metallic components are assumed to be loaded to their yield allowable stress (the
component is not loaded beyond that because otherwise it will have yielded, and obviously
that is not the case. Besides, there are compressive stresses in the helicopter and those
buckling and crippling ones are usually lower than the yield allowable stress).
Composite elements are assumed to be loaded to their allowable ultimate tension stress.

This assumption implies two considerations:

a) Any modification structural design tends to look bulky, and in fact, it is. Because the
actual stress distribution is unknown, a conservative approach has to be undertaken.
b) Engineering judgement and experience is needed, because if this assumption were
applied to its last consequences, it would imply that if any tiny hole is drilled, the
whole helicopter structure should be reinforced, and obviously, it is not needed.

How to practically apply this assumption will be subsequently shown.

1) Select the area where new equipment will be installed and make a Finite Element Model of
this area and its surroundings. This area has to be as large as possible, regarding the loads the
new equipment introduces in the helicopter. For a small antenna, reproducing the skin, a
couple of stringers and the two frames bounding the antenna location are sufficient to get
conservative results. For a chaff & flare dispenser located in the helicopter tail boom, it is
required to reproduce one or two complete bays of tail boom.
The purpose of this area is to show the stress distribution, so if you have selected too small an
area, extend it. Unfortunately, it is not possible to check if the area selected is adequate until
step 3) of this procedure has been completed.

2) At the centre of gravity of the selected area, enter a generalised load. It means a unit load in
the X, Y and Z-axis and a unit moment around X, Y and Z-axis. Ignore how the helicopter
structure is actually loaded, that’s why a generalized load is used.

Pag.24
Connect the centre of gravity by infinite stiffness bars to the modelled structural elements and
run the calculations.

A stress distribution will be attained. Then, the maximum stress has to be worked out. It is
accomplished by taking into account the materials of all the modelled elements and the stress
distribution. Extrapolate the results until the first element (considering its material allowables)
reach its allowable yield stress (for metallic components) or its allowable ultimate tensile
stress (for composites). The stress of all other elements has to be adjusted in this same ratio
(that of the most loaded element, that is, yield stress/stress obtained in the FEM).
Some compressive stresses will be shown in several elements; assume they do not cause
either buckling or crippling.

At this point we have two important achievements:

a) A conservative stress level in all the modelled structural elements.


b) A stress distribution in the selected area. This distribution come from a generalised
load, so all the components of any conceivable load have been taken into account

3) The next step is to design the new equipment installation and, regarding the stress level and
distribution obtained previously, reinforce locally the helicopter structure.
The helicopter structure always has to be reinforced because the assumption is that the
original structure is loaded to its maximum.
When the design is finished, make a finite element model of the new installation and the same
helicopter structure area as before (the same of step 2), however this will be now locally
reinforced.
Introduce into the FEM the new loads coming from the new equipment and run the
calculation.
Again a stress distribution will be attained. Now the following checks have to be done:

a) Verify that the elements of the new installation have positive margins of safety
b) Verify that the reinforced elements of the helicopter structure have positive margins of
safety (bear in mind that the new obtained stresses have to be added to those adjusted
in step 2)
c) Verify no buckling or crippling occurs in any element. If so, reinforce that element
d) Verify the new stress distribution in the reinforced structure is similar to that of step 2.
The reason for that is to prevent the creation of fatigue problems. If the original stress
distribution did not cause any fatigue problem or, at least, it was known when and
where a crack will appear, and the new reinforced structure does not show a higher
stress level and the stress distribution is similar to the original, it is reasonable to
expect similar fatigue behaviour of the new structure (when discussing fatigue analysis
report, it will be explained why some variances from this expectation occur, but so
far, the reasoning is good enough)

At some distance from the location of the new equipment, the stress distribution has to be
similar to that of the original structure. This is the reason why some extra area has to be
modelled. If the selected area is too small, model some additional elements so you can verify
the stress level at certain distance in both structures (original and modified one) are similar.

Pag.25
The following figures show how to introduce the unit load, the stress distribution before the
structure has been modified, and the stress distribution after the modification (reinforcement)
of an actual design respectively.

Figure 6.2.3-1. Unit load transmission from centre of gravity to structure


Courtesy of Eurocopter Spain

Pag.26
Figure 6.2.3-2. Original structure stress distribution
Courtesy of Eurocopter Spain

Pag.27
Figure 6.2.3-3. Reinforced structure stress distribution
Courtesy of Eurocopter Spain

Two of the main problems to be solved in any modification (the third one is fatigue, to be
discussed later) can now be addressed.

The structural design has to be substantiated with installation and detailed part drawings,
static analysis, dynamic analysis and fatigue reports.

6.2.4 Material selection and documentation


When selecting the material to carry out a modification, metallic materials are preferred to
composites for the following reasons:

a) They are far cheaper, and considering that in many cases the number of helicopters to
be modified is limited, the price of composites is a good reason not to select them
b) Allowable stress data is abundant for metallic materials and accepted by the
certification authorities (ie data contained in MIL-HDBK-5); however, tests are
required for composites to present acceptable allowable stress data to the authority
c) Metallic materials are easier to work and repair compared to their composite
counterparts

Pag.28
d) Metallic components can be built with simple tooling or, even without any. On the
contrary, composites need special tools to manufacture the parts. These tools are
expensive and they require time to be built
e) Regarding the geometrical definition of the helicopter, depending on the method used,
some differences between the actual helicopter surface and that obtained to
manufacture the new required parts can exist. It is much easier to adapt a metallic
component if required than a composite one

Therefore, if possible, select metallic materials. There are some exceptions if some helicopter
characteristics must be kept (ie radar absorption requirements, etc). Otherwise, the following
basic guidelines may be helpful:

a) Use aluminium 2024 where possible for formed components (because of its good
fatigue characteristics); if not possible, 7075 is one alternative
b) For machined parts, utilise 7075-T6 or 7075-T7351 (better fatigue behaviour). 7050-
T6 is an alternative
c) If some specific part is very loaded, and steel is required, use CRES (corrosion
resistant steels), particularly if the helicopter is a naval one

Many other materials may be chosen, but those mentioned are readily available. Others will
have a longer lead-time.

The analyses required to validate the structural design are:

a) Static analysis report: This document should contain, at least, a brief description of the
structural design, the materials and rivets, bolts, anchor nuts, etc allowable list, the
load cases to be analysed, a description of the FEM and the checks carried out (if finite
element analysis has been used), the load case analysis results, a summary result table
(including stress level of the analysed parts, load case and margin of safety) and
conclusions.
b) Dynamic analysis report: For most modifications it is enough to check the new
designed parts will not have a natural frequency close to that of the helicopter. The
helicopter frequencies to be considered are the main rotor angular velocity (A), the
main rotor angular velocity times the number of blades (B), and the first, second and
third harmonic of the latter, that is, (2XB, 3XB and 4XB). Obtain the natural
frequencies of the new modified structure and compare these natural frequencies with
±10% of A, B, 2XB, 3XB and 4XB. The reason to use a ±10% range is to compensate
for the simplifications the finite element model could have and some rotor angular
velocity variations that may occur. There are some modifications where dynamic loads
are the primary ones: that is the case when a machine gun is installed. In those cases,
the higher stresses are caused by the dynamic load, and it has to be checked that these
loads do not have an adverse effect on the structure and they do not coincide with the
frequencies of A, B, etc
c) Thermal analysis report: If the structure in the engine surroundings has been modified,
a thermal analysis is required to verify that no additional induced stresses have been
introduced in the structure, particularly those due to restrained thermal expansions
d) Fatigue analysis report: A fatigue analysis has to be achieved to assess the
“modification life”, and therefore set up inspection intervals, if necessary. The

Pag.29
problem is how to do it if the original helicopter structure actual stress level is not
known.

There are two different situations when a modification is carried out from a fatigue viewpoint,
namely:

a) The helicopter operator will fly the same type of missions as before the modification
has been implemented
b) The helicopter operator will fly different missions because that was the modification
goal. This is the reason why it is not enough to have a similar stress distribution in the
modified structure compared with the original (see last sentence of paragraph 6.2.3-
3d) to ensure no fatigue problems will arise, because the sequence of flights (fatigue
spectrum) influences the structure fatigue response

In both cases, the fatigue life goal has to be established and it depends on the helicopter’s age
and the missions to be flown. As a general rule, consider a typical helicopter life of 30 years,
hence, find out how many average hours the operator flies per year, how old the helicopter is,
how many different missions the helicopter flies each year and how many cycles (one cycle is
one takeoff and one landing) the helicopter will accumulate per year.
When the total number of cycles (up to the helicopter retirement) has been defined, apply a
scatter factor of five to your structure, and therefore, your fatigue life goal will be:

Fatigue life goal = Total number of cycles x 5

The reasons to select such scatter factor are the following:

a) Fatigue is a very variable phenomenon


b) The fatigue spectrum (the missions and their sequences) is an estimation, and its
accuracy is also variable (and debatable on many occasions)
c) No actual fatigue tests have been achieved

In other words, it is best to be conservative.

The fatigue analysis is performed as follows:

a) Obtain the locations with higher stresses (thickness changes, holes, machined radii,
etc) (this information can be found in the static stress analysis) and define the stress
concentration factors
b) Apply the fatigue loads for each load case (mission); (they are usually different to the
static loads) and attain the stresses at those locations
c) Apply the Miner’s rule to get the maximum number of cycles your structure can
withstand (it means that at this number of cycles a crack will appear at this location)
d) An alternative method is to use the fatigue formulas shown in MIL-HDBK-5 for
several materials. In this case, the concentration factor of the location under study has
to match with that of the MIL-HDBK-5 and the stress ratio (R = minimum
stress/maximum stress) will be determined

When the fatigue analysis is finished, the fatigue life goal has to be compared with the
number of cycles the structure can withstand. That is, a kind of margin of safety can be
defined

Pag.30
MS = (Fatigue life goal/cycle number) -1

If this value is greater than cero (0) the designed structure is valid from a fatigue standpoint,
otherwise, it has to be redesigned.

As a “rule of thumb” estimate that a 20% load increase reduces the fatigue life by
approximately 50% .

There is a point missed in the above procedure: the actual stresses in the areas of the
helicopter structure affected by the modification are unknown. Then, how can a fatigue life be
estimated?
The response is to use a very conservative approach. Consider the affected structure is loaded
to its maximum when static load is applied (as defined for static analysis). Divide the fatigue
loads by the static load and apply this ratio to the structure stresses.
This assumption is conservative, too much if you wish, but it is hard to refine further the
reasoning, particularly if new missions will be flown.

In many occasions, this assumption leads to the setting up of quite tight inspection intervals.
If after a few inspections no damage has been detected, they can be relaxed after careful
engineering judgement.

6.2.5 Weight and balance


The modification impact as far as weight and balance are concerned has to be determined and
substantiated in the “weight and balance report”.

The weight of the modified helicopter will not exceed the approved maximum takeoff weight
(MTOW).
The centre of gravity positions will remain within the approved limits, both longitudinal and
lateral, after the helicopter has been modified.

