ELEMENTS OF NATURAL AND MAN-MADE

DISASTERS AND ITS PREVENTION

MEASURES

BY
DR.E.ARUMUGAM
DIRECTOR
CENTRE FOR DISASTER MITIGATION AND
MANAGEMENT
ANNA UNIVERSITY
DISASTERS, HAZARDS AND VULNERABILITY

Disasters

What is a disaster?
“…..it a serious disruption of the functioning of a society, causing
widespread human, material, or environmental losses which
exceed the ability of the affected society to cope using its own
resources”.

A disaster is the product of a hazard such as earthquake, flood or

windstorm coinciding with a vulnerable situation which might
include communities, cities or villages.

There are two main components in this definition: hazard and

vulnerability. Without vulnerability or hazard there is no disaster.
Relationship between Hazard and Vulnerability

Eg- flood Eg- living in flood

Disast Vulnera-
Hazard er bility prone area

Disaster Risk = Hazard + Vulnerability

 Hazards
Definition:
"Phenomena that pose a threat to people, structures
or economic assets and which may cause a disaster.
They could be either man-made or naturally occurring
in our environment."

Types of Hazards
3. Natural

5. Man-Made

7. Fast Impact

9. Slow Onset
 HAZARDS
 Floods - Everything located in flood plains. Crops, livestock,
machinery, equipment, infrastructure weak buildings, their contents,
people. Local economy

 Earthquakes - Weak buildings, their occupants and contents. Machinery,

equipment, infrastructure

 Volcanic Eruptions - Anything close to volcano. Crops, livestock,

people, combustible roofs, water supply.

 Landslides - Anything located on or at base of steep slopes or cliff tops,

roads, and infrastructure, buildings on shallow foundations

 Technological disasters - Lives and health of those involved or in the

vicinity. Buildings, equipment, infrastructure, crops and livestock.
Local economy
 Vulnerability

Definition:
" The extent to which a community, structure, service, or
geographic area is likely to be damaged or disrupted by
the impact of particular hazard, on account of their nature,
construction and proximity to hazardous terrain or a
disaster prone area."

This susceptibility to be damaged or affected will

be different to each type of threat and will depend on their
differing characteristics.
 Types of Vulnerability
 Physical Vulnerability
 Socio-economic Vulnerability

Physical Vulnerability

• Damage may be caused by earthquakes or floods have been based

on the physical location of people.
• For example people are only vulnerable to a flood because they live
in a flood prone area.

• Depending on construction techniques, materials used, siting and

condition, some buildings will be more prone to damage than others
depending on the nature of the threat.

Socio-Economic Vulnerability
The size of a disaster is determined by the event, its effects on
people and their environment, as well as human activities within any
society which increase or decrease the potential to be affected.
 Vulnerability - Choice and Recovery
Choice

Physical vulnerability is as much a function of location and exposure to

a hazard as to the physical performance of buildings and structures.

• Due to socio-economic factors some sectors of society will have more

choices as to where they live and what assistance they will receive in a
disaster.

• Thus it often the case that the poorest are more vulnerable than those
who can afford

Recovery
• The capacity to recover will depend on income levels, savings, social
support systems etc.
 THE CYCLE OF DISASTER

• Before a disaster:
disaster - to reduce the potential for human,
material, or environmental losses caused by hazards and
to ensure that these losses are minimised when disaster
strikes

• During a disaster:
disaster to ensure that the needs and
provisions of victims are met to alleviate and minimise
suffering

• After a disaster:
disaster to achieve rapid and durable recovery
which does not reproduce the original vulnerable
conditions Before
Mitigation, preparedness

Disaster !

After
Relief, rehabilitation,
reconstruction
 Disaster Cycle – Three
Stages
1. The Disaster Event

2. Recovery

3. Risk Reduction: Mitigation and Preparedness

1. The Disaster Event

• The “real-time” event of a hazard occurring and affecting elements at risk.
The duration of the event will depend on the type of threat; ground shaking
may only occur for a matter of seconds during an earthquake whilst flooding
may take place over a longer sustained period.
2. Recovery
Recovery is used to describe the activities which
encompass the three overlapping phases of
emergency relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction.

