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Y V  $V Y ^ T K V K [ V KD[ L^ \ T ^J}V ZX\ K K  V K  O ^^uT ^  gV ^ VTWV T V V TWV ^
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Section 1.4. Historical Background


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Chapter 1. Introduction

 

 

 






 
  
  

 


 

 
 


 

 


 
  

 

  






 

 

 


 

 

 

 



 
 







  
  
  
 


 
 

 
 

  

 



 

 





 



    







 











 

 


 



 

 

 

 

 

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aK Y ^ ^ KY K K"K T V K YX\ ^ Y ^uY T  T K K }\ Y [ Z T[ TWV VL[ ^ V [ YITK}K Z ZX\[ KK";K \ KV K  V [ [g VK^  [ \ T [TWV T ) [ KY TILT K[ K V;Y TWV^ LTW^\ V K&  TWZ V \ [ TWV K 7^;T ^  YOoV P[[ $ VY ^$ KDT  Y?K ^T Y $ T7\ ^ K T K V ^ [KD\ $KY Y V  YX\;^$4[NY [ V Y 5 ^
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K7\ K K  K V T K?^D\_ [ TWV [KDXY V ^ [ Y V Y K7\ K \ K K &^ K  V \ ^^ O K / *^  P`K  '[  ^ KILK YX\ ;gY -5[  &Y $ Y ^ Y Z KILK V  [ 
 KK \ KT  ?T ^NT  V [ ;K K"YX[ \WO  +dK[ \  K7\ / T Y VY N.K^ 4Z ZgY \ Y"KTWVL ^ [ V K KDK Y []\ Y VL^ K Y V K K $4KDKK V Y 9K Y [K \  T ^ $T YX\[ ^  Y V K
 KDK7KYZ7Y K VK g^ Y^ Y VL[ ^ VK YXfZ O K '  K"TWK[ V ;K T P K K DO K ^ V [ [\ TK `T *K TW) V 4oY Y NT K[ZgV\ K _K Z VL! [^u^ T K [ ^^ V K KK $4K KD$4K YXK"V N\K V+ ! K^ SK \[ T  V ?[KT  \ K Z Y YXV Y \WOW^ > K:Y K V/TWV^ ^ [][Y \$4T <K K  $ Z ?Y T Y^ K
Y K [TK ;VK  T YXK \ ^T [YX \ $^TY  K \ +Y S T [H V  ;S Y H / K  ?KT .K K 4 Z7K) T  \ KTWV V YX$ \ T K *^  \ ^K O KDY Y V^ K [K T K V [
H ^T $Y ^ K V T [ V K  KDY \ T K _JT }T ^0V [ \ KY %$ K V K\ T  ?T  K YX\  [ $ ^ Y ^ Y ^ Z Y Y V 



 




 

 




 


 


 
 






  



 

 
 

 



 



 

 

 

  

 



 

 




 

  

 



 

 

 

 

 





 

 

  

 

 





 



 

 

 


 

 
 

 


  

 
 
 
 
 
    


 


 
 
 




 


    
 




 



 

 



   



 

 

 

 





 

 





 

  


 

 

 


 




 

 





 





 

  

 

 

 

 

 
  




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TWT ^V G Y ^ TWVK  _ [\ KNY ZL\ Y K^ [  [KUZoY K [T ^. ^uT ZoYK T [ [V $ Z T ^ [ \ YK ^^TWV TWVY 5OmH K TWV?TT TT [YX\V YX^ \Y _ K ^ K [ ^ T []\ T T ^ T ) YX\ ^ Y [:T Y3[ V GY Z [ [ K ^TWV ^
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K.Z7? 4 [KDT TW^ YXV "\ T _+G[ A KV + [K(TY  Y T {K Y\ KVVY I TW MV KY V T >YXK \ ?^ Yb:.I/ OT T !K / ^ V Y V Y KZ [Y [?^I^*K K ^  $ K Y T V Y _ [ K T `K K K.4 Z7V[K $  T T K ^ K T.V  YX^ \ ^  .\ KY V "T K _ ^ K Y[T ^.V ^&; TWV[  K [ K7 \ ^^_JT  Y V [\ Y Y T KK
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Section 1.5. Numerical Simulations
