Make a table including the weight and movement of every piece of new equipment, the
supporting structure (weight of this structure can be estimated between 15 to 30% of
supported equipment weight) and the electrical harness.

Make another table, which includes the structure, equipment and electrical harness removed
due to the modification, if any. Subtract the added weight from the removed and follow suit
for the moment. The result will be the modification weight and balance impact.

Using the previous result, perform weight and balance calculations for any possible flying
conditions (different number of passengers, different fuel quantity, rescue hoist removed and
installed, stretchers, etc), at least, for those shown in the original flight manual (weight and
balance chapter), and make sure the helicopter weight does not exceed the MTOW and the
centre of gravity positions remain within the approved limits set up in the flight manual.

Should any centre of gravity position lie outside the approved limits, some limitations should
be specified in the flight manual supplement or, if possible, some ballast may be added to
keep the centre of gravity within limits.

Pag.31
In case the helicopter has undergone a heavy modification, set up a weighing test in the
functional and ground test procedure in order to attain a precise centre of gravity position and
an accurate helicopter weight.

6.3 ELECTRICAL DESIGN

When a new equipment or system is installed in a helicopter, the first step from an electrical
design standpoint is to assign it to one of the electrical bus bars depending on its
characteristics (ie it has to be connected to the emergency bus bar if its operation is vital for
the helicopter safety) and check that the selected bus bar is able to power the new equipment.
If so, the electrical design is then completed and documented.

The documentation to be issued is:

a) Electrical drawings
b) Electrical load analysis

Two different types of electrical drawings have to be created, namely:

a) Pin to pin diagrams


b) Harness routing

Harness manufacturing drawings have been omitted and the reason will be explained later.

Pin to pin diagrams


These are the drawings showing all the interconnections among all the elements comprising
the installation and the helicopter interfaces (bonding connections, bus bar connections (at
breaker panels), etc).
The designer will follow the recommendations of the system manufacturer to interconnect the
equipment and will use the company electrical design manual, if any, to design the harnesses
and the interfaces with the helicopter. If there is no an electrical design manual issued by the
company, then, the following standards can be utilised as guidelines: MIL-W-5088 and MIL-
B-5087.
The former shows how to select wires and carry out an electrical design, and the latter is
involved with electrical bonding and harness routing standard practices.
All the wires have to be numbered with an alphanumeric code. There are several standards, so
the codification varies depending on the standard used. In any case, the codification will
inform about the system type (communications, navigations, power, etc), the wire gauge, the
electrical phases, if applicable, etc

A part list mentioning all the necessary material to build those harnesses depicted in the pin to
pin diagrams has to be added to each particular diagram, and also some drawing notes
concerning harness manufacturing and installation should be added to the pin to pin diagrams.
It would not be necessary if harness manufacturing drawing were issued; unfortunately, this is
not possible in most modifications.

The reason is that in order to create a reliable electrical harness manufacturing drawing, the
harness length and routing and electrical connector keyway positions are needed, and this
information will be on electrical drawings not available most of the time, or, for helicopters

Pag.32
designed from 1990 to the present, in 3-D files where the whole helicopter is depicted
(fuselage, equipments, electrical harness routing, hydraulic routing, pneumatic system
routing, seats, flight controls, etc). Undoubtedly, if this information is available, then
manufacturing drawings should be issued because all the information is known. This is never
the case, therefore, from a practical viewpoint; it is more reasonable to route the harness
directly in the prototype (study the possible routing in the prototype, build the harness with
generous extra length, install the connectors at one side of the harness, and afterwards, route it
inside the helicopter, when the installation has been finished, complete the installation of the
remaining connectors at the other side of the harness) and document it.

Harness routing
As mentioned previously, the location of the harness along the helicopter has to be known by
the electrician to install it, by the maintenance personnel to inspect or repair it when
necessary, by the designer to make sure there is no interference (mechanical or
electromagnetic) with any other helicopter element, and by the certification authority to
ensure the design is safe. Besides, if the modification will be applied to other helicopters, all
of them should have the same harness routing.
Those are the reasons why harness routing drawings have to be produced.
It is very hard, time consuming and expensive to reproduce the entire helicopter (fuselage,
equipments and system routing) to design a reliable 3-D harness routing, therefore, it is
customary to depict the routing in simple helicopter sketches (just showing the external
contours in a lateral, plant or isometric view). It is good in order to have a rough idea what the
electrical harness position is, but it is not useful from a practical standpoint, because the lack
of detail (normally the harness is shown alone, and it is usually routed with other harnesses,
no distances to structure or other elements are shown, no specific information about slack or
harness bend radius is normally provided). Therefore, I suggest editing a first issue of harness
routing drawings as mentioned above, but immediately after the prototype harness routing is
completed, editing a revision of those drawings.
This new issue will be made up of actual electrical harness photographs, and where
appropriate, insert some dimensions or notes about bend radius and slack on the photos. Add
as many photographs as possible and try to show the harness surroundings (frames, other
nearby system routings, pieces of equipment, etc) in order to help in future installations or
maintenance tasks.

Before the electrical load analysis is dealt with, a few basic comments concerning electrical
design will be included:

a) Breakers: Electrical breakers are provided in any installation to protect the wires, not
the equipment. The equipment is protected internally from a voltage surge by a fuse; if
they are not protected, then that particular equipment does not comply with
aeronautical standards (both military and civil)
b) Electrical bonding: Follow the recommendations shown in MIL-B-5087: it will
prevent many safety and functioning problems. Try to use, if possible, the bonding
provisions of the helicopter. If this is impossible, design and install those needed and
identify them (following the same philosophy as that of the existing bonding
provisions) on the pin to pin drawings and the wiring manual supplement

Pag.33
c) Audio equipment: When an audio system is installed in a helicopter (new radio,
satellite telephone, loud speakers, etc) it has to be connected to the helicopter audio
box in order to be used by the crew or the passengers. It is quite frequent that the
system does not work as expected (the volume is too low or too loud or there is too
much noise, or simply nothing is heard). The reason is that the new system impedance
has to be adapted to that of the helicopter audio system. Therefore, the first step is to
check the new installation to make sure it has been designed and installed without any
flaws. Then, check the helicopter audio box; most of the time the problem is there.
The impedances have not been adjusted.

Electrical load analysis


As mentioned previously, the new system has to be assigned to a specific helicopter electrical
bus bar depending on its category. Then it is time to verify that there is enough power
available to switch it on and operate it. The question is: how can we know it if the helicopter
electrical consumption is unknown? That is what the next paragraphs will try to show.

The first thing to do is to know how many KVA or Kw the helicopter’s electrical generation
system is able to provide. This data is obtained from the maintenance manuals (how many
generators are installed, what their power is, how many batteries exist, how many amperes per
hour they are able to provide).

Next action is to know the electrical consumption of the new equipment and how it is
distributed. In other words, how many amperes are needed to switch it on and for how long,
how many for warming up (if needed), and how many for nominal operation?

At this point, two different situations can occur, namely:

a) The helicopter operator (customer) possesses the electrical balance report of their
helicopter provided by the manufacturer
b) The helicopter operator (customer) does not possess the electrical balance report

In the first case, the work to do is simple, because the helicopter’s electrical consumption (and
the time for each condition) is known. So, add the new equipment electrical consumption for
each particular condition (switch on, nominal operation, etc) to the table of the affected bus
bar. The electrical balance report will mention how many amperes are available at this bar.
Just subtract the total bus bar consumption for each condition, including the new equipment,
and the result will show if there is enough power available to install the equipment in that bar.

In the second case, the solution is not that easy, and two different methods can be used, but
some uncertainty will remain until the ground, EMI/EMC and flight tests have been
completed.

a) Measure the helicopter electrical consumption on the ground


b) Make an assumption

The first method is easy to implement, the other is quite complex; it depends on the design of
the helicopter electrical distribution system. And it is always very complex to do it in flight.
It consists of operating all the equipment and systems connected to the same bus bars that
could be working at the same time, in order to record their consumption. Because the total

Pag.34
generation power is known, the difference between generation and consumption will show if
it is possible to install the new equipment in the selected bus bar: it implies that all the bars
have to be analysed. Check that the electrical consumption of this bar, when the new
equipment has been added, does not exceed the level of bus bar protection.

It can happen that more equipment than that operated on the ground could be operated in
flight and the measurement will not be accurate, even non-conservative. Therefore, set up
functional and ground, EMI/EMC and flight tests to verify the bus bar is able to power the
new equipment.

The second method is an assumption that should be confirmed during the ground, EMI/EMC
and flight tests.
This assumption is based on the following procedure:

a) Search for the bus bar protections (breakers, relays, etc)


b) According to their protection capabilities (how many amperes they can withstand), set
up the theoretical bus bar capacity, that of its protection device. This is not the actual
bar capacity, because these devices are designed to protect the bar from voltage surges
etc, but it will be assumed as the real bar capacity
c) Add the electrical consumption of all the equipment installed in that bar, including the
new additions. Most of the time, the only available information concerning electrical
consumption is that of the nominal operational condition
d) Make sure the overall equipment electrical consumption does not exceed 80 to 85% of
the bus bar theoretical capability

It is evident that some degree of uncertainty exists, particularly because no information about
equipment switch on consumption is known. Therefore, to be absolutely sure that the design
is sound, set up tests in the functional and ground, EMI/EMC and flight test procedures. They
are as simple as operating all the equipment connected to the same bus bar at the same time,
if this is a realistic condition, or to reproduce in ground and flight the real operation
conditions and check if the bus bar is able to power the new equipment.

6.4 AERODYNAMIC AND PERFORMANCE DESIGN

Aerodynamics, except that concerning the rotors and tail strakes, is not so important for
helicopters as for aeroplanes, because of the speed of the former. It implies that very
sophisticated analyses are usually not required for most modifications; however, some care
has to be exercised.

There are two issues to be considered from an aerodynamic standpoint in a modification:

a) Drag
b) Vortex trajectories

Drag:

Pag.35
Drag of devices installed externally will be determined for the worst (maximum aerodynamic
load) case. Evidently, this load has to be worked out to design the structural supports and the
appropriate reinforcements in the helicopter airframe.
Lift of most devices is negligible, an exception to the previous statement are some external
loads, so it can be ignored.

There are many different types of equipment to be installed in the helicopter exterior with
many different shapes, so it is impossible to define a single procedure to assess drag.
However, some guidelines will be presented for some typical elements.

Antennas:
Drag is obtained from the very well known formula

1
D= ρ v S Cd
2

Be conservative when applying it because many existing aerodynamic effects cannot be


considered (aerodynamic interference, main rotor downwash effects, etc), and it is worthless
to do it; therefore, although not strictly correct, use the sea level air density, helicopter never
exceed speed, the maximum surface the antenna can see in any flight direction and the
appropriate Cd; if Cd cannot be obtained in an easy manner, use a value of 2.

If a more refined analysis is needed, the following guidelines can be regarded.