1. Emergency Relief
Refers to the period immediately following the occurrence of
a disaster when steps are taken to meet the needs of
survivors in respect to shelter, water, food and medical care
2. Rehabilitation
Activities that are undertaken to support the victims’ return to
"normal" life and re-integration into regular community
functions
3. Reconstruction
Good reconstruction attempts to return communities to
improved pre-disaster functioning
 3. Risk Reduction: Mitigation and Preparedness
Reducing the risk of disasters involves activities
which either reduce or modify the scale and intensity of
the threat faced or by improving the conditions of
elements at risk.
Risk reduction can take place in two ways:

1. Preparedness
This protective process embraces measures which enable
governments, communities and individuals to respond rapidly to disaster
situations to cope with them effectively.
2. Mitigation
Mitigation embraces all measures taken to reduce both the effect of
the hazard itself and the vulnerable conditions to it in order to reduce the
scale of a future disaster.
 ACTORS IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT

• Actors are organized at various levels in the community, in non-

governmental, formal and non‑formal organizations.

• The government is involved through local authorities, national

planning bodies and ultimately in the national leadership.

For this reason the actors are identified as:

• Community organizations

• Non-governmental organizations (NGOs)

• Government
1. Community organizations
Local community leaders
Voluntary Fire Brigades
Community Groups ( youth, women, farmers, self help,
etc.)
Church/religious organizations
Local builders/craftsmen
Housing Co-operatives
Private sector: suppliers of materials, equipment
Volunteers
School teachers
Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs)
In recent years, various formal and non‑formal
organizations have played an increasingly important
role in disaster reduction.

Because of their significant links with grassroots

development, these organizations often perform
complementary roles with other established
organizations.

The role of school teachers, social welfare workers,

women’s’ groups, and other socio‑cultural
organizations in disaster reduction should not be
underestimated.

Religious institutions and their structures have also

been involved in a number of ways; for instance in
Jamaica hurricane committees are organised on a
parish basis.
 Government
Local Government And
Project Staff
•Town or District Architect/Planner
•Town or District Engineer
•Housing Officers
•Building Inspectors
•Contractors
•Public Health Officers
•Medical Staff
•Public and Finance Administrators
•Transport Departments
•Public Utility Staff
•Teachers/Adult educators
•Social (and relief) workers
•Agricultural extension workers
•Information workers/media
•Local Administrators
•Police and Army
National Level
•National Politicians
•Lawmakers
•Civil servants
•Mapping Agencies
•Development planners
•Regional Planners
•University Faculty
•Research Institutes
•Employers Associations
•Professional Organizations
•National Relief Organizations
•National NGOs
•Media
•Bank & Insurance Staff
 THE SEQUENCE OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT
PLANNING

Disaster management can be divided into pre and

post disaster contexts.
The Six stages are:

Inception of disaster planning

Risk assessment

Defining levels of acceptable risk

Preparedness and mitigation planning

Testing the plan

Feedback from lessons learnt

Stage one: Inception of disaster management
Agreed objectives for disaster planning

• Political commitment at all levels of national and local government a

governmental structure with clearly defined authority and an appropriate
budgetary commitment to maintain effective disaster planning up-to-
date, well rehearsed preparedness plans that are comprehensive in
scope and operational at all levels (central, provincial and community).

• These include an emergency management system, ideally the

responsibility of a nominated national co-ordination body mitigation
plans to reduce the hazard threats and vulnerability to them knowledge
of disaster management and specific knowledge of local situations
subject to disaster threats.
Stage two: Risk Assessment
It is a three part process that has to be undertaken in the
following sequence:

5. Hazard mapping
Hazard mapping reveals areas which are particularly susceptible to
hazards: earthquake, flood, drought, landslide, etc.