 



 




  

 



 

  
 

 
 

 




 

 

 



 




 

 



 
 
 


 

   

 



 

 






 

 
  

 

 

 

 

  



  

 

 







 
   

 


  



 


 



 

  

 

 

  









 

 



 






 






 

 

 






 

 

 

 
 
  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 
 

 



    
    
   
 

 

 

 

 

  
 



 

   

 
  




 


 


 




  


  

 



 





 


 



  

 

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 [ KYX\ ?T $  [ VK ^ KDYY V "$4K K ;KK V K T ^[ KDV Y K  K K ^ K T ^YIY KV K.K*44oZ7YK NT Zg\ K,K V $ YXK\]Z K [[K ^ YX[ \  Y \ Y T [ VL^K Y V ZO K  ^ T ^ [$$ Y VV Y [ Y VK
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^Y.[^&Y K } ; TWVZ K T [YXT \]V TK V YX\"K K K*T 4oY [  [ TW V K?YK \TZ [ YVK I O T T UMY Kr VK*Y ^.K )P^& \N^TWZ V K T [ $ K V [[]Y  \ TWK}VV [K V Y KDT[Y V K[$KD[ + O  aY [K $ / \ K[ Kr^ Y \ K[[ [YI Y ^ T +eD$O ?Y TR^^ Y ? ^ K*K [ 4X ZXK?[\ Y \V TWYV K 7?TT A ^
[ K  ^ K[$ Z V T IoY K K7Kg\ O  Y KUY IT [m\ Y ; [K g V T YT ^}T ^ ; [YX$ \PYY V K TWV K [ K* [ K K V Y[ I NT T }Z7Y [ ^ Y [ V g/NKT ^ [ ILV K YILK Y T T K:YXK \P Y  ^ YX\$ T [ \
\ T [  ?T K YXZXK Z YX[J\4 T  [$Y K7\ Y KTWV ) + V?[ T VLK ^ K ~[*IoY Y T [?VT KIL[K ,ILK []\[* IK K<V [ Y K[YVOH^ P Y [ V V ILK  K ^ VK?^\ T _PT /  OS;{KNK YV ^^*K  _ } Y TZ 4TIL[ K7V \ [ T Y Y K^
YT ^ T Y  ^^*[ $ ^mK TWVTWV ^ Y K KILK K7^ \ KD[ Y T K Y ^ ^ K[  \ TK? \W?O(T  # V K V KDYXK \ TWV _ K K  [Y$=I T [ _ \ T  K(? T \  T  ;7T K YX\ K  [YX$ \ T ^Y TWKDV Y T ^ K Y $4YX[\ yZ $ Y Y^ K
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A Y V O=TW# VV ??TT ^^ YY ^^ KK T }K T ^ $ \ T [K \ K . YXV?\ TWV  \ Y Y T [ VL[ ^H \ K<[  V  [ \[Y$ILKY  K 4 [7ILK ,[ Y  V[9 $ \ T  T ? T  KDTWYXVL\^uT T  K ^uTWV [$ K ^ Y K^
IK?\ [ T T ^V [ [ V TWV [ L^ Y V=T P`K K V  [' K YX\  \ Y K  O

Chapter 1. Introduction

    
 
 

 

 

 

 





  

    

  

 


  



 


 





  

 
 

 







 

 
   


 







 






 

 

 

 

 

 


 
 
  



  
 
  





 
 


 

 

 
 






 
    



 

 
 



 

 
 

 


 
 
 

  




 


  

 

 

 

  

 

 

 
 







 

 

 

  
 






 

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UZ# KK^ ^ K"K*K KX4 V  Z7Y K ^ TT [ VKY _ V YX7K \T K^ IK -5T^ K K:K Y V T ^ K K K ^*^K YX\ [\ ^^ VL[ ^ ^ [Y Y K K  K Y Y ? Z7[K [K ^&K A  T\ ^^ [ V [gVK^& ( Y [ -5YK Y VTWV!+ K S  TWV7Y T?[ T ^ YXK \ V\ YY[ VVTWV Y T MX4T I[ Y K VLVV^  gC^ .KO  V >:# V   \ K :V / K O
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