In FAA AC 43.13-1B (Antenna installation) the stated formula can be seen in a generalised
manner for any antenna type, disregarding its shape.

Round and flat antennas (logarithmic antennas), typical of radar warning systems, can be
assumed as flat plates, therefore, Cd = 2

Blade antennas can be analysed as wings without torsion. In order to determine Cd, the blade
antenna airfoil has to be known; if this is not available, use a NACA 0012 airfoil, error will
not be excessive. Bear in mind that helicopters can slip in any direction; therefore, the area
this type of antenna can show to the incident air may be their lateral profiles.

Laser warning sensors:


These sensors (little cameras able to detect any laser beam) can be considered like flat plates
from an aerodynamic viewpoint (Cd = 2)

Missile launching warning sensors:


These sensors can also be considered like flat plates (Cd = 2). They are cameras able to detect
the ultraviolet radiation from the missile engine exhaust plumes.

Rescue hoists:
Some of them are endowed with aerodynamic fairings, others are not. Those fairings can be
approximated, in many occasions, to geometrical shapes analysed in many aerodynamics’ text
books (spheres, cylinders, cones, etc). Obtain the Cd and S values defined in those texts and
multiply them by the sea level density, 1/2 and the helicopter never exceed speed. The result
will be a good approximation of the actual value.

Pag.36
For those rescue hoists without fairings, consider it is a flat plate (Cd = 2) and determine the
area (S) of a cross section normal to the forward flight direction. Multiply Cd and S by the sea
level density, 1/2 and the helicopter never exceed speed and an acceptable drag value will
have been obtained.

Rescue hoist inertial loads are usually much more important than aerodynamic ones, and they
drive the structural design, but in any case, the check has to be done.

Forward-looking infrared sensor:


Those sensors are similar to a vertical cylinder ended in a half sphere. Cd can be obtained
from any aerodynamic textbook for a shape like that.

External fuel tanks:


Elements with shapes similar to those of external tanks have been extensively studied in many
aerodynamic texts. It is quite simple to determine drag loads for these elements because of the
available literature.

For several reasons, these tanks may be released in flight. And although extensive flight tests
are required to validate their behaviour when released, make some theoretical analysis to be
sure, at least as sure as possible, that they do not create lift. Otherwise, when released from
the helicopter they could impinge on the airframe due to the aforementioned lift force.

Torpedoes and missiles:


The same as above apply to these components. However, the release process is more complex
than for fuel tanks because of missile engine start interaction.
Wind tunnel tests and CFD (Computer Fluid Dynamics code) analysis are required to gather
reliable aerodynamic data and flight tests are needed to validate the torpedo and missile
release process.

Vortex trajectories:
To determine vortex trajectories is not an easy task, a CFD code is needed and even with the
help of this powerful tool the results are sometimes only approximations of reality, because
some geometrical or aerodynamic conditions are hard to properly model (particularly the
main rotor influence).
Vortices can be dangerous if they impinge on the tail rotor, the horizontal stabiliser or the
vertical stabiliser. Therefore, in the light of the external element size and position and
helicopter configuration, some engineering judgement and experience is needed to decide if
the work is worth being done or can be skipped. If any doubt exists, flight-test the problematic
configuration.

It is obvious that tandem rotor helicopters are less prone to be affected by vortices because
they do not have either vertical or horizontal stabilisers; besides, the downwash influence of
both rotors deflect vortices away from them.

Pag.37
For conventional design helicopters, it is this author’s experience that any piece of equipment
installed under the area washed by the main rotor is quite unlikely to cause vortices problems.

If possible, place the voluminous items on the other side of the tail rotor. In any case, define
some manoeuvres to be achieved during the flight tests to be sure no problems arise. These
manoeuvres are descends at several descend speeds including autorotation, turns at several
bank angles, etc.
The documentation substantiating the aerodynamic analysis is usually a report called
“Aerodynamic analysis report”; it will contain the following information, as a minimum:

a) Installation description
b) Assumptions and simplifications (helicopter geometry, etc)
c) Analysis cases
d) Finite element model description and checks (if applicable)
e) Drag load values and directions
f) Vortex trajectory picture, if applicable
g) Conclusions

Note: As mentioned in the first paragraph of this subchapter, rotors and tail strakes are
excluded from these guidelines, since they require a very detailed aerodynamic analysis and
many flight test hours to be validated. Those analyses involve CFD and wind tunnel tests.

Performance of a helicopter is defined by the formulas found in any undergraduate text. From
a practical standpoint, for most modifications it is very hard, if possible at all, to appreciate
any change in the helicopter’s performance. There is a noticeable exception to this, which is
the Vne. This speed varies appreciably in some cases. Some examples are the forward looking
infrared cameras installed in many military and Para public (Police, fire fighting, etc)
helicopters. This speed is reduced between 4 to 10% compared with the non-modified
helicopter Vne, depending on the camera size, installation arrangement and helicopter
configuration.
It is not worthwhile to determine theoretically this possible reduction; the most
straightforward manner to obtain it is to fly, progressively increasing the forward speed: when
the vibration level inside the helicopter is considered to be unacceptable, that will be the new
(reduced) Vne.

If deemed necessary due to the modification, a performance analysis can be issued. This
report will include the following information, as a minimum:

a) Brief installation description


b) Assumptions and simplifications
c) Cases analysed
d) New values obtained for the parameters studied (Vne, descend speed, ascend speed,
etc)
e) Conclusions

Pag.38
Helicopter stability cannot be assessed analytically unless a lot of engineering information is
available (helicopter inertia matrix, mass distribution, static and dynamic stability flight test
results, etc). In other words, only the helicopter manufacturer possesses that information and
it is extremely unlikely they share it with any other company. Therefore, if static and/or
dynamic stability is a concern because of the modification undergone by the helicopter, the
only practical action to take is to flight test the aircraft.

Static and dynamic stability flight tests will be defined in the flight test procedure.
Static stability is the tendency of the helicopter to return to its undisturbed equilibrium
position when the disturbing force causing the departure from that equilibrium position has
been removed. Static stability determines the short-term response of the helicopter to a
disturbance.

Dynamic stability determines the long-term response of the helicopter to that disturbance. In
other words, a helicopter is dynamically stable if after removing the disturbing force, it comes
back to the equilibrium position.

Therefore, to assess static stability, specify tests where disturbances are caused by forward
speed variations (increased speed) and pilot induced manoeuvres (collective control pull up)
and verify the helicopter tendency to return to its equilibrium position.

The same applies to dynamic stability assessment: induce disturbances by control inputs,
release them and check the helicopter behaviour until it reaches the equilibrium position
again. If the helicopter does not return to its equilibrium position after a time ranging from a
few seconds to a few minutes, depending on the stability mode checked, the modification has
caused some instability and it has to be further investigated to solve the problem or, if not
possible, to set up certain limitations to be collected in the flight manual supplement.

6.5 SYSTEMS DESIGN


Many helicopter systems can be modified, and some of them will be installed as a complete
new system instead of modified (ie, installation of air conditioning systems is usually asked
for by the customer, because most helicopters are not endowed with them when they leave the
factory). It is impossible to write in detail about all the potential modifications every system
can undergo, a specific book would be needed for each one. Therefore, only some basic
comments will be done for some selected systems.

6.5.1 Fluid systems (hydraulic, air conditioning, anti-icing, fuel, etc)


The first consideration to be taken into account is to make sure the helicopter is able to
provide enough power to operate the modified or new systems. If not, some limitations have
to be set up in the flight manual supplement or additional power sources need to be envisaged
(this can lead to dramatic changes: for example switching the current electrical generators for
more powerful ones. It can require changing most of the helicopter electrical system, so apply
engineering judgement when necessary).

When installing air conditioning systems the above statement is particularly true. These
systems can be electrically or mechanically (from the main transmission) powered. In hot
climates the engine performances are degraded, therefore, some bitter surprises might occur:

Pag.39
depending on the engine and the air temperature, in certain conditions the air conditioning
cannot be used (usually when it is hotter outside).

Hydraulic systems are seldom modified; it is more likely they are needed to operate new
equipment (like a big radar antenna, for instance). If this is the case, design a complete
independent hydraulic system with its own pump, deposit, heat exchanger, etc in order to
avoid affecting the original helicopter hydraulic systems.
Independent system actually means as independent as possible because the new system has to
be powered from the electrical helicopter system. Apply the same judgement as mentioned for
air conditioning systems.

The remainder of fluid systems do not require so much power, but in any case, the power
availability has to be checked.

A document describing the system components, system design, system operation, limitations
(if any) and growing capacity (design always for some extra performance) has to be issued.
This document is the system functional analysis (hydraulic, pneumatic, fuel, fire
extinguishing, etc). Besides, system structural, safety, electrical, fire protection, component
qualification etc analyses have also to be produced.

6.5.2 Mechanical systems


These systems have also to be structurally analysed, and of course, all other considerations
have to be taken into account (component qualification, safety analysis, etc), but it is also very
important to perform a kinematical analysis for two main reasons:

a) To make sure they deploy as foreseen (some deployment positions may have been
overlooked and they might cause some problems)
b) To assure no interferences will occur between the moving mechanisms and other
equipments or structures (ie, a retracting landing gear will not impinge and deform any
valve, hydraulic hose, door, etc) causing unpredictable consequences

3-D design programs (Catia V5, or V4 and any other similar) are very useful and easy to use
when performing those analyses.
These analyses have to be documented in a system kinematical analysis report.

As mentioned at the beginning of chapter 6, those modifications affecting the rotors,


transmissions and other flight controls should be done with the cooperation of the helicopter
manufacturer.

6.6 NOISE
It is quite unlikely that most helicopter modifications can cause noticeable noise level
increases; helicopters are noisy enough by themselves.
Effective noise reductions can be attained during the helicopter development phase (main
rotor design and materials, main gear box design, fuselage, etc) and this is out of the scope of
this book.

Pag.40
However, when for any reason the helicopter passenger cabin internal liners are removed and
replaced by new, different liners , the helicopter owner sometimes expects some noise
reduction, especially if the helicopter is very noisy.
Unfortunately, although some decibels may be reduced, marginal noise reduction can be
achieved by this method, that is, utilising passive components (such as the stated liners).
The reason is that the required thickness, apart from a careful selection of the isolation
materials, of such a sound screen is too big (impractical for any aircraft) to get appreciable
noise reductions.
The only effective method is the active one, that is, a system detecting the noise emitted by
the helicopter and generating the opposite sound wave in order to cancel it.
The operation concept of this method is evident, but the practical implementation is not that
easy, and although much research is being done in this field, a lot of work has still to be
carried out.

If required, record the noise inside the passenger cabin before the modification is
implemented, and after it has been achieved, and issue a “noise analysis document” where
both records will be compared.

Unfortunately, not much can be done yet, as far as noise is concerned, when a helicopter is
already in use, unless active noise control systems be utilised, and even in that situation the
results may be not as foreseen.