2. Vulnerability analysis
It includes social, economic, natural and physical environmental
factors. Vulnerability analysis is always a 'site-specific' process with
a concern for unique characteristics of a local situation.

3. Resource assessment
When potential losses have been estimated, a further assessment is
needed of the resources or "capacities" existing to improve disaster
planning.
Stage three: Defining levels of acceptable risk

The information gathered through the various processes in Stage

Two is then analysed to enable a responsible course of action. Such
information may enable NGOs to formulate sustainable development
programmes.

Typical questions for decision makers might include:

7. Should they initiate risk reduction measures to protect their citizens

or are there other more pressing risks to address such as road safety
or AIDS public information programmes?

9. If they decide to proceed with risk reduction against natural hazards

what level of protection is required? For example, should shelter be
planned or upgraded to resist an earthquake that recurs every 20, 100
or 200 years?

11. Should certain critical elements such as schools and hospitals be

given extra levels of safety than say individual dwellings?

13. What is the 'perception of risk' of the affected community and does
this differ from official perceptions.
Stage four: Preparedness and Mitigation planning

These actions include measures that are aimed to reduce disaster

events in three ways.

7. Through methods to reduce hazard impact, e.g. building flood

protective embankments or walls, creating and managing dam
projects, community grain stores, etc.

9. Through preparedness measures that emphasise short term

activities focused on the emergency period, e.g. emergency flood
reservoirs in drought. Properly done they can reduce loss of life and
property whilst assisting the relief and rehabilitation

3. Through longer term mitigation measures aimed at the reduction of

physical vulnerability, socio economic vulnerability and underlying
causes.
Stage five: testing the plans

• In the representation of Stage Five two ways are indicated to test the
plans that are developed in Stage four.

• One way is through simulation exercises and public drills.

• This approach is obviously a rather inadequate method to determine

whether a preparedness plan or mitigation plan will work or not.

Stage six: feedback from lessons learned

• Information on changes needed in preparedness and mitigation

planning as well as on risk assessment will need to be continuously
passed back to an appropriate stage in the cyclical planning process.
• The purpose and scope of disaster management
• Disaster management covers all measures that help a society to avoid,
minimise loss and recover from hazard impacts.

• These measures include activities which take place before, during and after
a disaster event.

• Disaster management therefore incorporates all stages of the disaster cycle

which are seen as a continuum and not as discreet and independent
components

2. The cyclical sequence of disaster planning

• Disaster management planning is a sequential and continuous process.

• Good planning requires diagnosis, resources, evaluation and feedback

towards fulfilling the goal of disaster reduction.

• Because of the wide scope of disaster management and the numerous

actors involved it is essential that a framework for co-ordination is accepted
and provided for
3. The importance of risk assessment

• Experience indicates that the key component of risk assessment is

often omitted or inadequately carried out.

• In many countries disaster planning, incorporating very elaborate

preparedness processes, is undertaken with only a vague
understanding of the precise nature of hazards, vulnerabilities and
resources.

• The result is that much planning is wasted since it relates in a

haphazard and inaccurate manner to assumed risks, as opposed to
actual threats.

• Thus there is a need for governments to allocate resources for the

critical diagnostic process of risk assessment.
 DISASTER MITIGATION
Definition
“Measures aimed at reducing the impact of a natural or man-made
disaster in a nation or community.”

• Disaster mitigation embraces actions taken in advance of a disaster to reduce

its effects on a community.
• When used in this sense mitigation includes those actions which are often
categorised as being preparedness measures, i.e. preparedness is a part of
mitigation.
 Distinction between Mitigation and preparedness

Mitigation refers to long term risk reduction measures which are

intended to minimise the effects of a hazard, for example a dam construction is
considered an activity that mitigates the effects of drought

Preparedness assumes that certain groups of people or property will

remain vulnerable and that preparedness is necessary to address the
consequences of a hazardous events occurrence. Preparedness is therefore
concerned with measures immediately before and after a hazard event,
e.g. evacuation plans
 Mitigation measures
Non Structural Mitigation

Activities and decision making systems which provide the context

within which disaster management and planning operates and is
organised. They include measures such as:

7. Training and education

8. Public education
9. Evacuation planning
10. Institution building
11. Warning systems
Structural Mitigation

• A typical structural measure is an earthquake resistant building whilst a

typical non structural element is a seismic building code, training and
education, building safety codes, physical measures, land use planning,
public awareness programmes etc.
 DISASTER PREPAREDNESS
“Measures which enable governments, organisations, communities and
individuals to respond rapidly and effectively to disaster situations.
Preparedness measures include the formulation of viable disaster plans, the
maintenance of resources and the training of personnel.”

Elements of disaster preparedness

• Taking effective precautionary measures prior to the imminent threat of

a disaster

• Improving the emergency response to the effects of a disaster by

organising the delivery of timely and effective rescue and relief
assistance.
Disaster preparedness activities

Risk assessment

The provision and operation of warning systems

Emergency communications and information systems

Maintaining a resource base in anticipation of needs

Public preparedness education and awareness campaigns

Training and drills to ensure maintenance of preparedness

levels
 Disaster preparedness planning
Risk Assessment:
This information serves as a means to inform decision makers about the need for
disaster preparedness

Communications and early warning systems:

A particular challenge is to ensure that early warnings messages are able to
reach and be understood by those at risk.

Public awareness education:

Those people, communities or organisations who may be at risk ought to be
aware, learn about what to expect and what to do in an emergency

Damage and needs assessment:

following an assessment of damage and level of need must be undertaken by
trained assessment teams in a systematic way in order to determine the
appropriate emergency response and long term recovery
Public awareness and education

Heighten awareness of the disaster threat

Inform about possible pre-earthquake preparedness
measures
Inform about adaptive behaviour both during and
after an earthquake
Encourage the implementation of personal or
organisational preparedness plans and actions
Methods to increase public awareness

Government awareness programmes, deals with

disaster awareness or other programmes into which
disaster awareness elements could be inserted

National broadcasting systems, radio, T.V and

newspapers. Often radio is a crucial means of
communication, especially for disparate communities

Organisations, such as the Red Cross

Community level activities, e.g. village meetings, market

associations
Maintaining levels of preparedness

Training activities in awareness of disaster risks

Functional and readiness checks
Application of post-disaster reviews
Use of regulations
International assistance liaison
Public awareness activity and use of media publicity,
e.g. disaster awareness days
Education in schools
Drills and simulated exercises
Staff Evacuation Procedures

When evacuation alarm sounds or you are directed to evacuate the

facility:
3. Remain calm.
4. Shut down all hazardous operations.
5. Follow instructions.
6. Assist disabled persons.
7. Leave the area in an orderly fashion. Close doors, but do not lock.
8. Follow established evacuation routes.
9. Move away from the structure. Go directly to the assembly area (map
provided with plan). Report to the Evacuation Coordinator for a "head
count".
10.Do not block the street or driveway.
11.Stay at the assembly area until instructed otherwise.
 Fire
1. Remain calm.
2. Contact the Fire Department.
3. If the fire is small, try to extinguish it with the proper type of extinguisher or
other method. Do not jeopardize personal safety.
4. Do not allow the fire to come between you and the exit.
5. Disconnect electrical equipment if it is on fire and it is safe to do so.
6. Notify the supervisor and evacuation coordinator, if possible.
7. Evacuate if you can not extinguish the fire. Assist disabled persons.
8. Do not break windows.
9. Do not open a hot door. (Before opening a door, touch it near the top. If it is
hot or if smoke is visible, do not open.)
10. Do not use elevators.
11. Do not attempt to save possessions.
12. Go directly to the assembly area.
13. Do not return to the affected area until told to by appropriate authorities.
14. Do not spread rumors.
 Severe Storms
These first procedures apply to thunderstorms, tornados, hurricanes, etc.