6.7 ADDITIONAL DOCUMENTS FOR CERTIFICATION


There are some documents difficult to classify in any of the above subchapters but necessary
for the modification certification process.

These documents are:

a) Modification description
b) Master drawing list
c) Helicopter configuration report
d) Equipment qualification report
e) Modification check list
f) Service bulletin

Modification description:
This document depicts the modification. It states in which helicopter the modification takes
place, which new equipment is to be installed (models and part numbers), what their
mechanical and electrical interfaces with the aircraft are, where they are located, what their
weight is, how they work, what their electrical consumption is, which is the electrical bar that
they are connected to, how they are protected (electrical breakers), and any other relevant
information. It is very helpful for a clear understanding to provide as many sketches or
drawings as possible in that document.
This document is one of the first to be sent to the certification authority. It will help them to
become familiar with the proposed modification.

Pag.41
Master drawing list:
This document is basically a list with all the drawings (from subassembly level to the
modification top drawing). The list states the drawing number, drawing title and drawing
issue.
This document is the one defining the approved modification configuration.

Helicopter configuration report:


This document describes the whole helicopter; that is, what type of engines it has got, what
fuselage part number, what blades, rotors and dynamic components, landing gear, avionics,
electrical generators, battery(ies), lights, and any other system (hydraulic, APU, etc).
Every element has to be listed and identified by its part number. Do not forget to include any
optional that could be compatible with the modification (rescue hoist, cargo hook, NVIS,
EAPS, skis, armament, etc).
The certification authority, when issuing the modification approval certificate (STC for civil
helicopters), will mention that the modification is only valid for helicopters having this exact
configuration.

Equipment qualification report:


It has to be demonstrated that the new installed equipment is able to withstand the helicopter
operational environmental and EMI conditions. This is realised in this document.
A comparison has to be established between the environmental and EMI conditions seen by
the helicopter and the tests passed by the equipment.
If no data about helicopter environmental conditions are available, use those of MIL-STD-810
for military helicopters and DO-160 for civil ones.
This is the reason why it is so important to demand from the equipment supplier all the
information possible concerning the equipment qualifications (vibration levels, humidity,
temperature, etc). If it is not demonstrated that the equipment can withstand or exceed the
helicopter conditions, the certification authority may demand the performance of some tests of
the equipment with a high cost and unpredictable consequences.

Modification checklist:
When the modification airworthiness has been demonstrated to the certification authority, in
order to wrap up the process, it is customary to issue a document where all the paragraphs
used to certify the modification are compiled and the documents where the compliance is
demonstrated explicitly referenced.

A sheet of this document may be similar to the one shown below:

Pag.42
COMPANY DOCUMENT TITLE DOC. Number:
LOGO DOC. Issue:
DOC date:
Certification paragraph: Write down literally the applicable paragraph
Reference documents: List all the documents utilised to demonstrate the aforementioned
certification paragraph

Remarks: State briefly how the certification paragraph has been demonstrated

Modification Modification Blank Certification Certification


company project company system authority project authority
manager responsible manager specialist
signature signature signature signature

Service Bulletin:
This document describes how the modification has to be installed in a helicopter. When it has
been approved by the certification authority, the modification can be applied to any
helicopter defined in the “Applicability” paragraph.
Normally, applicability is established by mentioning the helicopter serial number or saying
that “this service bulletin is applicable to all helicopter having the same configuration as that
defined in document number XXXX (the helicopter configuration report)”.
For more details about this document see subchapter 7.1 Service bulletin.

6.8 MANUAL SUPPLEMENTS


The manual supplements to be issued in any modification are:

a) Flight manual supplement


b) Maintenance manual supplement
c) Wiring manual supplement
d) Illustrated Part Catalogue supplement

Pag.43
Flight manual supplement:
The flight manual supplement will follow the same pattern as the original flight manual. If
there were no change in any particular section, it will be explicitly mentioned that there is no
change at all, and the original flight manual has to be followed.

A flight manual supplement structure could be something like:

a) General
b) Limitations
a. Helicopter configuration limitations
b. Minimum crew
c. Altitude limitations
d. Temperature limitations
e. Speed limitations

c) Warnings
d) Normal procedure
a. Checks before flight
b. Equipment basic operation
e) Weight and balance
f) System description
a. General
b. System capabilities
c. Location

g) Basic servicing

General:
It could be a very brief description of what new equipment has been installed and what its
main purpose is.
Limitations:
Any limitation obtained during the certification process (flight test, EMI/EMC test, analysis,
etc) has to be explicitly stated in this chapter. Some typical limitations are:

Helicopter configuration: For certain operations some determined configurations are


mandatory, otherwise, the helicopter is not allowed to perform those operations.

Minimum crew: For some operations two pilots (pilot and co-pilot) are required

Altitude: Some particular equipment might limit the maximum altitude a helicopter could fly

Temperature: Some particular equipment might limit the maximum or minimum temperature
a helicopter could operate in

Speed: External loads and protuberances (forward looking infrared cameras, for instance)
limit the Vne (Never exceed velocity) of the helicopter

Pag.44
Warnings:
Any precautions the flight crew should heed

Emergency procedures:
This chapter describes how to proceed in case an emergency took place on board the
helicopter due to the new systems or equipment installed.

Normal procedures:
This chapter describes how to proceed under normal conditions.

Check before flight: It has to be stated what tasks (checks and how to achieve them) have to
be carried out before any flight can take place, due to the installation of new equipment.

Equipment basic operation: It will be described how to switch on and off the new installed
equipment.

Weight and balance:


A complete list, including part number, of each and every piece of equipment, structural
(supports, fixed provisions, et.) and electrical (harness, relays, etc) component has to be
included in this chapter. The weight and moment caused by each component has to be
defined, to show the total modification weight and moment.

System description:
A brief description has to be included in the flight manual supplement, but bear in mind that
this document is to be consulted by the crew in flight, so it has to be very concise.

General: It can be a general description (what equipment has been incorporated in the aircraft
and what for).

System capabilities: All the capabilities of the new equipment have to be described in this
subchapter, and briefly, how the equipment is operated to attain the aforementioned
capabilities. For comprehensive information, the equipment operational manuals have to be
referenced.

Location: Where the equipment is located around the helicopter. It has also to be mentioned if
any access exists to check the equipment in flight.

Basic servicing: If any basic servicing task can be done by the flight crew to improve the
equipment’s performance (eg, cleaning the lens of a camera), it should also be mentioned.
These tasks are not maintenance operations.

Pag.45
Maintenance manual supplement:
This supplement will allow the customer to keep continuous airworthiness of the modified
helicopter.

The information this supplement should contain is the following:

Equipment:
What the equipment maintenance concept is, that is, if they are “On condition” or have
scheduled maintenance or it is based on retirement life.

What maintenance tasks have to be performed, with what means and how they have to be
implemented for “O” (organisational) maintenance level.

For “I” (intermediate) maintenance level, what maintenance tasks have to be performed and
with what means, if this level can be achieved by the customer. If not, the address and contact
person of the companies able to perform this maintenance level (they are normally the
equipment manufacturers).

For “D” (depot) maintenance level, the same information as for “I” level.

Structure and mechanical components:


The maintenance manual supplement has to inform about the inspections the new structure
has to undergo.

These inspections intend to detect cracks and corrosion problems the structure may encounter
during its life.

As far as corrosion is concerned, the type of inspection, the inspection periods, the means to
perform these inspections and the levels (location and extension) of negligible, repairable and
unacceptable corrosion damage will be defined for all relevant structural components.
For repairable damage, the procedures (actions and means) to achieve the repair have to be
defined.

Crack inspections are derived from the structural analyses carried out during the modification
structural design phase and tests. In the same way as for corrosion, the type of inspection
(visual, NDT, etc), the inspection periods, the means to perform these inspections and the
levels of negligible, repairable and unacceptable damage will be defined for all relevant
structural components.
Procedures will be set up for repairable damages.

Mechanical components will provide the same information about corrosion and crack
inspections as that of structural elements; also wear out limits have to be defined. Any
additional action to be taken in those components (greasing, or any functional test, for
example) will be defined. To define such actions means to set up the action to be achieved,
the moment to do it (before the flight, after the flight, etc), the required means (material and
human resources), and the criteria to know if the check has been successfully passed.

Pag.46
Electrical harness and components:
Electrical components are usually “on condition” elements, but it has to be explicitly
mentioned.

It has to be defined what damage (location and extension) is negligible, repairable or


unacceptable for each and every electrical harness due to the modification.
When the damage is repairable, the procedures to do the repair have to be clearly set up.

Actions to be taken under special conditions:


What to do after a lightning strike or a collision of a truck with the helicopter and so on.

Wiring manual supplement:


This supplement will gather all the pin-to-pin diagrams elaborated for the modification. It will
allow the customer to know all the new electrical connections and be able to keep continuous
airworthiness of its helicopter from an electrical standpoint.
Because there is much information on any pin-to-pin diagram, try to edit them in a suitable
format to ease the reading of any code (particularly those of the wires and the equipment
connections).

Illustrated part catalogue supplement:


The IPC (Illustrated Part Catalogue) supplement will be a collection of exploded 3D isometric
views of the new installation. Each element will be labelled with a number and in an attached
list; those numbers define the element part number and its title, as a minimum.

Pag.47
7. PROTOTYPE INSTALLATION
When the modification has been designed and the parts manufactured, the next step is to
install all these parts and the new equipment (radios, cargo hooks, engine air particle
separators, countermeasures systems, stretchers etc).

From this author’s standpoint, this is the most stressful part of the whole project for several
reasons, among others:

- The raw materials will not be on time, they will come late (very late,
in fact) and some will not be the part numbers you required
- If the equipment is not off-the-shelf, in other words, it is a new
development, be absolutely sure that it will not work by the time the
supplier has assured you, several times, that it would be handed in to
you
- If the equipment is imported, customs will take a longer time than
expected to clear the documents
- For electronic equipment, by this time you will realise that some
piece of equipment that you had never heard about is absolutely
necessary to test or operate the electronic equipment and it costs a lot
and has an unacceptable lead time
- Be sure somebody will make a mistake (will drill the wrong skin,
will install the right support in the wrong place, etc). So time has to
be spent in repairing the damage and manufacturing a new part
- The customer will change the prototype helicopter in the last minute
due to operational reasons, and the new helicopter will be similar to
the one you used to design the modification, but similar is not the
same as identical. In other words, many parts will have to be adapted
(more time and cost)
- Because there are usually some economical milestones associated
with prototype completion, everybody forgets that the installation is
on a prototype (some changes should be expected) and any delay is a
sin or a crime.
- Customer anxiety. Now it can be seen that the modification is a real
thing and the modified helicopter becomes the most important of the
fleet. It has to be operative yesterday
- Any others you can figure out (and as you guess there are a few)

Concerning the documentation that has to be produced, it is restricted to two documents,


namely:

a) Service Bulletin
b) Work Order

Service Bulletin: This document has to be issued for two reasons. The first one is because the
certification authority approves it and it means that the modification can be applied to all the
helicopters having the same configuration as that of the prototype. The second is a
commercial reason; once the service bulletin is approved, it can be offered to other customers
with helicopters with the same configuration as that of the prototype.

Pag.48
Work Order: This document describes all the tasks to be carried out in order to implement the
modification. This is an internal document of the modification company and it is for exclusive
use of the workshop. Therefore, all the installation tasks have to be achievable with the means
existing at the company. If the work is subcontracted to another company, the service bulletin
is the document required to achieve the job, because it states what actions have to be done to
accomplish the tasks, but it does not say anything about the specific means to do it. An
example will make clear this point.
Suppose some skin has to be riveted to a number of frames, the service bulletin will say that
the skin P/N XXXX has to be riveted to the frames P/N’s XXXX using so many rivets P/N
XXXX according to the distribution shown on drawing XXXX. The work order will mention
all of that plus the procedures to install the rivets (it could be manually according to the
company procedure XXXX, or manually according to the procedures shown on FAA AC 43-
13-1B or using an automatic riveting machine, if available and cost permits it).

As stated above, some companies have developed internal procedures to perform several
workshop tasks (riveting, painting, electrical harness construction, etc). Therefore, when
writing the work order these procedures have to be mentioned; others do not have those
internal procedures; in that case, it is acceptable to mention those of FAA AC 43-13-1B.

7.1 SERVICE BULLETIN


The structure of a service bulletin is well defined and it has to contain, at least, the following
information:
a) Scope: What the goal of the service bulletin is
b) Applicability: In which helicopters (serial numbers) the service bulletin can be applied
c) Description: A brief description of the modification
d) Category. It can be Optional, Mandatory, etc
e) Approvals: What certification authority has approved this service bulletin
f) Continuous airworthiness: What maintenance manual supplement has to be applied to
assure continuous airworthiness of the aircraft
g) Reference documents: All documents needed to complete the information contained in
the service bulletin (installation drawings, for instance)
h) List of materials: All the materials and equipments needed to carry out the
modification, including consumable items
i) List of special tools: All the special tools (if any) required to achieve the modification
j) Test equipment: List all the test equipment needed to check the proper functioning of
the new installed equipments
k) Work instructions. Describe, in a very detailed manner, all the tasks to be carried out
to complete the modification from all standpoints (structural, electrical, tests, etc)
l) Verification tests: Specify the required test to validate the modification in any series
helicopter. These tests are not the same as those undergone by the prototype. They are
usually functional tests only
m) Weight and balance information: Provide information of the weight increase of the
modification and its impact in the weight moment of the helicopter. Also mention any
possible restriction
n) Electrical consumption information: Provide information of the new equipment
electrical consumption, in stand by mode, nominal operation, switch on period and
any other relevant operation state

Pag.49
o) Log book: It has to be mentioned how (the exact wording) the service bulletin has to
be recorded on the log book

7.2 WORK ORDER


A work order has basically the same structure as that of a service bulletin, but there are some
differences.

The information to be provided on a work order is the same as that on a service bulletin but in
more detail, because it has to take into account the means of the company.

The chapter regarding work instruction has to describe how to perform the tasks mentioned in
it, and a three-column table has to be issued. The first column describes the task to be
performed (ie, to paint some areas of the helicopter), the second column is a blank area for the
technician’s signature (the painter in this case), and the third column is another blank area for
the quality assurance responsible validating that the task has been properly achieved.

An additional chapter, compared to a service bulletin, has to be added to describe the


inspections to be carried out in the helicopter when delivered by the customer but before the
modification starts, in order to reveal any discrepancy and inform the customer about it.

It is also needed to set up the type of inspections to be carried out when the modification is
finished and prior to delivery of the helicopter to the customer, in order to detect any FOD or
discrepancies of any kind.

Finally, another chapter is required to list all the deviations and concessions that may have
arisen.

Deviations: Deviations are those departures from the design documentation (drawings)
defining the modification. Those departures can arise for many reasons (there are some delays
in receiving the specified bolts, rivets, nuts, electrical wires, etc and an alternative has to be
used, there are mechanical differences in the helicopter for whatever reason, etc). These
deviations have to be accepted by the customer, or at least, they have to be informed.

Concessions: You can be sure that in a prototype installation some error will take place.
Concessions are authorisations by the customer to use those damaged parts not detrimentally
affected in their airworthiness capability.

When the work order is issued (and the installation drawings), the parts are manufactured and
all the special tooling, if required, is available, the process is to follow the work order
instructions and to accomplish the modification. All the processes (riveting, sealing, painting,
electrical harness manufacturing, electrical harness routing, etc) are exactly the same as those
performed in the assembly line or during maintenance works.

The customer often requires the modification to be able to be applied to several helicopters of
the same type. This requirement is interchangeability; that is, any piece of equipment or
support that can be detached from the helicopter (mobile provisions) has to be installed in any
other helicopter without any additional work, apart from that of tightening the fixations.
It implies that any equipment support has to be the same, and has to be placed in the same
location in all the helicopters involved in the modification project. This is achieved using

Pag.50
special tooling (laser tracker is valid to assure the orientation of certain equipment like
antennas, but it is quite cumbersome to fix the attaching points compared with a drilling
tooling).
This means that if interchangeability is required, tooling has to be designed and regarded from
the beginning of the project, and it has to be used adequately during the installation on the
prototype and the series helicopters.

Pag.51
8. PROTOTYPE TESTS
Once the modification installation is finished, it is time to verify it works as expected. This
verification is usually carried out by the following tests:

a) Functional and ground tests


b) EMI/EMC tests
c) Flight tests

Note: if for whatever reason, a test has to be performed in a laboratory, this has to be
approved by the certification authority. Ask the laboratory for the approval documentation
before going there. If they are not qualified, look for another one. Tests performed in non-
approved facilities may not be accepted by the certification authority and they may have to be
repeated.

8.1 FUNCTIONAL AND GROUND TESTS


The purpose of these tests is multiple. Firstly, they intend to demonstrate the proper
functioning of the newly installed equipment integrated in the helicopter. Secondly, these tests
will show compliance with all the certification paragraphs mentioned on the certification plan
to be demonstrated by ground test or inspection (ie, helicopter evacuation time, aisle width,
decals properly visible, etc).

The documentation needed to define and record the tests is:

a) Functional and ground test procedure (or protocol or plan or many other names): This
document describes how the tests have to be performed, step by step, which data has
to be recorded and what are the acceptable values (tolerances) of the data to be
collected. An example of a functional and ground test procedure is subsequently
included.
b) Functional and ground test result report: As its name implies, this document records
the test results and states any possible deviation occurring during it.

A suggested table of contents for a functional and ground test procedure is the following:

a) Purpose
b) Applicability
c) Applicable documents
d) Helicopter approved (by the certification authority) documents affected by the tests
e) Applicable certification requirements
f) Prototype configuration
g) Required authorisations
h) Test personnel
i) Instrumentation
j) Location and test conditions
k) Safety regulations during the tests
l) Weight and balance configuration(s)
m) Test preparation
a. Required equipment
b. Test sequence

Pag.52
c. Test acceptance criteria
d. Preparation of systems to test
e. Schedule

n) Test procedures
o) Data sheets

Purpose:
It has to be mentioned that the document is written to describe how to perform the functional
and ground tests of the modification concerning the applicable equipment on a helicopter of a
defined type and model.

Applicability:
This paragraph has to define the prototype helicopter where the tests are going to take place. It
has to state the type, model, serial number and tail number.

Applicable documents:
Those documents needed to achieve the tests, such as equipment operation manuals,
modification description, etc.

Helicopter approved documents affected by tests:


Those documents likely to be modified (issuing supplements) after the modification is
completed (flight manual, wiring manual, maintenance manual, etc).

Applicable certification requirements:


This is a list of all the certification paragraphs (excerpt from the certification plan) intended to
be demonstrated by functional and ground tests.

Prototype configuration:
Define the exact configuration the prototype helicopter needs to have in order to perform a
representative tests. Do not forget the optionals. If the test is carried out in summer at 35ºC, it
is almost certain that the helicopter will not have the skis installed, particularly if they are not
absolutely necessary for the test. So, in order to ensure that the new installed equipment is
compatible with the skis, although they are not installed for the test, it is necessary to
demonstrate it in this paragraph of the test procedure, stating why (there is no mechanical,
electrical, etc. Interferences, weight and balance are acceptable when skis and new equipment
are both present, etc). By doing so, you will prevent the bitter surprise of receiving an
airworthiness certificate not including several optionals compatible with the modification. In
other words, once the modification is approved by the authority, the helicopter operator would
not be able to fly the aircraft with the modification and the optionals at the same time, and it
would require an additional certification process.

Required authorisations:
The authorisations required to perform functional and ground tests depend on the type of
helicopter (civil or military), the country’s regulations; and in Europe, for civil helicopters, if
the modification company is a DOA (design organisation approval) or not.

It implies that these authorisations range from an installation certificate of conformity issued
by the modification company (declaring the modification has been achieved according to the

Pag.53
design documentation, and the helicopter is ready to fly because all the pertinent maintenance
tasks have been achieved and there are no mandatory service bulletins pending to apply) to
several documents (certificate of conformity + authorization by the military representative,
etc).

Unfortunately there is not a homogeneous and unique rule for all type of helicopters
applicable in any country.

Test personnel:
List the personnel needed to achieve the test; do not forget personnel from the certification
authority. For example:

One pilot and co-pilot


One test engineer (from the modification company)
One test engineer (from the certification authority)
Etc.

Instrumentation:
If any instrumentation is needed to perform the test, this is the paragraph to list it. The name,
part number and specific requirements (electrical power, weight, etc) of the instrumentation
equipment has to be recorded and a drawing showing its installation on the helicopter has to
be annexed in the functional and ground test procedure.

The reasons to use this instrumentation and the parameters to be recorded with it have also to
be mentioned.

Location and test conditions:


It is obvious that the place where the test will be carried out has to be explicitly mentioned, as
well as the proposed time to start it.

As far as test conditions are concerned, the atmospheric conditions (outer air temperature,
humidity, no snow or rain present, airport altitude, required light conditions (day, night,
sunset, sunrise, natural light (helicopter outside hangar) or artificial light (helicopter inside
hangar)), and any other relevant requirements have to be clearly set up in this paragraph.

Safety regulations during the tests:


Safety is the first and most important issue during any test (and helicopter operation).
Therefore, apply common sense and your company regulations for tests (if they exist). As a
minimum, the following has to be enforced:

a) Place the helicopter under test in an isolated area, far away from any other aircraft or
building
b) Highlight the test area conspicuously (by using red and white tape similar to that
utilised by police or fire-fighters to spot a particularly dangerous location, for instance,
or any other means)
c) Allow only and strictly the minimum required personnel to perform the test inside the
helicopter
d) Keep spectators as far away as possible
e) Do not allow any work in the helicopter prior to or during the test

Pag.54
As mentioned before, bear in mind that safety is always the first priority, even though it may
imply the cancellation of the test and some delay may be caused.