3. Listen to the local radio/TV or NOAA Weather Radio for instructions.

4. Plan ahead before the storm arrives.
5. Tie down loose items located outside or move them indoors.
6. Open windows slightly, time permitting, on the side away from the direction of the
storm's approach.
7. Check battery-powered equipment and back-up power sources.
8. Fill vehicles with gas.
In the event of a severe storm warning within the surrounding area:
10. Disconnect electrical equipment and appliances not required for emergency use.
11. Do not use telephone except for an emergency or absolutely essential business.
12. Store drinking water in clean containers (e.g., jugs, bottles, sinks).
13. Avoid structures with wide span roofs (e.g., gymnasium).
14. Otherwise, take cover.
 Hurricane Warning
2. Board up windows or protect them with storm shutters or tape. Some
should be left slightly open to equalize the pressure.
3. Leave low-lying areas that may be swept by high tides or storm waves.
4. Stay in the building if it is sturdy and on high ground. If not--and
especially if local authorities order an evacuation--move to a designated
shelter.
5. Remain indoors. Don't be fooled by the calmness of the "eye."
Remember, the winds on the other side of the "eye" will come from the
opposite direction.
Hurricane Evacuation
7. Follow the instructions of local authorities
8. If transportation is provided by local authorities, use it
9. If you must walk or drive to another location:
10. Leave early enough so as not to be marooned,
11. If driving, ensure there is sufficient gas,
12. Use recommended routes rather than trying to find short-cuts, and
13. Go to a designated location--don't go anywhere else.
 Flood
In case of a flood warning in the area:
3. Listen to local radio/TV.
4. Prepare to evacuate upon direction. (Note: If a flash flood warning is issued, get out
of the area immediately.)
5. Assist disabled persons and follow instructions of emergency preparedness personnel
6. Check any battery-powered equipment & back-up power sources.
7. Store drinking water in clean receptacles (e.g., sinks, jugs).
8. Inventory and move to the upper floors emergency supplies such as food, first aid
items, blankets...
9. Secure all loose objects located outside.
10. Assist with protecting objects.
11. Board up windows.
12. Disconnect utilities which are not absolutely essential.
13. Fill vehicle gas tank(s).
14. If driving, know the depth of the water in a dip or low area before crossing.
15. If vehicle stalls, abandon it immediately and seek higher ground.
16. Do not try to cross a stream on foot if water is above your knees.
17. Do not re-enter the affected area until directed by emergency preparedness
personnel.
18. Do not spread rumors.
 Hazardous Material Accident

Safety Measures
3. Evacuate the immediate area.
4. Initiate appropriate first aid and/ or other personnel protection measures, as
required.
5. Notify Authorities as soon as possible.
6. Do not re-enter the affected area until directed by the emergency preparedness
personnel.
7. If trained and properly protected, assist with the clean-up operations, as directed.
8. Do not spread rumors.

In case of a hazardous materials accident in the local

community:
11. Listen to the local radio/TV.
12. Follow instructions of the emergency preparedness personnel.
13. Evacuate when directed. Follow the designated route to the Assembly Area.
14. Do not re-enter the affected area until directed by emergency preparedness
personnel.
15. Do not spread rumors.
 Earthquake
During The Shaking ---
If indoors
Stay there.
Take cover under sturdy furniture (desks, work tables, etc.) or in a supported
doorway.
Stay near the center of the building.
Do not run for the exit as the stairs may be broken or jammed with people.
Do not use elevators.
Stay away from glass windows, doors, display cabinets, bookcases, etc.
Do not use candles, matches, or other open flame as there may be gas leaks.
Extinguish all fires with the proper type of extinguisher or other method.
2. If outdoors
Move to an open area away from buildings, utility wires, trees, etc.
If forced to stand near a building, watch for falling objects.
3. If driving a vehicle
Stop as quickly as safety permits, avoiding overpasses and power lines.
Remain in the car until the shaking stops.
If able to drive on after the shaking stops, watch for hazards which may have been
created by the earthquake.
 Explosion