Weight and balance configurations:


Define if any particular configuration of weight and balance is required to perform the ground
tests. If so, the helicopter has to be loaded (or unloaded) accordingly before the tests start.

Test preparation:
Under this headline the following paragraphs are included:

Required equipment:
All the auxiliary equipment needed to perform the test has to be listed here in order for it to
be obtained and set up when the test starts. It may include:

GPU (ground power unit) for electrical supply (mention the acceptable limits of the voltage
provided by the GPU; for some equipments, these limits need to be very narrow)

VOR simulators, IFF simulators, etc:

It is wise, depending on the test, to have available a mechanical technician and an electrical
one, with standard tools, in case any eventuality occurs during the test and repairs are required
to allow the test to continue or reinitialise it. This will prevent cancellation of the
aforementioned test.

Test sequence:
The order to perform the several tests has to be clearly established to prevent confusion.

It is advisable to begin with the inspections (aisle width, ergonomics, decals, etc) and
afterwards, start with the tests requiring equipment activation and performance.

Test acceptance criteria:


This paragraph will indicate when a test is accepted or rejected, and how it has to be recorded
on the data sheets (for example, a “√” is written down in the “acceptance” column or, on the
contrary, a “X” is inserted in the “rejection” column).
A test is normally accepted when the results are according to the expected value of the
parameter being measured (tolerances have to be regarded) and is rejected otherwise.
Expected values for any parameter plus tolerances have to be shown on the data sheets.

Preparation of systems to test:


The systems to test have to be totally installed (mechanically and electrically) and they will be
operated according to the pertinent operation manual (state (title, number and issue) which
those manuals are).

Schedule:
The expected schedule for the ground tests has to be described and communicated in advance
to the certification authority and the customer.

Pag.55
Test procedures:
This paragraph has to describe in full detail and step by step how the tests have to be
performed. No doubt should arise during the test if this paragraph has been read in advance.
An example will try to make clear this point. Assume that a VHF radio has been installed and
is going to be functionally tested. The test procedure would be something similar to:

1) Make sure the radio control is in the “OFF” position


2) Insert the VHF radio breaker (located in position XX in breaker panel number
XX)
3) Switch on the radio control (place the control knob in the “ON” position)
4) Select the frequency XXXX (operating the selection buttons according to
manual XXX) and check the reception is loud and clear. Take note in the data
sheets
5) Select the frequency XXXX and check with the control tower (or any other
station) reception of emitted message. Take note in the data sheets.
6) And the same procedures can be written for as many frequencies as deemed
necessary to check. Finally, the radio control has to be switched off (indicating
how to do it) and the breaker pulled out

Data sheets:
Data sheets are the formats where the test results are recorded. They summarise the test
procedure and show the expected value of any parameter to be evaluated and its tolerances.
An example is included below.

Pag.56
Test VHF radio functional test
Identification FGT-1
Requirement Emission and reception quality.
Procedure 1) Make sure the radio control is in the “OFF” position.
2) Switch on the radio control
3) Select frequency XXX and check reception is loud and clear.
4) Select frequency XXX and emit a message. Check reception.
5) Switch off the radio and pull out the breaker.
Parameter Value Tolerances Recorded A R
3) Reception Reception loud and clear ---------
4) Emission Emission loud and clear ---------
---------
---------
---------
Notes:

A: Accepted
R: Rejected

Date Time Test operator Certification engineer

All the above paragraphs comprise, as a minimum, a functional and ground test procedure.
Once this procedure has been approved by the certification authority, it is time to carry it out.
The procedure will be followed step by step and the data recorded, but unfortunately, on
several occasions malfunctions or unexpected happenings take place and somebody has to
decide if the test may continue or it has to be cancelled.
This is the responsibility of the test director. This person (an employee of the modification
company) is in charge of the test, and he or she has to decide what to do (with the agreement
of the certification authority present at the test site) when things go wrong.

Pag.57
Finally, when the functional and ground tests have been completed, a test result report(s)
has(ve) to be issued collecting all the results and events of the tests and mentioning if the
functional and ground tests have been successfully passed or they have not.
This test result report is sent to the certification authority for approval.

Once the ground tests have been concluded, it is time for the electromagnetic tests to start, if
any equipment able to emit or transmit has been installed in the helicopter, or is electrically
powered.

8.2 EMI/EMC TESTS

There are three EMI/EMC test types that a modified helicopter and its equipment can
undergo. These are:

a) Equipment level tests (only for equipment and performed in a laboratory)


b) Interoperability test (applicable to the whole helicopter with the new installed
systems/equipment on board the aircraft and working in normal conditions)
c) Allowable radiation level (applicable to the whole helicopter working under radiation)

Equipment level tests


These tests are carried out by the equipment manufacturer in order to obtain certification of its
equipment. The test procedures, acceptable or rejection conditions, test parameters and so on
are defined in several specifications (eg MIL-STD-461 (for military equipment), DO-160 (for
civil equipment) and similar developed in different countries).

The modification company has to demand the equipment manufacturer shows evidence
(Declaration and design of performance, qualification test reports, etc) that the selected
equipment complies with the appropriate EMI/EMC standard prior to installing them in the
helicopter.

Interoperability test

The purpose of this test is to verify that the newly installed equipment does not adversely
affect the existing equipment on the helicopter and vice versa, the operation of the existing
helicopter equipment does not adversely affect the new items.

It implies that any equipment has to be considered as a PNS (possible noise source), and also
as a potential victim of the operation of all the others.

This test is performed on the ground with the helicopter operative. The test consists of
switching on, operating and switching off the PNS and checking the effects on the operation
of all the other equipment. Bear in mind that ALL the systems powered by electricity or
activating any electrical device have to be checked, including collective and cyclic levers,
pedals, fuel pumps, hydraulic systems, etc.

A simple inspection is usually enough to verify that the equipment under test is affected or is
not by the operation of the PNS. This inspection includes a visual check of the system

Pag.58
indicator (if any, such as engine oil pressure indicator, etc), verification of control binding or
friction increase, perception of audio levels (noise) for radio communications, etc.

As for any test, it is required to set up a test procedure. A proposed table of content for such a
document is shown below:

a) Purpose
b) Applicability
c) Applicable documents
d) Helicopter approved (by the certification authority) documents affected by the tests
e) Applicable certification requirements
f) Prototype configuration
g) Required authorisations
h) Test personnel
i) Instrumentation
j) Location and test conditions
k) Safety regulations during the test
l) Weight and balance configuration
m) Test preparation
a. Required equipment
b. Test sequence
c. Test acceptance criteria
d. Preparation of systems to test
e. Schedule
f. Definitions and acronyms

n) Test procedures
a. New systems affected by the existing ones
b. Existing systems affected by the newly installed ones

Purpose:
It has to be mentioned that the document is written to describe how to perform the EMI/EMC
test of the modification concerning the applicable equipment on a helicopter of a defined type
and model.

Applicability:
This paragraph has to define the prototype helicopter where the tests are going to take place.
The type, model, serial number and tail number have to be stated.

Applicable documents:
Those documents needed to achieve the test, such as equipment operation manuals,
modification description, etc.

Helicopter approved documents affected by tests:


Those documents that are probably to be modified (issuing supplements) after the
modification is completed (flight manual, wiring manual, maintenance manual, etc)

Pag.59
Applicable certification requirements:
This is a list of all the certification paragraphs (excerpt from the certification plan) intended to
be demonstrated by EMI/EMC test.

Prototype configuration:
Define the exact configuration the prototype helicopter needs to have in order to perform a
representative test. Do not forget the optionals.

Required authorisations:
The authorisations required to perform an EMI/EMC test depend on the type of helicopter
(civil or military), the country regulations; and, in Europe for civil helicopters, if the
modification company is a DOA (design organization approval) or not.

In any case, it is mandatory that the functional and ground tests have been accomplished
successfully to be able to start the EMI/EMC test.

Test personnel:
List the personnel needed to achieve the test, do not forget personnel from the certification
authority. For example:

One pilot and co-pilot


One test engineer (from the modification company)
One test engineer (from the certification authority)
Etc.

Instrumentation:
If any instrumentation is needed to perform the test, this is the paragraph to list it. The name,
part number and specific requirements (electrical power, weight, etc) of the instrumentation
equipment has to be recorded and a drawing(s) showing their installation on the helicopter
has(ve) to be annexed in the EMI/EMC test procedure.

The reasons to use this instrumentation and the parameters to be recorded with it also have to
be mentioned.

Location and test conditions:


It is obvious that the place where the test will be carried out has to be explicitly mentioned as
well as the proposed time to start it.

As far as test conditions are concerned, some atmospheric conditions (outer air temperature,
no snow or rain present, no thunderstorms forecasted), helicopter outside the hangar (because
the test has to be carried out with engines on (and rotors turning)), and any other relevant
requirements have to be clearly set up in this paragraph.

Pag.60
Safety regulations during the tests:
Safety is the first and most important issue during any test (and helicopter operation).
Therefore, apply common sense and your company regulations for tests (if they exist). As a
minimum, the following has to be enforced:

f) Place the helicopter under test in an isolated area, far away from any other aircraft or
building
g) Highlight the test area conspicuously (by using red and white tape similar to that
utilised by police or fire-fighters to spot a particularly dangerous location, for instance,
or any other means)
h) Allow only and strictly the minimum required personnel to perform the test inside the
helicopter
i) Keep spectators as far away as possible
j) Do not allow any work in the helicopter prior to or during the test

As mentioned before, bear in mind that safety is always the first priority, even though it may
imply the cancellation of the test and some delay may be caused.

Weight and balance configurations:


Any weight and balance configuration is valid to perform this test.

Test preparation:
Under this headline the following paragraphs are included:

Required equipment:
All the auxiliary equipment needed to perform the test has to be listed here in order for it to
be obtained and set up when the test starts. It may include:

VOR simulators, IFF simulators, etc

It is wise, depending on the test, to have available a mechanical technician and an electrical
one, with standard tools, in case any eventuality occurs during the test and repairs are
required to allow the test to continue or reinitialise it, and hence, to prevent cancellation of the
aforementioned test.

Test sequence:
The order to perform the test has to be clearly established to prevent confusion.

Test acceptance criteria:


This paragraph will indicate when the effect of the PNS is accepted or rejected, and how it has
to be recorded on the data sheets (for example, a “√” is written down in the “acceptance”
column or, on the contrary, a “X” is inserted in the “rejection” column).
The acceptance criteria have to be set up in this chapter because there are several conditions
when interference can be accepted. For example:

If the interference is caused during the engine start process


If the interference lasts less than one second during any switch activation
If the interference causes a change less than 20% in the ambient noise level

Pag.61
Preparation of systems to test:
The systems to test have to be totally installed (mechanically and electrically) and they will be
operated according to the pertinent operation manual (state (title, number and issue) which
those manuals are).

Schedule:
The expected schedule for the EMI/EMC tests has to be described and communicated in
advance to the certification authority and the customer

Definitions and acronyms:


Make a clear statement (definition) of what is a Possible Noise Source (PNS), electrical
interference, noise level, malfunction and unacceptable response. And, of course, state what
any acronym means.

PNS: A possible noise source is any equipment able to cause an electromagnetic interference
on any other equipment

Electrical interference: Commonly known as noise, it is any non-desired electrical signal


causing a malfunction on equipment

Noise level: It is the system inherent noise (due to thermal effects, microphones, radio
frequency environment, etc). This level is used as a reference to accept or reject the effect of
interference.

Malfunction: It is a system failure due to an electromagnetic interference

Unacceptable response: It is an abnormality in the system functioning; although it is not a


malfunction, it detrimentally affects the system operation.

Test procedures:
This paragraph has to describe in full detail and step by step how the test has to be performed.
No doubt should arise during the test if this paragraph has been read in advance. The
procedure has to set up how to proceed when the newly installed equipment is checked
against potential interferences caused by other equipment, and in another chapter, how to
proceed when the newly installed equipment is the potential source of electromagnetic
interference.

There are many ways of doing this: one method is to create a data sheet describing the steps to
follow and with a table to record the results, as those shown below:

Pag.62
Test New system as PNS
Identification NS-1
Requirement Check the proper operation of existing systems when the new systems (mention
which systems ) are operated.
Procedure State step by step how to operate the new systems and what to check in the existing
systems
Landing
PNS (new system) Position lights Weather radar
light
VHF radio

Notes: A: Accepted; R: Rejected

Date Time Test engineer Certification engineer

And when the newly installed systems can be perturbed by the existing systems, the data sheet
may be slightly different, for instance:

Pag.63
Test Existing systems as PNS
Identification ES-1
Requirement Check the proper operation of new systems when the existing systems are operated.
Procedure State step by step how to operate the existing systems and what to check in the new
systems (in this example the transmission and emission quality levels (noise))
PNS VHF radio
Position lights
Landing light
Weather radar
Fuel transfer
pumps
Etc
Notes: A: Accepted; R: Rejected

Date Time Test engineer Certification engineer

When the EMI/EMC test is finished, it is time to write an EMI/EMC test result report
describing the results attained during the test and any deviation that might have taken place.

Pag.64
This report has to say if the EMI/EMC test has been successfully passed or not.

Allowable radiation level

These tests are seldom used for most of the modifications a helicopter will undergo along its
operational life, therefore, not much detail is required They consist of radiating the helicopter
on the ground until unacceptable interferences are encountered on the helicopter systems and
equipment. Those radiation limits are recorded and limitations are mentioned in the applicable
flight manual supplement with sentences similar to “do not fly in areas where the electrical
field intensity is higher than XXXX V/m” (ie, high voltage lines, etc).

Insurance policy for functional and EMI/EMC tests


The functional and ground tests and EMI/EMC tests have to be covered by an insurance
policy, issued by the modification company, in case some damage might be caused to the
helicopter or any personnel involved in those tests. These policies vary from country to
country; therefore, it is difficult to set up general rules. In the year 2006 it is reasonable to
contract a 6 million euros policy for civil helicopters and 12 million euros for military ones
(at the time of writing this book 1 euro = 1.27 US dollars approximately), although it is
widely dependant on the type of helicopter.

8.3 FLIGHT TESTS

When the functional (ground) and EMI/EMC tests have been successfully accomplished, the
next step is to test the modification in flight.

Before starting the test, several administrative tasks have to be cleared; apart from issuing a
test procedure (to be described later), the following aspects need to be considered:

a) Authorisation to fly. This authorisation varies from country to country and it is also
depends on the helicopter classification (military or civil). In any case, it is absolutely
necessary to have a flight test procedure issued by the modification company and
approved by the certification authority prior to receiving the authorisation to start the
flight test.
b) Insurance policy: This also depends on the country’s regulations where the flights take
place. In some countries it is mandatory for the modification company to issue an
insurance policy covering potential damage to third parties (people and their
belongings on ground, and the cost of the test helicopter in case of crash). This author
suggests checking the liability responsibilities applicable in the country of interest (ask
the civil airworthiness authority or its military counterpart). In addition to this policy,
it is mandatory to issue another one covering the people involved in the flight test
(crew, test engineer(s), certification authority(ies)). It is the responsibility of the
modification company and it is charged to their expenses. Minimal coverage and
other details vary widely from country to country.

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Before describing a flight test procedure, it is worth saying a few words about the flight test
director.
This person is responsible for the flight test and he or she has to decide what to do in the case
of an unexpected event (cancel, continue or reinitiate the test).

It is also important to remember that when the helicopter is flight tested, it “belongs” to the
modification company. This implies that any damage caused to or by the helicopter is the
responsibility of the modification company, not the customer: that’s why the insurance policy
is required.

Another important factor is the flight test pilot(s). He or she should be part of the modification
company workforce, but because it is almost impossible for any company to have a permanent
set of pilots qualified in all helicopter types, in many cases they will be hired for an agreed
number of flights.
Their qualifications are also very important. For most modifications (communications,
navigation equipments, etc) any pilot with a valid licence for the helicopter type to be tested is
acceptable, but when performance tests (particularly those in the flight envelope limits and
engine performance) are envisaged, it is advisable, although not mandatory, to hire a flight
test pilot, and those are not very abundant. By flight test pilot, it is understood to be those that
have passed a flight test course (usually over one year long) in helicopter flight test schools
like Patuxent river (USA), Boscombe Down (UK), Istres (France), or any other equivalent.
The military usually have several such pilots; therefore, if they are the customer, it is wise to
ask for their assistance and mention on the contract that the test pilots will be provided by the
Army, Navy or Air Force, as applicable (economical impact is disregarded, but this choice is
usually much cheaper than any other alternative).

As far as a flight test procedure is concerned, the contents are similar to those of the
functional and EMI/EMC tests; that is, a description of means and requirements to be
fulfilled, and evidently, what to do to complete the test.

A suggested table of contents is the following:

a) Introduction
a. History
b. Test goals

b) Helicopter and equipment to be tested description


a. Helicopter description
b. Equipment to be tested description

c) Test scope
a. Tests and test conditions
i. Meteorological conditions
ii. Miscellaneous

b. Flight test envelope


i. Limitations

c. Authorisations
d. Test configurations

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e. Test specifications

d) Test methodology
a. Test methods
b. Instrumentation and data reduction/data processing
c. Support requirements

e) Schedule
f) Safety requirements
g) Test management
a. Human and material resources
b. Facilities
c. Required equipment

h) Test responsibility
i) References
j) Annexes
a. Test matrix
b. Test configurations
c. Cooper Harper Rating (HQR, Handling Quality Rating Scale)

History: It is nice to commence the flight test procedure mentioning briefly what the
modification intends (eg to improve the helicopter communication capability, to adapt the
helicopter to new threat environments (for military), etc)

Test goals: This is a paragraph to state the main test objective in a very concise manner ( eg to
check the proper functioning of the new system, to verify the performance of the helicopter in
certain conditions, etc)

Helicopter description: This paragraph is a courtesy to the certification authority because they
are usually specialised personnel, and the one to flight test the modification may not have
been involved in the rest of the certification process. So, a basic helicopter description is
appreciated, to allow the certification authority to be familiar with it.

Equipment to be tested description: Due to the same reason as in the previous paragraph,
some concise description of the new systems or equipment (what they look like, where they
are placed, how they work, what their basic performances are, etc) is advisable.

Meteorological conditions: The conditions to be required are specified in this paragraph


(temperature, humidity, snow, rain, etc).
For most flight-tests it is very advisable to specify VMC (Visual Meteorological Conditions)
to perform the tests. Obviously, there are some exceptions, such as icing tests, etc

Miscellaneous: Any other condition deemed worth mentioning

Limitations: The flight test envelopes have to be clearly defined in this paragraph (normally,
this envelope is that of the approved flight manual, but there are exceptions, particularly if the

Pag.67
modification intends to expand these limits. In that particular case, use the progressive
approach, that is, approach the desired new point in the extended envelope successively, in
several attempts, pushing the limit step by step, so the helicopter behaviour can be analysed
and safety assessed before trying a new attempt flying beyond the tested point.
Besides, any other applicable limitation (for instance, all the flight tests have to be strictly
performed in VMC) needs to be set up.

Authorisations: As mentioned for the functional and EMI/EMC tests, the required
authorisations vary from country to country, but in any case, no flight test should be tried until
both the functional (ground) and EMI/EMC have been successfully completed.
Several certification authorities demand an “airworthiness statement”. This document, issued
by the modification company, states that the helicopter with serial number XXXX, tail
number XXXX, with engines serial number XXXX, has been checked (all its systems have
been verified (structure, mechanical devices, electrical system, hydraulic system, landing
gear, etc) and they are in flight condition), and all the maintenance tasks have been properly
accomplished while the helicopter has undergone the modification; in addition to that, there
are no service bulletins pending to apply. In other words, the helicopter is ready to fly in a
safe manner, at least, as safe as can be assured, because the impact of the modification has to
be assessed, and that is the flight test goal.

Test configurations: The helicopter configuration as far as weight, centre of gravity and
landing gear position (if retractable) have to be defined according to the flight phase (takeoff,
cruise, approaching, landing, etc) and the type of flight test.

Test specifications: This paragraph collects the entire certification standard paragraph to be
demonstrated by flight test. It is a list including standard paragraph number and title.

Test methods: This paragraph describes what to do, step by step, and what data has to be
recorded in each and every flight test.
It has to set up what is the power to be applied to the engines, what weight and balance
configuration, what is the flight altitude, what are the manoeuvres to be done (turns, level
flight, autorotation, etc), in which order, which speeds, which bank angles, when applicable,
and what data has to be collected and for how long.

Instrumentation and data reduction/data processing: It will be mentioned if the data is


recorded from the helicopter indicators (just reading them and recording the data in a FTC
(Flight test card)) or some instrumentation will be used. If so, the instrumentation part
numbers, models, location and parameters to be recorded have to be described. These FTI
(Flight test instrumentation) will have been previously approved by the certification authority
(location, electrical consumption, cooling requirements, etc).
When FTI is used, thousand of pieces of data are recorded; the process to cope with this huge
amount of information and obtain valid test results has to be outlined in this paragraph.

Support requirements: It is wise to specify that a mechanical technician and an electrician be


available during the flight test in order to correct any possible minor failure and proceed with
the flight test, otherwise, it would have to be cancelled.

Schedule: The date when the flight test will start and the foreseen days needed to accomplish
have to be mentioned in this paragraph.

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Safety requirements: They are basically the same as for any other test (see functional and
ground test or EMI/EMC test safety requirements), but in this particular case, pay more
attention to spectators. Keep them as far as possible away from the testing site.
Follow strictly the ground and flight procedures for the particular helicopter under test
summarised in the flight manual and company, or customer, procedures.