2. Remain calm.
3. Take cover under a table or desk.
4. Be prepared for possible further explosions.
5. Stay away from windows, mirrors, overhead fixtures, filing cabinets,
bookcases, etc.
6. Follow the instructions of the security guards and emergency preparedness
personnel.
7. Evacuate calmly, when directed, to the Assembly Area. Assist disabled
persons.
8. Do not move seriously injured persons, unless they are in immediate danger
(fire, building collapse, etc.)
9. Open doors carefully. Watch for falling objects.
10. Do not use elevators.
11. Avoid using the telephone, except in a life threatening situation.
12. Do not use matches or lighters.
13. Do not re-enter the affected area until directed by emergency preparedness
personnel.
14. Do not spread rumours.
 Disaster Preparedness For People With Disabilities

• Check for hazards in the home

During and right after a disaster, ordinary items in the home can
cause injury or damage. Anything that can move, fall, break or cause fire
is a home hazard. Check for items such as bookcases, hanging pictures,
or overhead lights that could fall in an earthquake or a flood and block an
escape path.

• Be ready to evacuate
Have a plan for getting out of your home or building (ask your
family or friends for assistance, if necessary). Also, plan two evacuation
routes because some roads may be closed or blocked in a disaster.
Maintain a list of the following important
items
Special equipment and supplies, e.g.,hearing aid
batteries
Current prescriptions names and dosages
Names, addresses, and telephone numbers of
doctors and pharmacist
Detailed information about the specifications of
your medication regime
Create a self-help network of relatives, friends or
co-workers to assist in an emergency.
Disaster supplies to be on hand
• Flashlight with extra batteries.
• Portable, battery-operated radio and extra batteries.
• First aid kit and manual.
• Emergency food and water.
• Non-electric can opener.
• Essential medicines
• Cash and credit cards
• Sturdy shoes.
 Risk assessment
"A process of analysis to identify and measure risks from natural
hazards that affect people, property and the environment. This process
can also encompass the assessment of available resources to address
the risks."

Risk assessment therefore has two central components:

Hazard analysis, understanding the scale, nature
and characteristics of a hazard
Vulnerability analysis, the measuring of the extent
to which people or buildings are likely to suffer
from a hazard occurrence.
Resource Base:
Based on Risk assessment and in particular vulnerability
analysis, specific requirements in terms of materials and
people involved as well as costs should be made explicit and
planned for
Emergency disaster services: following damage and need
assessments, relief provisions must be secured and emergency
services made operable from all available sources including
the international community.
Maintenance of levels of preparedness: all plans should be
rehearsed in order to maintain preparedness levels and
improve response in the event of a real disaster.
 Conducting risk assessment
The process of risk assessment is usually conducted in the following sequence:

Hazard analysis: Hazard information is needed on such matters as location,

frequency, duration and severity of each hazard type.

Vulnerability analysis: Vulnerability analysis starts with creating an

inventory of all elements that are 'at risk' to the identified hazards such as
social groups, buildings, infrastructure, economic assets, agriculture etc.

Risk Evaluation and determining levels of acceptable risk: Once data on

the nature of the hazards and vulnerability has been collected, synthesised
and analysed by technical staff in the categories noted above it.
 Vulnerability assessment
“The analysis of the vulnerability of various sectors that are exposed

to the natural hazards identified in the hazard analysis exercises.

The sectors include social, livelihoods, economic, physical assets,

agriculture, political and administration.”

The Earthquake
 WHAT CAUSES EARTHQUAKE
 Rocks are made of elastic material, and so elastic strain
energy is stored in them during the deformations that
occur due to the gigantic tectonic plate actions that occur
in the Earth.
 But, the material contained in rocks is also very brittle.