Human and material resources: All the personnel and material required to perform the test
will be listed in this paragraph. It includes pilot, co-pilot, flight technician (if applicable), test
engineer, test engineer (certification authority), any other person deemed necessary and, as far
as material is concerned, safety belts for all the occupants, life jackets and rafts (if the test will
be carried out over water), etc.

Facilities: where the helicopter will be during the flight test has to be specified (modification
company premises, military base, etc). If the flight test is carried out in a remote area, fuel is a
very important consideration; refuelling stations have to be considered. Water is also
important to wash the helicopter engines if the test is performed over sea, and for people
attending the test, if it is carried out in a hot, isolated area.

Required equipment: This is a list of all the support equipment needed to perform the test,
such as a GPU (ground power unit) to start the engines, to standard tools or very specific
equipment (ie if a countermeasure system is being flight tested, a radar tracking station and
MANPADS (infrared portable missiles) simulators are required).

Test responsibility: This is a plain, clearly written paragraph; the flight test is always the
responsibility of the modification company, but it is advisable to mention it explicitly to
prevent any misunderstanding or confusion.

References: List all the documents used to issue the flight test procedure.

Annexes: As many annexes as necessary can be included in the flight test procedure, for this
example three have been selected:

Test matrix: This is a summary, in a table format of all the tests to be performed. It should be
something similar to the following example.

FLIGHT TEST WEIGHT AND ALTITUDE SPEED FAR


NUMBER BALANCE (FT) (KIAS) PARAGRAPH
CONFIGURATION
3 Cartographic C7 500 70 29.771,
navigator 29.773,
functional 29.777,
test 29.1301,
29.1309, etc.

Test configurations: This is a summary of the weight and balance configurations to be used
during the flight tests. An example is shown below; this is a fictitious example.

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CONFIGURATION GROSS WEIGHT CG (m) NEW EQUIPMENT
(Kg) INSTALLED
C1 10000 4,25 Yes
C2 10500 4,00 No

Handling Quality Rating Scale: This is a scale intended to help the pilot to classify any task
when his/her qualitative judgement is required. This scale can be found in any flight test
book.

There is no need to include the Data Sheets, named FTC (flight test cards) for flight tests, in
the flight test procedure. It is more convenient to issue them apart, even a few days before the
flight tests start because it allows flexibility to change the order of the tests and some other
minor change that could arise (and they always arise).

The format of the FTC could be similar to those shown for functional and EMI/EMC tests. It
has to mention, step by step, what to do and what data to record, when it is acceptable and
when it is not (tolerances).

Pag.70
When the flight tests have been concluded and the data has been properly treated and
analysed, a flight test result report will be issued by the modification company. This
document will describe how the flight-tests were performed and if their results are acceptable
or not. This document will be sent to the certification authority for its approval.

As previously mentioned at the beginning of this subchapter, pay special attention to those
flight tests concerning flight envelope limits and also those where external protuberances are
involved (external loads when using cargo hooks or rescue hoists (some of them tend to rotate
and/or lift), missiles, cannons, etc). Bear in mind that safety is always the first and most
important issue.

Provided that all documents forwarded by the modification company has been approved by
the certification authority, they will issue a certificate (Supplemental Type Certificate for civil
helicopters), technical certificate (for military aircrafts) or recommendation for certification if
the certification authority is working on behalf of the certification authority where the
helicopter is licensed (this is usual for military helicopters).

Pag.71
9. ENTRY INTO SERVICE

When the modification is finally concluded and approved by the authority, it is time to return
the helicopter to the customer and to normal service.

The documents that have to be delivered to the customer are:

h) Flight manual supplement


i) Maintenance manual supplement
j) Wiring manual supplement
k) Illustrated Part Catalogue supplement
l) Copy of the approved modification airworthiness certificate (this is not mandatory.
This certificate is called STC (supplemental type certificate for civil helicopters) and
several names (according to the country) for military helicopters).
m) Completed helicopter log book
n) For military helicopters in NATO countries: NSN’s (NATO Stock numbers of the
applicable parts)

In addition, the customer has to sign off the acceptance document of the modification.
Normally, from this moment, the warranties applied to the modification start.

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10. SUMMARY
There are many different possible modifications and upgrades to be carried out in a helicopter,
therefore, it is practically impossible to detail all of them, but whichever the modification
might be, the same sequence of events has to be followed, namely:

a) Set up a clearly defined and honesty based relationship with your customer
b) If the customer does not supply the systems and equipment to be implemented,
negotiate with the suppliers and demand all the documentation needed to carry
out the design and certification processes
c) Make a safety analysis: it will influence the modification design, so the sooner
the better
d) Work out a certification plan. Describe the airworthiness standard you wish to
comply with, and make sure you are able to fulfil them. Then, agree the
certification plan with the certification authority
e) Design the modification
f) Procure the materials to manufacture the designed parts and to proceed with
the installation on the helicopter
g) Perform the installation
h) Test it
i) Attain the airworthiness certificate, the flight manual supplement, the service
bulletin and maintenance manual supplement, signed and sealed by the
certification authority
j) Make sure that all documents to be delivered to the customer are readily
available the day the helicopter will be returned to them

All modifications are managed in the same way, the only difference is the complexity of the
tasks to be achieved: it is much easier to flight test a new VHF radio than the helicopter
behaviour when carrying heavy external loads, but the concept is exactly the same; that is, to
demonstrate the safe operation of the aircraft when the new devices have been installed.

Following the stated steps, any modification will be successfully accomplished from both
technical and certification standpoints.

An engineer working for a small or mid-size company needs to know many things, the more
the better. Any specialist has got a much deeper knowledge of any particular subject, but it is
unlikely he/she has a good understanding of the whole modification process. What you need
to know depends on whom you work for. This book has intended to show this whole process:
hopefully it has been useful.

Pag.73
REFERENCES

ARP926: Fault/Failure analysis procedure. SAE

ARP5580: Recommended failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA) practices for non-
automobile applications. SAE

DEF-STAN: Volume 2: Rotary wing

DO-160: Environmental conditions and test procedures for airborne equipment. RTCA

EASA 27/29: European aviation safety agency Parts 27 and 29

FAA AC 43.13-1B: Acceptable methods, techniques, and practices. Aircraft inspection and
repair. FAA

FAR 27/29: Federal aviation regulations Parts 27 and 29

MIL-B-5087: Bonding electrical and lighting protection, for aerospace systems. DOD

MIL-HDBK-5: Metallic materials and elements for aerospace vehicle structures. DOD

MIL-STD-461: Interface standard requirements for the control of electromagnetic interference


characteristics of subsystems and equipment. DOD

MIL-STD-810: Test method standard for environmental consideration and laboratory tests.
DOD

MIL-STD-1472: Human engineering

MIL-W-5088: Wiring aerospace vehicle. DOD

Pag.74
GLOSSARY

AC: Advisory circular

ATP: Acceptance test procedure

CAD: Computer aid design

CDR: Critical design review

CO: Carbon monoxide

CRES: Corrosion resistant steel

D: Depot maintenance level

DDP: Declaration of design and performance

DER: Design representative

DOA: Design organization approval

EAPS: Engine air particle separator

EASA: European Aviation Safety Agency

EMI/EMC: Electromagnetic interference/electromagnetic compatibility

FAA: Federal Aviation Administration

FAR: Federal aviation regulation

FDR: Final design review

FEM: Finite element model

FMEA: Failure mode and effect analysis

FOD: Foreign object damage

FTC: Flight test card

FTI: Flight test instrumentation

GPS: Global positioning system

GPU: Ground power unit

HQR: Handling quality rating

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I: Intermediate maintenance level

ICD: Interface control document

IFF: Identification friend and foe

IPC: Illustrated part catalogue

JAA : Joint Aviation Authority

KVA: Kilo Volt Amperes

Kw: Kilowatts

m: meter

MANPADS: Man portable antiaircraft system

MTOW: Maximum takeoff weight

NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organisation

NDT: Non destructive test

NSN: NATO stock number

NVIS: Night vision system

O: Organizational maintenance level

PDR: Preliminary design review

P/N: Part number

PNS: Possible noise source

SAE: Society of automotive engineers

STC: Supplemental type certificate

UK: United Kingdom

USA: United States of America

V: Volt

VHF: Very high frequency

VMC: Visual meteorological conditions

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VOR: Very high frequency omni directional range

XXXX: Any generic name or value

Pag.77
INDEX

A
Aerodynamics: 2,35,36
Airframe: 36,37
Allowables: 25
AQAP 110: 6
ATP: 11,12,75
Audio: 34,59

C
Cargo hooks: 48,71
CDR: 8,9,10,75
Certificate of conformity: 11,53,54
Certification bases: 15,16
Composites: 19,25,28,29
Corrosion: 7,8,9,29,46,75
Crack: 25,30,46

D
Data sheets: 11,12,19,53,55,56,61,70
DDP: 11,12, 19,75
Drag: 35,36,37,38
Dynamic analysis: 28,29
Dynamic stability: 39

E
EAPS: 20,42,75
Electrical harness: 31,32,33,47,49,50
Electrical system: 7,39,68
EMI/EMC test procedure: 8,9,14,60
Ergonomics: 8,9,20,55
External fuel tanks: 37

F
Fatigue analysis: 14,25,29,30
FDR: 8,10,13,75
Fire protection: 14,20,40
Flight test procedure: 9,14,35,39,65,66,67,69,70
FMEA: 11,14,19,21,22,74,75
FOD: 50,75
Forward looking infrared: 6,38,44
FTC: 68,70,71,75
Functional and ground test procedure: 8,9,14,32,52,54,57

H
Hazard analysis: 14,21
Helicopter geometry: 6,23,38
HQR: 67,75
Hydraulic system: 2,14,20,40,58,68

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I
ICD: 11,19,76
Insurance policy: 65,66
IPC: 23,47,76
ISO 9100: 6

L
Laser warning: 36

M
Main gear box: 20,40
Maintenance manual supplement : 9,10,15,18,43,46,49,72,73
Master drawing list: 14,16,41,42
Mechanical components: 46
Metallic materials: 19,28,29,74
Missile launching warning: 36
MTOW: 39,76

N
NDT: 46,76
Non-approved data: 5

P
PDR: 8,9,76
Pneumatic system: 14,33
PNS: 58,61,62,63,64,76
Project manager: 4,6,9,10,43

R
Radar warning: 36
Radomes: 19
Rescue hoists: 36,37,71

S
Service bulletin: 5,14,41,43,48,49,50,54,68,73
Specification: 6,7,10,11,12,13,19,58,67,68
Static analysis: 28,29,31
Static stability: 39
STC: 42,72,76
Stress distribution: 22,23,24,25,26,27,28,30

T
Temperature: 7,11,40,42,44,54,60,67
Test engineer: 54,60,63,64,65,69
Test pilot: 66

V
VMC: 67,68,76
Vortex: 35,37,38

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W
Weight and balance: 14,31,44,45,49,52,53,55,59,61,68,69,70
Wire: 19,32,33,47,50

Pag.80

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