 Thus, when the rocks along a weak region in the Earth’s Crust
reach their strength, a sudden movement takes place there opposite
sides of the fault (a crack in the rocks where movement has taken
place) suddenly slip and release the large elastic strain energy
stored in the interface rocks.
 For example, the energy released during the 2001 Bhuj (India)
earthquake is about 400 times (or more) that released by the 1945 Atom
Bomb dropped on Hiroshima!!
 Types of Earthquakes

 Inter-plate Earthquakes

Most earthquakes in the world occur along the boundaries of the

tectonic plates and are called Inter-plate Earthquakes (e.g.,
1897 Assam (India) earthquake).

ii. Intra-plate Earthquakes

A number of earthquakes also occur within the plate itself away

from the plate boundaries (e.g., 1993 Latur(India) earthquake);
these are called Intra-plate Earthquakes.
 TYPES OF FAULTS
 Dip Slip

Strike Slip

In both the slip generated at the fault during earthquakes

is along both vertical and horizontal directions (called Dip Slip)
types of earthquakes, and lateral directions (called Strike Slip)
(Figure), with one of them dominating sometimes.
How the ground shakes?
• Large strain energy released during an earthquake travels as seismic
waves in all directions through the Earth’s layers, reflecting and refracting
at each interface.
• The instrument that measures earthquake shaking, a seismograph,
has three components – the sensor, the recorder and the timer.
 Characteristics of Strong Ground Motions

The motion of the ground can be described in terms of

displacement, velocity or acceleration. The variation of
ground acceleration with time recorded at a point on
ground during an earthquake is called an accelerogram.
 Terminology

•The point above the focus on the surface of earth is called the Epicenter

• The point where energy is released is called the Focal Depth

 Magnitude
The magnitude of an earthquake is a measure of the amount of energy
released. It is a quantitative measure of the actual size of the earthquake.
Each earthquake has a unique magnitude assigned to it.
This is based on the amplitude of seismic waves measured at a
number of seismograph sites, after being corrected for distance from
the earthquake.
Magnitude estimates often change by up to 0.2 units, as additional data
are included in the estimate.
Intensity
Intensity is a qualitative measure of the actual shaking at a location during an
earthquake, and is assigned as Roman Capital Numerals.

The distribution of intensity at different places during an earthquake is

shown graphically using isoseismals, lines joining places with equal
seismic intensity
 Seismic Zones in India

The national Seismic Zone Map presents a

large-scale view of the seismic zones in the
country. Local variations in soil type and
geology cannot be represented at that scale.
for the purposes of urban planning,
metropolitan areas are microzoned. Seismic
microzonation accounts for local variations in
geology, local soil profile, etc,.
Richter Scale

The Richter scale is logarithmic, that is an

increase of 1 magnitude unit represents a factor of
ten times in amplitude.
The seismic waves of a magnitude 6 earthquake
are 10 times greater in amplitude than those of a
magnitude 5 earthquake.
However, in terms of energy release, a magnitude
6 earthquake is about 31 times greater than a
magnitude 5.
Magnitude
M=1 to 3: Recorded on local seismographs, but generally not felt

M=3 to 4: Often felt, no damage

M=5: Felt widely, slight damage near epicentre

M=6: Damage to poorly constructed buildings and other structures

within 10's km

M=7: "Major" earthquake, causes serious damage up to ~100 km

(recent Taiwan, Turkey, Kobe, Japan, and California earthquakes).

M=8: "Great" earthquake, great destruction, loss of life over several

100 km (1906 San Francisco, 1949 Queen Charlotte Islands) .

M=9: Rare great earthquake, major damage over a large region over
1000 km (Chile 1960, Alaska 1964, and west coast of British
Columbia, Washington, Oregon, 1700).
 Some Past Earthquakes in India

The timing of the earthquake during the

day and during the year critically
determines the number of casualties.
Casualties are expected to be high for
earthquakes that strike during cold winter
nights, when most of the population is
indoors.
 Inertia Forces in Structures

Earthquake causes shaking of the ground. So a building resting on it will

experience motion at its base.
Seismic Effects on Structures
 Importance of Architectural Features

Simple Plan shape buildings do well during earthquakes

EARTHQUAKE RESISTANCE
1. Horizontal Bands in Masonry Building improve Earthquake resistance
2. Vertical reinforcement required in masonry buildings
VERTICAL REINFORCEMENT HELPS